Double R Ontology and Gold Standard April 2008 Jerry Ball Senior Research Psychologist Human Effectiveness Directorate Air Force Research Laboratory

Double R Ontologyand Gold Standard

April 2008Jerry Ball

Senior Research Psychologist

Human Effectiveness Directorate

Air Force Research Laboratory

2

Ontology Basics

• The basic representational unit is an ACT-R declarative memory chunk which contains:

– Chunk name

– Chunk type

– Sequence of slot name/slot value pairs

• Slot values are chunks

• Chunks are defined by a chunk-type definition

• Chunk-types are organized into a single inheritance hierarchy

– ACT-R does not provide built-in support for multiple inheritance

3

Tree Diagram Displays

• Tree diagrams are generated using phpSyntaxTree (and may have been reorganized using Paint)

• Tree diagrams contain nodes corresponding to chunks and slots

• Leaf nodes are red

– Slots are always leaf nodes

• Non-leaf nodes are blue

4

• The model currently allows word chunks with up to 4 sequential elements to support representing Multi-Word Expressions (MWEs), although most lexical items are currently single element words

• It is not intended that word chunks can have variable elements, only construction chunks have variable elements

Word Chunk Type

5

Word Chunk Type Hierarchy

6

• The parent slot is used to link to a parent chunk into which a child chunk has been integrated

• The token slot is used to distinguish tokens from types. The possible values are

– type, token and type-token (token of a type)

– only types are stored in declarative memory

– tokens and type-tokens are created on memory retrieval

• The index slot identifies a word type of which there may be multiple word and word forms slots

– word – How ACT-R represents words (e.g. boy-word)

– word form – What ACT-R sees (e.g. “boy”)

Word Chunk Type

7

Word Chunks

LIKES-WF

ISA WORD

PARENT “none”

TOKEN “type”

INDEX LIKE-INDX

WORD LIKES-WORD

WORD-FORM "likes"

APOS-S-WF

ISA WORD-2

PARENT “none”

TOKEN “type”

INDEX POSS-MKR-OR-AUX-INDX

WORD S-WORD

WORD-FORM "s"

PREV-WORD APOS-WF

PREV-WORD-FORM "‘"LIKE-WF

ISA WORD

PARENT “none”

TOKEN “type”

INDEX LIKE-INDX

WORD LIKE-WORD

WORD-FORM "like"

Chunk name

Chunk type

Slot/value pair

ACT-R sees "‘"

separately from "s"

Slot/value pair

Slot/value pair

Slot/value pair

Slot/value pair

8

• There are two basic types of construction

– Construction with head

– Construction without head

• Parts of speech are treated as constructions without heads (i.e. the part of speech has no internal functional structure)

• Words are not treated as constructions, although they may have multiple non-functional elements

• All other ontological types are constructions with heads, with the head being the central functional element of the construction and other slots corresponding to peripheral functional elements

Construction Chunk Type

9

• Constructions with heads contain a head slot

• Part of speech chunks contain a word slot and a gram-form slot (e.g comm-sing, comm-plur)

• The super-type, type and subtype slots allow for a secondary level of inheritance

– e.g. nouns and verbs may be categorized semantically as well as grammatically using these slots

– ACT-R does not provide built-in support for multiple inheritance

• The form slot stores the basic form for the construction – typically the form of the head

Construction Chunk Type

10

Construction Chunk Type Hierarchy

11

• Verbs are organized hierarchically in terms of the number and type of complements (or arguments) they take, including

– Object

– Indirect object

– Location argument

– Situation complement

• Bare situation complement

• Ing situation complement

• Infinitive situation complement

• The Verb POS chunk does not contain slots for the complements, it just indicates the verb type

