NewsletterRockefeller ArchiveCenter

The General Education Board,Black Teachers and Civil Rights

Spring 2002

Editor’s Note: On the centennialof the General Education Board,founded in 1902 by John D.Rockefeller and chartered byCongress in 1903, we are pleasedto present this assessment of animportant part of its work byAdam Fairclough, Professor ofAmerican History at theUniversity of East Anglia.

My topic, “Education forEquality: Black Teachersand Civil Rights,” is a

broad historical analysis ofAfrican-American educators inthe southern states from the endof Reconstruction to the civilrights movement. Educatorswere influential figures withinthe black community. The largestcomponent by far of the blackmiddle class, they played a complex and multifaceted roleduring the classic “age of segregation” (approximately1890-1960). In addition to beingteachers, they also were community leaders, public healthreformers, moral exemplars, civil rights activists, and, at atime when blacks in the Southwere unable to vote, racial diplomats. Along with blackministers, educators were oftenthe people who represented —or claimed to represent — theinterests of the black communityto the white elite. Conversely,elite whites regarded teachers asa source of information aboutblack communities and tried toutilize them as a means of controlling those communities.

After I consulted state and cityeducation records and looked atthe archives of other relevant foundations (notably the Phelps-Stokes Fund and the JuliusRosenwald Fund), the records ofthe General Education Board(GEB) represented the last piece of the research jigsaw puzzle that I have been assembling since 1995.Thanks to a grant from theRockefeller Archive Center, I spenteight days in the summer of 2001 consulting the GEB records.Evaluating this material is no simple task, but a preliminaryassessment indicates that extantaccounts of GEB policies in respectto black education have tended to oversimplify some issues andoverlook others.

The relationship between blackeducators and the philanthropicfoundations was complex, and therole of the foundations in thedevelopment of education in theSouth has been, and still is, contro-versial. For example, numerousstudies have criticized the policiesof the General Education Board forneglecting black schools in favorof white ones; for promoting aconcept of “industrial education”that placed a ceiling on black educational achievement; for seeking to downgrade black statecolleges by eliminating the classicsand modern languages; and forgenerally acquiescing in, and evenreinforcing, the dominant patternsof white supremacy and racial segregation. Some historians havealso queried the motivations ofnorthern philanthropists, arguing

Grant-in-AidProgram for 2003The Rockefeller ArchiveCenter’s annual Grant-in-AidProgram offers support to scholars in any discipline whoare engaged in research thatrequires extensive use of thearchival collections housed atthe Center. Forty-eight scholarsfrom around the world receivedfunding from this program in2002. Scholars from within theUnited States and Canada mayapply for grants of up to $2,500;because of the additional costof travel, scholars from othernations may request up to$3,000. Applications for thiscompetitive program mustinclude a budget that details estimated expenses for travel,temporary lodging, meals, andresearch. The deadline for applications for grants isNovember 30, 2002 and thegrant recipients will beannounced in March 2003.

Inquiries about the Center’sgrant programs and requests forapplications should beaddressed to Darwin H.Stapleton, Executive Director,Rockefeller Archive Center, 15 Dayton Avenue, Sleepy Hollow, NY 10591-1598;telephone (914) 631-4505; fax (914) 631-6017; e-mailarchive@mail.rockefeller.edu.The grant application andguides to the Center’s collec-tions are accessible from theCenter’s home page on theWorld Wide Web at www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctrApplications must be submittedby regular mail.

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Director’s Comment

The Rockefeller Archive Center, a division of The RockefellerUniversity, was established in1974 to preserve and makeavailable to researchers therecords of the University, theRockefeller Foundation, theRockefeller Brothers Fund, members of the Rockefeller family, and other individuals and institutions associated withtheir endeavors. Since 1986, theCenter has received the recordsof several non-Rockefeller philanthropies.

The Center’s collections document seminal developmentsand issues of the 20th century.Major subjects include African-American history, agriculture,the arts, education, internationalrelations and economic develop-ment, labor, medicine and pub-lic health, nursing, philanthropy,politics, population, religion, science, the social sciences, socialwelfare, and women’s history.

Scholars planning to conductresearch at the Center shouldwrite to the Center’s director,describing their project in specific terms. An archivist willrespond with a description ofthe scope and contents of relevant materials.

The Archive Center is located25 miles north of New York Cityin Pocantico Hills near SleepyHollow, New York. An informa-tion packet for researchers, containing a map and listinglocal lodging accommodations,is available upon request.Information about the Center’sholdings and programs is available online at www. rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr

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Rockefeller Archive Center Governing Council

Water, Water Everywhere

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In the northeastern United Statesin the spring of 2002 there aredrought conditions brought on byfive years of low rainfall. Becausethe Northeast is the most densely populated area in the nation, the situation is a serious one for people as well as for agricultureand wildlife.