Verb POS Chunk Type

12

Verb POS Chunk Type Hierarchy

13

Verb POS Chunks

KICK-VERB-POS

ISA VERB

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX KICK-INDX

TYPE VERB

SUPER-TYPE VERB

SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB

FORM NIL

WORD KICK-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

KICKS-VERB-POS

ISA VERB

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX KICK-INDX

TYPE VERB

SUPER-TYPE VERB

SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB

FORM NIL

WORD KICKS-WORD

GRAM-FORM S

14

Verb POS Chunk

KICKING-VERB-POS

ISA VERB

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX KICK-INDX

TYPE VERB

SUPER-TYPE VERB

SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB

FORM NIL

WORD KICKING-WORD

GRAM-FORM ING

KICKED-VERB-POS

ISA VERB

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX KICK-INDX

TYPE VERB

SUPER-TYPE VERB

SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB

FORM NIL

WORD KICKED-WORD

GRAM-FORM ED-OR-EN

15

POS Chunk Type Hierarchy(Non Regular Verb)

16

Noun POS Chunks

BOY-NOUN-POS

ISA NOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX BOY-INDX

TYPE NOUN

SUPER-TYPE NOUN

SUBTYPE NOUN

FORM NIL

WORD BOY-WORD

GRAM-FORM COMMON-SING

ANIMATE "human"

BOYS-NOUN-POS

ISA NOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX BOY-INDX

TYPE NOUN

SUPER-TYPE NOUN

SUBTYPE NOUN

FORM NIL

WORD BOYS-WORD

GRAM-FORM COMMON-PLUR

ANIMATE "human"

17

Noun POS Chunks

BULL-NOUN-POS

ISA NOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX BULL-INDX

TYPE NOUN

SUPER-TYPE NOUN

SUBTYPE NOUN

FORM NIL

WORD BULL-WORD


ANIMATE "animate"

BUCKET-NOUN-POS

ISA NOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX BUCKET-INDX

TYPE NOUN

SUPER-TYPE NOUN

SUBTYPE NOUN

FORM NIL

WORD BUCKET-WORD


ANIMATE "inanimate"

18

Pronoun POS Chunks

YOU-PRONOUN-POS

ISA PRONOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX YOU-INDX

TYPE PRONOUN

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE PRONOUN

FORM NIL

WORD YOU-WORD

GRAM-FORM SECOND-PERS

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE "human"

YOUR-POSS-POS

ISA PRONOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX YOUR-INDX

TYPE PRONOUN

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE POSS-PRON-SPEC

FORM NIL

WORD YOUR-WORD

GRAM-FORM SECOND-POSS

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE "human"

19

Pronoun POS Chunks

YOURS-PRONOUN-POS

ISA PRONOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX YOURS-INDX

TYPE PRONOUN

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE POSS-PRONOUN

FORM NIL

WORD YOURS-WORD

GRAM-FORM SECOND-POSS

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE "human"

WE-PRONOUN-POS

ISA PRONOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX WE-INDX

TYPE PRONOUN

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE PRONOUN

FORM NIL

WORD WE-WORD

GRAM-FORM FIRST-PLURAL-SUBJ

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE "human"

20

Proper Noun POS Chunks

GENOVEVA-PROPNOUN-POS

ISA PROPER-NOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX GENOVEVA-INDX

TYPE PROPER-NOUN

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE PROPER-NOUN

FORM NIL

WORD GENOVEVA-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE "human"

ROZ-PROPNOUN-POS

ISA PROPER-NOUN

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX ROZ-INDX

TYPE PROPER-NOUN

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE PROPER-NOUN

FORM NIL

WORD ROZ-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE "inanimate"

21

Adjective POS Chunks

CLOSE-ADJ-POS

ISA ADJECTIVE

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX CLOSE-INDX

TYPE ADJECTIVE

SUPER-TYPE ADJECTIVE

SUBTYPE ADJECTIVE

FORM NIL

WORD CLOSE-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

CLOSER-ADJ-POS

ISA ADJECTIVE

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX CLOSE-INDX

TYPE ADJECTIVE

SUPER-TYPE ADJECTIVE

SUBTYPE ADJECTIVE

FORM NIL

WORD CLOSER-WORD

GRAM-FORM COMP

22

Adverb POS Chunks

VERY-ADV-POS

ISA ADVERB

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX VERY-INDX

TYPE ADVERB

SUPER-TYPE ADVERB

SUBTYPE ADVERB

FORM NIL

WORD VERY-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

SUDDENLY-ADV-POS

ISA ADVERB

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX SUDDENLY-INDX

TYPE ADVERB

SUPER-TYPE ADVERB

SUBTYPE ADVERB

FORM NIL

WORD SUDDENLY-WORD

GRAM-FORM LY

23

IN-PREP-POS

ISA PREPOSITION

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX IN-INDX

TYPE PREP

SUPER-TYPE PREP

SUBTYPE IN

FORM NIL

WORD IN-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

Preposition POS Chunks

24

Auxiliary POS Chunks

DID-AUX-POS

ISA AUXILIARY

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX DO-INDX

TYPE AUX

SUPER-TYPE AUX

SUBTYPE REG-AUX

FORM NIL

WORD DID-WORD

GRAM-FORM ED

DONE-AUX-POS

ISA AUXILIARY

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX DO-INDX

TYPE AUX

SUPER-TYPE AUX

SUBTYPE REG-AUX

FORM NIL

WORD DONE-WORD

GRAM-FORM EN

25

Auxiliary POS Chunks

COULD-POS

ISA AUXILIARY

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX COULD-INDX

TYPE AUX

SUPER-TYPE AUX

SUBTYPE MODAL-AUX

FORM NIL

WORD COULD-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

START-POS-SEMI-AUX

ISA AUXILIARY

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX START-INDX

TYPE AUX

SUPER-TYPE AUX

SUBTYPE SEMI-AUX

FORM NIL

WORD START-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

26

Quantifier POS Chunks

TWO-QUANT-POS

ISA QUANTIFIER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX TWO-INDX

TYPE QUANTIFIER

SUPER-TYPE QUANTIFIER

SUBTYPE CARDINAL

FORM NIL

WORD TWO-WORD

GRAM-FORM PLUR

TENTH-QUANT-POS

ISA QUANTIFIER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX TENTH-INDX

TYPE QUANTIFIER


SUBTYPE ORDINAL

FORM NIL

WORD TENTH-WORD

GRAM-FORM PLUR

27


SOME-QUANT-POS

ISA QUANTIFIER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX SOME-INDX

TYPE QUANTIFIER


SUBTYPE QUANTIFIER

FORM NIL

WORD SOME-WORD

GRAM-FORM PLUR

NO-QUANT-POS

ISA QUANTIFIER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX NO-INDX

TYPE QUANTIFIER


SUBTYPE NEG-QUANT

FORM NIL

WORD NO-WORD

GRAM-FORM SING

28


9-QUANT-POS

ISA QUANTIFIER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX 9-INDX

TYPE QUANTIFIER


SUBTYPE CARDINAL

FORM NIL

WORD 9-WORD

GRAM-FORM PLUR

29

Negative POS Chunks

NOT-POS

ISA NEGATIVE

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX NOT-INDX

TYPE NEGATIVE

SUPER-TYPE NEGATIVE

SUBTYPE NOT

FORM NIL

WORD NOT-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

30

Determiner POS Chunks

A-DET-POS

ISA DETERMINER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX A-INDX

TYPE DETERMINER

SUPER-TYPE DETERMINER

SUBTYPE DETERMINER

FORM NIL

WORD A-WORD

GRAM-FORM INDEF-DET

THE-DET-POS

ISA DETERMINER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX THE-INDX

TYPE DETERMINER


SUBTYPE DETERMINER

FORM NIL

WORD THE-WORD

GRAM-FORM DEF-DET

31

Determiner POS Chunks

THIS-DET-POS

ISA DETERMINER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX THIS-INDX

TYPE DETERMINER


SUBTYPE DETERMINER

FORM NIL

WORD THIS-WORD

GRAM-FORM

DEF-NEAR-DET

THOSE-DET-POS

ISA DETERMINER

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX THOSE-INDX

TYPE DETERMINER


SUBTYPE DETERMINER

FORM NIL

WORD THOSE-WORD

GRAM-FORM

DEF-NOT-NEAR-PLUR-DET

32

Wh-Word POS Chunks

WHO-POS

ISA WH-WORD-PRON

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX WHO-INDX

TYPE WH

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE WH

FORM NIL

WORD WHO-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE “human”