Among the many topics thatcan be researched at theRockefeller Archive Center, water is one that may be foundthroughout the collections. It isdocumented as a fundamental constituency of life; as an area ofconcern in public health; and asthe core natural resource for environmental conservation.

Preservation of landscape andnatural areas has been one of thehallmarks of modern Americanphilanthropy. One of John D.Rockefeller’s largest 19th-centurygifts was to purchase land for thefirst major park in his home townof Cleveland, a park on eitherside of a waterway flowing intoLake Erie. Early 20th-centuryactions of the Russell Sage

Foundation and of the RockefellerFoundation were to purchase andpreserve islands on the Gulf ofMexico, primarily to protect thehabitat of water-loving birds. In1951 John D. Rockefeller Jr. pur-chased the Linville Falls tract toadd to the Blue Ridge Parkway inNorth Carolina. In more recentyears the Rockefeller BrothersFund and the Rockefeller FamilyFund have been supporters of several organizations focusing onwater resources, including theClean Water Fund, EnvironmentalDefense Fund, Environmental LawInstitute, International IrrigationManagement Institute, and theNatural Resources DefenseCouncil.

Water as a public health con-cern first becomes significantlydocumented at the Archive Centerin the archives of the RockefellerSanitary Commission for theEradication of Hookworm Disease(1909-1913), and continues intomid-century through the records of its successors in public health

Edie HedlinDirector, Smithsonian Institution Archives

Jules HirschProfessor and Senior Lab PhysicianThe Rockefeller University

Ellen Condliffe LagemannPresident, The Spencer Foundation

Bruce MazlishProfessor of HistoryMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyRockefeller Family Representative

Joyce L. MoockAssociate Vice PresidentThe Rockefeller Foundation

Thomas P. SakmarActing PresidentThe Rockefeller University

Steven C. WheatleyVice PresidentAmerican Council of Learned Societies

Benjamin R. Shute, Jr. Council Chairman Secretary and TreasurerRockefeller Brothers Fund

George BondProfessor, Program in Applied Anthropology and Anthropology and EducationTeachers College, Columbia University

Craig CalhounPresidentSocial Science Research Council

Ellen F. FitzpatrickAssociate Professor of HistoryUniversity of New Hampshire

Joel L. FleishmanDirectorSam and Ronnie Heyman Center for Ethics,Public Policy and the ProfessionsTerry Sanford Institute of Public Policy Duke University

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Research Report

Surveying about one-tenth of the collection, I singled out documents that illustrated theevolution of GEB policies; thereports and meetings of the stateagents of Negro education (who were funded by the GEB);surveys, reports, and statisticalmaterial relating to black schoolsand colleges; and GEB initiativesin areas such as curriculumreform and teacher training. Therecords covering the early yearsproved to be the most valuable:the state agents began their workwith the enthusiasm of pioneersand missionaries. By the 1930sthe agents were still idealistic, but their jobs had become moreroutine and bureaucratic.

The GEB’s systematicapproach to philanthropy isamply illustrated throughout thecollection. Convinced that indiscriminate giving was an inefficient strategy for raisingeducational standards, the foundation was less interested inpropping up a multiplicity of private schools and colleges thanin fostering a comprehensive system of public educationthrough carefully-targeted donations that raised overallstandards. Thus the relativelysmall amounts spent on thesalaries of state agents for Negroschools, improvements in teachertraining, and reforms of theschool curriculum may havebeen more significant in theiroverall importance than the large sums given to individualinstitutions like AtlantaUniversity. Measuring outcomes,however, remains a perennialproblem in the history of educa-tion, and, despite the plethora ofstatistics throughout the GEB collection, it is difficult to arrive

that economic self-interest, notreligiously-inspired altruism, dominated their giving.

Such criticisms are not withoutforce, but they need to be modified. First, the administra-tors of the GEB acquired adegree of institutional autonomythat distanced them fromRockefeller corporate interests,making straightforward economicmotives difficult to prove.Second, the policies of the GEBchanged over time, and while itis true that the Board’s initialefforts in black education were geared toward promotingindustrial education, that emphasis did not last long. In the 1920s the GEB became amajor source of funding forblack colleges and universities,contradicting the notion that itwas hostile to higher educationfor African Americans. Third, theGEB’s efforts must always be placed in the political contextof the time: it began its efforts at a time when many whitesoutherners were hostile to thevery idea of spending publicfunds on black education, andwhen the federal governmentplayed virtually no role in funding or organizing publiceducation. In other words, theGEB was very much attuned tothe art of the possible.

Most criticism of the GEB hasfocussed on the record of itsearly years. Historians haveargued that the Board reflectedthe racial assumptions of whitesoutherners, excluding blacksfrom its decision-making andendorsing racial segregation, thedisfranchisement of black voters,and other forms of whitesupremacy. By concentrating onbuilding support for white public

schools, critics allege, the GEBhelped to widen the educationalgap between whites and blacks.

Such criticisms have merit.However, if the GEB pandered toracism, records continually revealthe pragmatism and political realism of key officials likeWallace Buttrick. In a climate ofwhite hostility or indifference toblack education, they quicklydecided that black schools couldbe improved only if they wereincorporated into a strong publicschool system; that the principleof public schools had to be established before that develop-ment could take place; and thatthe first priority was therefore toconvince whites of the benefitsof public schools. By 1919,when whites had accepted theprinciple of public schools,Buttrick was ready to disavowthe notion that blacks and whitespossessed different mental abilities. Although the GEB carefully avoided challengingracial segregation, its reluctanceto overtly challenge whitesupremacy seems to havestemmed from caution, and akeen appreciation of political reality, rather than racism. At atime when the federal govern-ment endorsed racial segregation, yet played almost no part in sustaining public education, such caution is hardly surprising.It can still be argued, of course,that the GEB was overly cautious, and that it under-estimated its ability to influencechanges in racial mores.

Despite the enormity of theGEB archives, identifying themost relevant and importantrecords did not prove difficult,thanks to the excellence of thefinding aids and the assistance of the RAC’s resident archivists.

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Section II of Exhibits.On Saturday, April 8th, I went to Gastonia,Gaston County, to attend the commencementthere. Here there was a parade which extendedacross several blocks. Many school childrenwere dressed in uniforms, and the wholeparade was very orderly. Comments were madeon the good order by citizens who lined theside-walks. The exercises were held in a churchwhich was entirely too small to accommodatethe crowd. [At right] is a view of the churchand part of the crowd as they were coming out.The exercises were entertaining and helpful.

Section of Parade.

This picture [above] shows a section of theparade, and in the center can be seen an oldman holding a banner for a school at Neely’sGrove. At the right will be found a picture ofthis old man alone.

He carried the banner throughout the paradefor his school. When I questioned him I learnedthat he had been a pupil in the moonlight

Research Report

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The collections at theRockefeller Archive Centeraddress issues of global

importance, such as agriculturaldevelopment, basic biomedicalresearch, the development ofpublic health systems and methods, and scientific inquiry in physics, chemistry, astronomyand mathematics. But in manycases the collections also showhow matters of global signifi-

Think Globally and Act Locally: Field Agent Reports

cance play out at the local level.Photographs, officers diaries, trip reports, and the reports offield agents provide insights into social, economic, scientific, educational and public healthconditions in various localesaround the world at differenttimes throughout the twentiethcentury. This is especially truefor the records of both theInternational Health Division of

the Rockefeller Foundation andthe General Education Board,which was most active in the U.S.South in the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s.

As an example of such reportsfrom the field (many of whichinclude photographs), we presentan excerpt from a report to theGEB from April 1916 by N.C.Newbold, who served as NorthCarolina State Agent for NegroRural Schools, 1913-1950.

school in his neighborhood, that he was seventy-three years old and had learned towrite and read just a little in the moonlightschool. He is a very active member of the local school committee, and is intenselyinterested in the progress of this school.

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at an assessment of the Board’sinfluence. Nevertheless, onething does seem indisputable: itis impossible to understand thehistory of education in theSouth — particularly the racialpolitics of the subject — withoutconsulting the GEB records.

The direct voice of the blackeducator is rarely heard in theGEB records: the Board was runby white officials, who in turnworked with southern whitepoliticians and educationaladministrators. By and large, the GEB’s approach to AfricanAmericans was paternalistic: itassumed that southern whites of“good will” were best-qualifiedto speak about black educationalneeds. In the early days, theBoard relied on a handful ofAfrican-American educators,especially Booker T. Washington,to represent black interests. Inaddition, it employed an African-American field agent, W. T. B.Williams, whose reports are aninvaluable source of information

professionalization of ob/gynand development of ob/gyntraining programs; and popularconceptions of ob/gyn in China,specifically in relation to Chinesenation-building efforts.