WHERE-POS

ISA WH-WORD-ADV

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX WHERE-INDX

TYPE WH

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE WH

FORM NIL

WORD WHERE-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

REF-TYPE OBL

33

Wh-Word POS Chunks

WHOSE-POS

ISA WH-WORD-POSS-PRON

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "type"

INDEX WHO-INDX

TYPE WH

SUPER-TYPE REF-POS

SUBTYPE POSS-WH

FORM NIL

WORD WHOSE-WORD

GRAM-FORM BASE

REF-TYPE OBJ

ANIMATE “human”

34

POS Chunk Type Hierarchy(Special)

35

• Infinitive Marker or Preposition

– The special case of “to”

• Possessive Marker or Auxiliary

– The special case of “’s”

• Conjunction POS

– Used generally to encompass words which function to conjoin and disjoin (e.g. “and” and “or”) and words which function in clausal subordination not involving situation complements (e.g. “if…then”, “because”, “so”, but not “that” as a complementizer which is a form of specification)

POS Chunk Type Hierarchy(Special)

36

Phrase & Clause Level Functions

• The basic phrase and clause level referential functions (ref-type) include

– Specifier

– Head

• A specifier and a head combine to form a referring expression – the basic phrasal and clausal unit of meaning

• Either a specifier or a head—typically both—occurs in a referring expression

• Modifiers (pre-head) and Post-Modifiers (post-head) may surround the head (slot) of specifiers and heads

37

Specifier Chunk Type Hierarchy

38

Object Specifier Chunks

OBJ-SPEC0

ISA OBJ-SPEC

PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0

TOKEN "token"

INDEX OBJ-SPEC

TYPE OBJ-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE SPEC

SUBTYPE OBJ-SPEC

FORM THE-WORD

HEAD DETERMINER0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

POSS-OBJ-SPEC0

ISA POSS-OBJ-SPEC


TOKEN "token"

INDEX POSS-OBJ-SPEC

TYPE POSS-OBJ-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE OBJ-SPEC

SUBTYPE POSS-OBJ-SPEC

FORM HIS-WORD

HEAD PRONOUN0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD “none”

REFERENT "none-for-now"

SENSE "none-for-now"

ANIMATE "human"

BIND-INDX "*1*"

Poss-Obj-Spec functions

as a referring expression

in addition to a specifier

39

Object Specifier Chunk

QUANT-OBJ-SPEC0

ISA QUANT-OBJ-SPEC


TOKEN "token"

INDEX QUANT-OBJ-SPEC

TYPE QUANT-OBJ-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE OBJ-SPEC

SUBTYPE QUANT-OBJ-SPEC

FORM TWO-WORD

HEAD QUANTIFIER0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

40

Predicate Specifier Chunk

PRED-SPEC0

ISA PRED-SPEC

PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0

TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-SPEC

TYPE PRED-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE SPEC

SUBTYPE PRED-SPEC

FORM IS-WORD

HEAD AUX-1

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

NEG "none"

AUX-1 AUXILIARY0

AUX-2 "none"

AUX-3 "none"

AUX-4 "none"

41

Predicate Specifier Chunks

OPERATOR-PRED-SPEC0

ISA OPERATOR-PRED-SPEC

PARENT

YES-NO-QUEST-SIT-REFER-EXPR0

TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-SPEC

TYPE PRED-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE SPEC

SUBTYPE OPERATOR-PRED-SPEC

FORM IS-WORD

HEAD AUX-1

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

NEG "none"

AUX-1 AUXILIARY0

POST-OP-PRED-SPEC0

ISA POST-OP-PRED-SPEC

PARENT

YES-NO-QUEST-SIT-REFER-EXPR0

TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-SPEC

TYPE PRED-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE SPEC

SUBTYPE POST-OP-PRED-SPEC

FORM HAVE-WORD

HEAD AUX-2

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

NEG "none"

AUX-1 "*op*"

INF-MKR "none"

AUX-2 AUXILIARY1

AUX-3 AUXILIARY2

AUX-4 "none"

The pred-spec may be split into operator and post-op in questions

42

Head Chunk Type Hierarchy

43

Head Chunks

OBJ-HEAD0

ISA OBJ-HEAD


TOKEN "token"