The ob/gyn department filesand the Fellowship RecorderCards (Record Group 10 of the RF Archives) contain richpersonal information about thepeople who worked and studiedat PUMC. I compiled a nearly 40-page list of Chinese staff andstudents with brief biographicaldata. For a handful of people,

about black schools and collegesat the beginning of the twentiethcentury. After Washington’sdeath, black college presidentswere the GEB’s principal pointsof contact with the wider blackcommunity. These men — especially the heads of state-funded institutions — tended tobe deferential and diplomatic,and their principal concern wasusually the financial health oftheir own colleges. This meantthat the GEB’s political assess-ments were based upon a rathernarrow sample of opinions.Moreover, in contrast to theRosenwald Fund, the GEB tendedto accept the southern pattern ofrace relations as a given. Itshowed little interest in directlyencouraging black leadership,and its reliance upon whitesoutherners in key administrativepositions ruled out a more activistapproach to social change.Above all, the GEB shied awayfrom questioning racial segregation.

If it is easy to criticize theGEB’s shortcomings and bemoan

its conservatism, its positivecontribution to the developmentof education in the South cannotbe denied. Given the highlydecentralized character of theAmerican political system, thefederal government was unwill-ing and unable to play the kindof role that national governmentselsewhere did in fostering publiceducation. The GEB, along withthe other foundations, helped tofill an administrative and financialvoid. Moreover, by nurturingblack schools, colleges, anduniversities, the GEB helped tobuild the very institutions thatlaunched the civil rights revolu-tion of the 1950s and 1960s.No doubt this was an inadvertentconsequence of philanthropy.Once the GEB had abandoned itsideological commitment to whitesupremacy, however, some suchoutcome would have beenneither wholly unforeseen norwholly unwelcome.

Adam FaircloughUniversity of East Anglia

Ivisited the RockefellerArchive Center from January7 to February 2, 2002 for

dissertation research on thedevelopment of Western obstetrics and gynecology inChina around 1900-1949. Thisstudy will examine the relation-ship between China’s nation-building efforts, modernization,and women’s issues in the early20th century. Through its sup-port of the China Medical Board(CMB) and the China MedicalBoard, Inc., the RockefellerFoundation (RF) was vital in

improving women’s health inChina. In the archives of the RFand the CMB Inc. I reviewedfiles of the obstetrics and gyne-cology department of PUMC, themidwifery and nursing schools,ob/gyn staff files, the files ofother hospitals in China thatreceived support from the ChinaMedical Board and publicationsby PUMC staff. From these files,I was able to obtain informationon three main aspects of my dissertation: biographical infor-mation on ob/gyn physicians,midwives, and nurses; the

Western Obstetrics and Gynecology in China, 1900-1949

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I found a considerable amount ofdetail about family background,socioeconomic status, and personal goals. The majority, however, have only birth datesand birthplaces, year of graduation from PUMC, and anyfellowships received to study in the U.S. or Europe. This information will help me form apicture of the type of personinterested in ob/gyn, and I hopeto be able to follow one or twoof these people more closelywith materials from other archives.

The PUMC midwifery trainingschool and the Peking HealthDemonstration Station files hold a wealth of crucial data on thedevelopment of midwifery training programs in China. Theyinclude information on the workof Marion Yang, arguably China’smost famous ob/gyn physician,who started one of the first midwifery training schools inChina. In addition, these filesshow the Peking HealthDemonstration Station’s popularefforts to promote healthy births,babies and mothers. The HealthStation’s annual reports list thenumber of births attended bymidwives, infant death statistics,attendance at well baby care clinics, and the activities of“mother’s clubs” and “children’sclubs.” They also include excellent photographs of midwives attending births, training classes for new mothers,and other activities. CMB, Inc.gave a considerable amount ofmoney and effort to ob/gyn activities at the Health Station.The grant files for other medicalschools in China at least partiallyfunded by the China MedicalBoard contained mostly grantrequests and very few reports ofthe hospitals’ work. Information

Finally, I found publications written by Chinese medical per-sonnel for popular consumption,aimed at improving the health ofChina’s people, such as Li ShihWei’s “Advice to the ExpectantMother” and the First NationalMidwifery School’s “MothercraftManual,” both in Chinese.

Overall, this research trip wasextremely fruitful. I discoveredthat although ob/gyn was not theprimary concern of the RF or theCMB, Inc., they gave considerablefunding to the efforts of peoplelike Marion Yang and J. PrestonMaxwell. In addition, manyWestern-trained Chinese physi-cians focused on this specialtyand published important workson scientific ob/gyn, as well asmaterials for popular usage onmaternal and child health. The information I found at theRockefeller Archive Center willblend well with my research at Chinese archives to further my study of the development of Western obstetrics and gynecol-ogy in early 20th-century China.

Tina PhillipsUniversity of Pittsburgh

on their curricula and administra-tion is scanty.

Finally, the medical reprints ofPUMC staff publications presentthe views of Western doctors andWestern-trained Chinese doctorsand nurses on the value of modern methods of childbirth andgynecological care. A survey ofarticles by PUMC-trained Chinesedoctors shows the overwhelmingappeal of scientific medicine, forexample: Li Shih Wei’s “MaternalPelvic Measurements Among theChinese” and “Weights andMeasurements of the ChineseNew-born,” and Arthur W. Woo’s “A Study of 300 Cases ofLeucorrhoea” and “EctopicGestation in Chinese Women.”Scientific nutrition studies werealso popular: Ernest Tso’s “AStudy of the Fat, Lactose, andProtein Content of ChineseWomen’s Milk” and “The Effectsof Synthetic Diets on Fertility andLactation.” Articles written byWesterners working in Chinawere often translated intoChinese, such as “Diseases of theNewborn” by J. Preston Maxwell,head of the PUMC ob/gyn depart-ment in the 1920s and 1930s.

The Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the Peking Union MedicalCollege, with department head Dr. J. Preston Maxwell seated in the middle, 1922.

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From his reading of BerniceKert’s Abby Aldrich Rockefeller:The Woman in the Family (1993),Bradley knew that in 1933 theexecutors of the estate of MoMAco-founder Lillian Bliss hadinsisted that MoMA secure anendowment of at least $1 millionin order to retain ownership ofBliss’s art collection; otherwise,the Metropolitan Museum of Artwould receive the collection.Nelson A. Rockefeller, then only25 years old, wanted to helpwith the funding but did notwant his parents to know, so hemade an anonymous pledge of$100,000 toward the MoMAendowment, adding to the gift of $100,000 from the CarnegieEndowment, the $200,000 fromMoMA trustees, and the $200,000which Abby Aldrich Rockefellerhad wheedled out of her husband.After NAR’s anonymous gift, theBliss executors lowered thethreshold to $600,000.

In May of 1934, while Abbywas in Europe and recuperatingfrom an illness, Nelson wrote tohis mother, perhaps trying to lift her spirits, to tell her that hewas the source of the anony-mous $100,000 contribution. His MoMA gift, he wrote, was “in grateful appreciation of allthe many, many things you havedone for [me].” Because Nelsonso prized his mother’s responsethat he had her letter framed, her response became part of hismemorabilia, separated from theother pieces of correspondencefrom his mother, and thus, temporarily at least, lost to biographers and historians.

Thanks to Charley Bradley, we are able to reprint the text ofAbby’s letter in full:

While helping to move theNelson A. Rockefeller(NAR) Memorabilia

recently, Rockefeller ArchiveCenter volunteer Charley Bradleyreceived the second pleasant surprise of his archival career. Lastyear, while processing the MalcolmWilson papers, Bradley found $300 in an unopened envelope.Of course the retired lawyer didthe right thing, notifying the projectmanager immediately and tellingthe donor of his find, offering toreturn the money.

This year Bradley’s discoveryrelied heavily upon his intimateknowledge of Rockefeller familyhistory. While helping archivistAmy Fitch move the hundreds of plaques, medals, framed photographs and other memen-toes that were given to the four-term New York governor,Bradley recognized that a framedletter he came across was woefully mislabeled in the memorabilia description list.Since he also serves as a tourguide at Kykuit, the Rockefellerfamily estate, and is well versedon the family’s history, Bradleyunderstood the historical value ofthe misidentified letter. Theinventory described the letter as“Letter: two pages expressingpersonal thoughts about NAR toNAR . . . signed Mollar (sp?),from the letter it appears that thewriter had been quite ill.” As heread the letter, however, Bradleyrealized that what he really hadin his hand was a prized letter toNelson A. Rockefeller from hismother, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller,and that the letter was part ofthe story of the survival of theMuseum of Modern Art (MoMA).

Serendipity at The Rockefeller Archive Center

Wednesday

Dearest, dearest Nelson-Never have I been as

touched as I was by your dearletter, the news of the unknowndonor and by the lovely whiteazalea plant. I find it difficultto adequately express my feel-ings. Of course it has alwaysbeen an enormous satisfactionto me to have you share myenthusiasm for and my very real interest in art and beauty. I have felt that it brought usparticularly near to each other.Ever since you were a very littleboy we seemed to love thesame things. And now to haveyou give so generously, I mightsay so magnificently and sospontaneously to the cause thatI care most about, in apprecia-tion of what I have done foryou; to do it now instead ofwaiting until I die and to do itwith the first money that wasyours to command; fills myheart with a joy and a gratitudesuch as I have never knownbefore – I am so conscious ofmy many failures and failings,that I never feel as if I haddone much for any of my children. But I do love youwith my whole heart, I do haveboundless faith in you and inyour future. And I am so proudof you, so proud to be yourmother as well as your friend.Ever since your letter came Ihave felt stronger and almostwell. Dear boy, it was youwho put the museum on its feet and made it permanent,without that hundred thousandit would have failed, and I never even suspected it. With deep gratitude and lovefrom your most devoted