INDEX OBJ-HEAD

TYPE OBJ-HEAD

SUPER-TYPE HEAD

SUBTYPE OBJ-HEAD

FORM MAN-WORD

HEAD NOUN0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

ANIMATE "human"

REL-HEAD0

ISA REL-HEAD


TOKEN "token"

INDEX REL-HEAD

TYPE REL-HEAD

SUPER-TYPE HEAD

SUBTYPE REL-HEAD

FORM KICK-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

the man the kick

The verb “kick” can function as the head of a nominal without being a noun! (NP is inappropriate to describe such expressions)

44

Head Chunks

PRED-TRANS-VERB0

ISA PRED-TRANS-VERB


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-TRANS-VERB

TYPE PRED-VERB

SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE

SUBTYPE PRED-TRANS-VERB

FORM KICKING-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

INF-MKR "none"

OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1

REL-HEAD0

ISA REL-HEAD


TOKEN "token"

INDEX REL-HEAD

TYPE REL-HEAD

SUPER-TYPE HEAD

SUBTYPE REL-HEAD

FORM KICK-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

When a verb functions as the head

of a nominal no arguments are expected!

When a verb functions as the head

of a clause arguments are expected!

the kickthe man is kicking the ball

45

• Referring expressions are the basic phrasal and clausal units of grammatically encoded meaning

– All complements are assumed to be referring expressions

• Referring expressions have a referent and sense slot which will eventually map to non-linguistic representations of meaning

• Referring expressions have a bind-indx slot which allows them to be bound to another referring expression

– A trace is an implied (i.e. unexpressed) argument that is bound to another referring expression

• Wh-word referring expressions crosscut other categories of referring expression

Referring Expression

46

• Object referring expressions are the basic phrasal unit of grammatically encoded meaning (along with oblique referring expressions)

• Object referring expressions correspond to nominals or NPs in other grammatical treatments (not including Huddleston & Pullum which treats nominals as N’ and not NP)

• Object referring expressions have an animate slot (to support binding) with possible values

– human, animate, inanimate

• “who”, “whom” and “what” referring expressions crosscut object referring expressions

Object Referring Expression

47

• Oblique referring expressions are the basic phrasal unit of grammatically encoded meaning (along with object referring expressions)

• Oblique (borrowed from LFG) referring expressions correspond roughly to Prepositional Phrases and Adverbials in other grammatical treatments

– Other than object or situation referring expression

• Location referring expressions generalize over time referring expressions (i.e. time is a subtype of location)

• “where”, “when”, “why” and “how” referring expressions crosscut oblique referring expressions

Oblique Referring Expression

48

Referring Expression Hierarchy (Object & Oblique)

49

Object Referring Expression Chunk

OBJ-REFER-EXPR0

ISA OBJ-REFER-EXPR

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "token"

INDEX OBJ-REFER-EXPR

TYPE OBJ-REFER-EXPR

SUPER-TYPE OBJ-REFER-EXPR

SUBTYPE OBJ-REFER-EXPR

FORM MAN-WORD

HEAD OBJ-HEAD0

SPEC OBJ-SPEC0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

BIND-INDX "*1*"



ANIMATE "human"

the man

50

OBJ-SPEC0

ISA OBJ-SPEC


TOKEN "token"

INDEX OBJ-SPEC

TYPE OBJ-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE SPEC

SUBTYPE OBJ-SPEC

FORM THE-WORD

HEAD DETERMINER0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

OBJ-HEAD0

ISA OBJ-HEAD


TOKEN "token"

INDEX OBJ-HEAD

TYPE OBJ-HEAD

SUPER-TYPE HEAD

SUBTYPE OBJ-HEAD

FORM MAN-WORD

HEAD NOUN0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

ANIMATE "human"

Object Head and Object Specifier Chunks

the man

51

• Instantiated chunks or constructions result from the processing of input expressions

– Not all slots must have a value

– No strong notion of grammaticality

• Tree diagrams for instantiated constructions are simplified representations

– Only the structurally relevant slots with values are displayed and the head slot and arguments slots with or without a value

Tree Diagrams for Instantiated Constructions

52


the man

Specifier and head combine

to form referring expression

53


the old man

Mod slot displayed when it

has a value

54


the very old…

Head slot displayed with or

without a value – “the” projects

obj-refer-expr and sets up

expectation for headAdverb “very”

functions as Modifier of Object-Modifier

in obj-refer-expr

55


man

In the absence of a specifier,

“man” projects an obj-refer-expr

Although often considered

ungrammatical, there are contexts

in which bare nouns occur

(e.g. headlines: “man bites dog!”)