Mother

Grant Programs

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Series 497 Nigeria, Series 531Senegal/Federation of Mali,Series 709 Belgian Congo, andSeries 723 Tanganyika. Similargrowth can be seen in its grantsto organizations and universitiesin Asian countries, such asIndonesia (Series 655 Java andSeries 652 Indonesia). India(Series 464) received much RFsupport as a British colony andas an emerging nation, and thatcontinuity presents an interestingcase study of the RF’s approachto institution-building and thedevelopment of an indigenouselite. The Philippines (Series242) and Puerto Rico (Series 243)present earlier case studies forU.S. protectorates. During thistime the RF’s program underwenta shift in focus away from publichealth and the humanities towardagricultural development, publicadministration, and the social sciences.

Asia and Africa also were particular interests of the Rocke-feller Brothers Fund, which wasorganized in 1940 and, in addi-tion to its regular grants to Asianand African institutions and universities, operated an econom-ic development program focusedon West Africa (1957-1962).

The Social Science ResearchCouncil undertook research intoactual conditions in emergingcountries through its committeeson Africa, the Pacific CoastRegion, South Asia and SoutheastAsia, and promoted the study ofparticular regions through suchcommittees as its African StudiesCommittee.

The archives of the Rocke-feller family are also pertinent,especially the papers of John D.Rockefeller 3rd (1906-1978), who

was concerned about U.S.-Asianrelations and established suchorganizations as the AgriculturalDevelopment Council, JDR 3rdFund, the Asia Society and the Asian Cultural Council tostrengthen these relationships aswell as to aid development in theemerging nations. Also of valuewill be the extensive papers ofpolitician, statesman and philan-thropist Nelson A. Rockefeller(1908-1979).

Residencies in the History ofBasic Medical Research

The Archive Center invites applications for the fifth year of its five-year program of residencies for research at theCenter on topics related to thehistory of basic medical research.The field will be defined broadlyto include most aspects of the history of the RockefellerUniversity (founded as theRockefeller Institute for MedicalResearch in 1901); much of thehistory of the international medical, public health, and scientific research programs of theRockefeller Foundation; and majorelements of the histories of theCommonwealth Fund, Charles E.Culpeper Foundation, Lucille P.Markey Trust, and John and MaryR. Markle Foundation. Certainsegments of the Rockefeller familyarchives also document the history of basic medical research,such as the founding and supportof research institutions. As agroup, the archives of these institutions constitute one of theoutstanding resources for thestudy of the history of basic med-ical research in the 20th century.

Scholars conducting substantialresearch in any aspect of the his-tory of basic medical research areurged to apply. Prospectiveresearchers may apply for residen-

For the year 2003, the RockefellerArchive Center will offer grants-in-aid of research in two targetedareas in addition to its regular program of grants (see page 1). The program of residencies in thehistory of basic medical researchcontinues from previous years,while special grants in a new areaof research – New States afterColonialism – will be offered forthe first time. Both programs aredescribed below. The applicationdeadline for all RAC grant pro-grams is November 30, 2002; grantrecipients will be announced inMarch 2003. Application forms areavailable from the Archive Centeror online atwww.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/

New States after Colonialism

The response of U.S. philan-thropies to the changing inter-national scene in the aftermath ofthe collapse of colonial empiresand the emergence of new nationsis the focus of the RockefellerArchive Center’s new targetedgrant program, “New States afterColonialism.”

The Center’s collections hold awealth of material regarding thenew nations themselves as well asthe study of those nations withinthe U.S. as Americans sought tounderstand the emerging world.For example, in the records of theRockefeller Foundation, whichorganized its grant files by country,researchers will find increasedgrant activity in the 1950s and1960s in such series as Series 476British East Africa/Kenya, Series477 East Africa, Series 483Rhodesia, Series 485 North Africa,Series 487 South Africa, Series 492Uganda, Series 494 Sudan, Series495 West Africa, Series 496 Ghana,

Targeted Grant Programs for 2003

Grant Programs

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Thomas AndrewsPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of Wisconsin,Madison.“The Road to Ludlow: Work,Environment, and Industrialization in Southern Colorado, 1867-1914.”

Vida L. AveryPh.D. Candidate, Department ofEducational Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Atlanta.“Philanthropic Influence on theAffiliation of Atlanta University,Morehouse College, and SpelmanCollege (1929): Benevolent Endeavoror Manipulative Mechanism?”

Vanessa BarkerPh.D. Candidate, Department ofSociology, New York University.“Punishment in America: AnHistorical Comparative Analysis ofPrison Policy in Three AmericanStates, 1970-2001.”

Margot BoumanPh.D. Candidate, Program in Visual and Cultural Studies,University of Rochester.“Emergence: Experiments inBroadcast Television, 1962-1980.”

Gordon BradySenior Research Fellow, Center for Study of Public Choice,George Mason University.“Intellectual History of Social Choiceand Public Choice.”

David CiepleyPh.D. Candidate, Committee on Social Thought, University of Chicago.“The Image of ‘Totalitarianism’ and Its Impact on American SocialFrameworks.”

Justin CoffeyPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of Illinois, Chicago.“Spiro Agnew and the Surburbaniza-tion of American Politics.”

Maria CostaAssistant Professor, Department ofScience and Technology Policy, State University of Campinas, Brazil.“Cooperation for Development:Questions and Agendas aboutScience and Technology Cooperationpost 1950.”

Gisela CramerVisiting Professor, Departamento de Historia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogata, Colombia.“Nelson A. Rockefeller and theDefense of the Americas: The Officeof Inter-American Affairs, 1940-1946.”

Marcos CuetoPrincipal Professor, Faculty of PublicHealth, University Peruana CayetanoHeredia, Lima, Peru.“Malaria, the Rockefeller Foundationand Latin America during the 1940sand 1950s.”

Alexa DietrichPh.D. Candidate, AnthropologyProgram; Master in Public Health(Epidemiology) Program, Emory University.“Creating Healthy Identities(?): TheInfluence of U.S. Health Programs inPuerto Rican Culture.”

cies of one month, one semester,or an academic year. Stipends atthe rate of $5,000 per month willbe awarded to cover all travel,food and lodging, and researchexpenses associated with the residency.

Applications will be reviewedin a competitive process. Thedeadline for applications forawards for the year 2003 (to beannounced in March 2003) isNovember 30, 2002. Applicantswill be asked to complete a special form (available from theCenter), to describe the researchto be undertaken, and to submitthree letters of reference.Prospective applicants are urged to contact the Center todetermine the type and extent ofrecords that will be useful for their research.

Grants-in-Aid for 2002The Rockefeller Archive Centerreceived 67 applicants forresearch grants for its 2002 program. In March, 48 scholarswere awarded stipends to conduct research in the Center’scollections. Thirty-eight scholarsreceived general grants-in-aid; six scholars received targetedgrants to do research in the history of the Cold War era; and,four scholars received grants forresidencies to conduct researchin the history of basic medicalresearch. All recipients, theirinstitutions and research topicsfollow.

General GrantsMaurice AmutabiPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign.“A History of American NGOs inKenya: The Case of the RockefellerFoundation and Care International,1945-2000.”

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Linus Pauling in his laboratory atthe California Institute of Tech-nology. During 1941-1944, theRockefeller Foundation appropriated$53,000 in support of his “researcheson the structure of antibodies and the nature of immunologicalreactions.” Pauling’s research isamong the topics of study for recipients of the Archive Center’sresearch grants for 2002.

Grant Programs

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Gianfranco DonelliProfessor of Microbiology andResearch Director, Department ofUltrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome.“The Istituto Superiore di Sanità:Origins and SubsequentDevelopments.”

Krishna R. DronamrajuPresident, Foundation for GeneticResearch, Houston, Texas.“The Contributions of Oswald Averyand Joshua Lederberg to Genetics.”

Martha EastmanPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of Maine.“Health Care Services and Provider/Community Interactions: Gender andthe Local Dynamics of Rural PublicHealth in Maine, 1910-1950.”

Tanfer EminPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, State University of New York, Stony Brook.“American Physicians and AbortionTechnique, 1880-1980.”

Eileen FordPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.“The Rockefeller Foundation inMexico, 1930-1960: A GenderedAnalysis.”

Bernd GausemeierPh.D. Candidate, Research Program,History of the Kaiser WilhelmSociety in the National Socialist Era,Max Planck Society, Berlin,Germany.“Life Sciences at Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institutes: Research Structures andResearch Practice in the NationalSocialist Era.”

Catherine Gavin LossPh.D. Candidate, Department ofEducational Leadership, Foundations,and Policy, University of Virginia.“Psychological Authority and theTransformation of the School, 1945-1960.”

Robert GolerDirector and Assistant Professor, ArtsManagement Program, Department ofPerforming Arts, American University.“An Investigation of Patterns ofPerforming Arts Patronage inTwentieth-Century America.”

Gerald M. HendricksonPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of California, Santa Barbara.“Policy, Prosperity, the Public, andthe Promise of American Life: LaborKnowledge and Modern IndustrialRelations, 1918-1929.”