56


the airspeed and altitude

Conjoined obj-heads

functioning as head

Only equivalent functions

can be conjoined

(e.g. obj-head + obj-head)

57


the airspeed and altitude restrictions

Conjoined obj-heads

functioning as

modifier

Mechanism of context accommodation shifts conjoined obj-head from head to modifier function without backtracking!

shift

58


the book on the table

Location referring expression

functioning as post-head modifier

Post-mod slot displayed when

it has a value

59


his book

Possessive object specifier

refers and can be bound to a trace

60


the kick

Verbs can function as

relational heads of nominals!

No arguments expected in this

function & head of obj-refer-expr

can be pluralized

(e.g. “the kicks” “the kickings”)

61

• Pred Types are constructions with argument (or complement) slots, not parts of speech

• Relational Parts of Speech (e.g. verb, adjective, preposition, adverb) project pred types when they function as clausal heads

• Pred-Nominal is intransitive because the nominal functions as the clausal head, not a complement of the auxiliary verb as in other treatments

• Pred-Adjective functions as the clausal head, not a complement of the auxiliary verb as in other treatments

• Pred-Prep functions as the clausal head, not an adjunct as in other treatments

Pred Type(Intransitive, Transitive, Ditransitive)

62

• Pred-Verb-Types contain an infinitive marker slot

– Only verb pred types allow infinitive marker

– Only verb pred types allow indirect object, locative argument and recipient

– Only verb pred types allow situation complement

Pred Type(Intransitive, Transitive, Ditransitive)

63

Pred Type Hierarchy (Intransitive, Transitive, Ditransitive)

64

Intransitive Pred Type Chunks

PRED-INTRANS-VERB0

ISA PRED-INTRANS-VERB


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-INTRANS-VERB

TYPE PRED-VERB


SUBTYPE PRED-INTRANS-VERB

FORM RUNNING-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

INF-MKR "none"

PRED-ADJ0

ISA PRED-ADJ


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-ADJ

TYPE PRED-ADJ


SUBTYPE PRED-ADJ

FORM SAD-WORD

HEAD ADJECTIVE0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

65

Intransitive Pred Type Chunk

PRED-NOMINAL0

ISA PRED-NOMINAL


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-NOMINAL

TYPE PRED-NOMINAL


SUBTYPE PRED-NOMINAL

FORM "none"

HEAD OBJ-REFER-EXPR0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

66

Transitive Pred Type Chunks

PRED-TRANS-VERB0

ISA PRED-TRANS-VERB


TOKEN "token"


TYPE PRED-VERB



FORM KICKING-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

INF-MKR "none"

OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1

PRED-PREP0

ISA PRED-PREP


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-PREP

TYPE PRED-PREP


SUBTYPE PRED-PREP

FORM ON-WORD

HEAD PREPOSITION0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1

67

Transitive Pred Type Chunk

PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC0

ISA PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC

TYPE PRED-VERB


SUBTYPE PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC

FORM PUT-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

INF-MKR "none"

OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR0

LOC LOC-REFER-EXPR0

68

Ditransitive Verb Pred Type Chunk

PRED-DITRANS-VERB0

ISA PRED-DITRANS-VERB


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-DITRANS-VERB

TYPE PRED-VERB


SUBTYPE PRED-DITRANS-VERB

FORM GAVE-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

INF-MKR "none"

IOBJ PRON-OBJ-REFER-EXPR1

OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR0

RECIP "n/a"

69

Pred Type Hierarchy (Situation Complement)

70

• Situation Referring Expressions are the basic clausal unit of grammatically encoded meaning and consist of a relational head and one or more arguments (or complements)

• Situation Referring Expressions correspond to clauses and sentences in other grammatical treatments

Situation Referring Expression

71


72


DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0

ISA DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR

PARENT "none"

TOKEN "token"

INDEX SIT-REFER-EXPR

TYPE SIT-REFER-EXPR

SUPER-TYPE SIT-REFER-EXPR

SUBTYPE DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR

FORM "none"

HEAD PRED-TRANS-VERB0

SPEC PRED-SPEC0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

BIND-INDX "*2*"



SUBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR0

The man is kicking a ball

73


PRED-TRANS-VERB0

ISA PRED-TRANS-VERB


TOKEN "token"


TYPE PRED-VERB



FORM KICKING-WORD

HEAD VERB0

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

INF-MKR "none"

OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1

PRED-SPEC0

ISA PRED-SPEC


TOKEN "token"

INDEX PRED-SPEC

TYPE PRED-SPEC

SUPER-TYPE SPEC

SUBTYPE PRED-SPEC

FORM IS-WORD

HEAD AUX-1

MOD "none"

POST-MOD "none"

NEG "none"

AUX-1 AUXILIARY0

AUX-2 "none"

AUX-3 "none"

AUX-4 "none"


74



Basic declarative clause form

when separate auxiliary verb occurs

75


The man kicks a ball

Basic declarative clause form

when tensed main verb occurs

76


I am ready

Predicate adjective functions

as clausal head

77


The book is on the table

Predicate preposition functions

as clausal head

78


There are no speed or altitude restrictions

No head!

Subj-spec inversion

with fronted

existential “there”

79


The man’s book’s being kicked

“ ‘s ” is either possessive marker or

auxiliary depending on context of use

Passive construction:

obj trace to subj

“the man” functions

as reference point

80


The man could not have been kicking a ball

Complex pred-spec with

simple sequential structure

81


I want to go

Infinitive sit-refer-expr has

implied subj with trace

bound to matrix subj No indirect object occurs

82


I want you to go

Infinitive sit-refer-expr has


bound to matrix obj

83


He made me go

Verb “go” functions as pred-intrans-verb

and projects bare-sit-refer-expr

in context of “made”Bare sit-refer-expr has


bound to indirect obj

84


He made me sad

Adjective “sad” functions as pred-adj

and projects bare-sit-refer-expr

in context of “made”Bare sit-refer-expr has


bound to indirect obj

85


He was to have gone

“to have gone” functions as a pred-intrans-verb and projects

an inf-sit-refer-expr even when a pred-spec precedes “to”

Consider “he would have to have been going”

86


I know where he went

No subj-spec inversion in wh-sit-refer-expr

Wh-sit-refer-expr functions

as sitcomp

87


I think I told you she likes me

Multiply embedded

situation complements

88


I like you because you like me

No subj slot in coordinated

sit-refer-exprs at top level

89


Is he going?

“going” projects a pred-intrans-verb,

but does not project an ing-sit-refer-expr

when pred-spec precedes

Subj--operator-spec inversion

in yes-no question

90


Did the man kick a ball?

Subj--operator-spec inversion in

yes-no question

91


Who did he kick the ball to?

Subj—operator-spec

inversion in wh-question

92


Where did he go?

No adjunct trace! Only implied arguments support trace.

93


Where did he put the book?

Locative argument

trace!

94


Where is there a man kicking a ball?

Existential “there” can co-occur

with wh-focus

95


Where could there be a man kicking a ball?

Pred-spec split into

operator-pred-spec and

post-op-pred-specSubj is 5th element

In clause!

96


Why was the ball kicked?

Passive construction:

obj trace is bound to subjNo adjunct trace

97


Give it to me!

Ditransitive construction has slots for

indirect object and recipient, but only

one receives an argument

Location referring expression

functions as recipient

98


Give me it!

Preference for indirect object

to be human

99


On the table is the book Subj—operator-spec

inversion with

loc-focus fronting

Documents

Double R Ontology and Gold Standard April 2008 Jerry Ball Senior Research Psychologist Human Effectiveness Directorate Air Force Research Laboratory