Martha HodesAssociate Professor of History,Department of History, New York University.“The Mercurial Nature of Race:A Transnational Family Story.”

Joshua HumphreysPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory and Institute of FrenchStudies, New York University.“Servants of Social Progress:Democracy and Social Reform inFrance, 1914-1940.”

Jeremiah JamesPh.D. Candidate, History of ScienceDepartment, Harvard University.“Naturalizing the Chemical Bond: The Pauling Program at the CaliforniaInstitute of Technology, 1928-1941.”

Amy KempPh.D. Candidate, Department ofEducational Leadership and PolicyStudies, Indiana University.“Philanthropy as Change Agent andTransmitter of Trend: RockefellerFoundation Work in MedicalSchooling in the Brazilian FirstRepublic, 1918-1931.”

Rebecca KluchinPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, Carnegie Mellon University.“Sterilization and Reproductive Rightsin America, 1964-1984.”

Jennifer MariePh.D. Candidate, STS Department,University College of London.“Genetics in 1930s and 1940s Britain.”

Students in the Youth Training Program of the New Orleans PhilharmonicSymphony Orchestra in July 1971. Between 1970 and the end of 1973, theRockefeller Foundation made grants of more than $54,000 in support of theorchestra’s instrumental and orchestral youth training program in the publicschools. Patronage for the performing arts will be among the subjects of studyfor this year’s research grant recipients at the Rockefeller Archive Center.

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Neil WynnReader in History & AmericanStudies, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, University ofGlamorgan, Wales.“Social Welfare and Social Policy in the U.S.A., 1918-1932.”

Angela MatysiakPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, The George WashingtonUniversity.“Albert Sabin: The Development of an Oral Vaccine AgainstPoliomyelitis.”

Fabien OppermannUndergraduate Student, EcoleNationale des Chartes, Paris, France.“Image and Perception of the Palaceof Versailles in the TwentiethCentury.”

Karen RossPh.D. Candidate, Program in theHistory of Science and Technology,University of Minnesota.“Simon Flexner and theDevelopment of BiomedicalScience.”

Enrica SerinaldiIndepedent Archivist, Rome, Italy“Origins and FollowingDevelopments of the IstitutoSuperiore di Sanità, Rome.”

John StewartDirector, Centre for Health Medicineand Society: Past and Present,Humanities Research Centre, Oxford Brooks University, England.“U.S. Influences on the Developmentof Child Guidance and PsychiatricSocial Work in Scotland and GreatBritain during the Inter-War Period.”

Timothy ThurberAssistant Professor, Department of History, State University of New York, Oswego.“The Republican Party and BlackCivil Rights, 1945-1980.”

Wendy ToonResearch Fellow, Institute ofHistorical Research, University ofLondon, England.“The American Approach toReeducation for the Occupations ofGermany and Japan, 1944-1946.”

Elizabeth WatsonPh.D. Candidate, Department of ArtHistory, City University of New York.“The Promotion of Latin America inthe United States and Latin Americafrom World War II to 1970.”

Amy E. WellsAssistant Professor, Department ofEducational Leadership, Counseling,and Foundations, University of New Orleans.“Considering Her Influence: SydnorH. Walker and Rockefeller Supportfor Social Work, Social Scientists,and Universities in the South.”

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Nelson A. Rockefeller on a visit to Venezuela during his tenure as the Coordi-nator of Inter-American Affairs in the U.S. State Department. Rockefeller’swork in Venezuela is the subject of a new book by Darlene Rivas, and his service as the Coordinator will be among the subjects of study for this year’sresearch grant recipients at the Rockefeller Archive Center.

Grant Programs

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activity, the International HealthBoard and the RockefellerFoundation. For the reduction ofhookworm, yellow fever, andmalaria, the officers of theseorganizations were constantlyconcerned about the separationof wastewater from drinkingwater, the drainage of swamps,and the control of watercourses.From the training of sanitaryengineers to implementing specific practices at the villagelevel, the archives are full ofdocuments and photographsregarding water and attempts to improve health.

While water may be taken forgranted by the general public asa constituent of life, the Center’srecords show that scientific and

medical researchers never havedone so. Throughout thearchives of the RockefellerUniversity and the Common-wealth Fund, research in humanphysiology often has hinged onunderstanding 70% of what weare — water. For example,Rockefeller researcher EugeneOpie greatly contributed tounderstanding of the propertiesof living tissues by studying theflow of water across cell mem-branes. At a macro level, theprovision of fresh water as a critical day-to-day element in lifehas been addressed by Rocke-feller Foundation grants concerned with global agriculturaldevelopment and rural self-sufficiency.

For the United States specifically, the Center holds the

extensive administrative archivesof the National Water QualityControl Commission, chaired byNelson A. Rockefeller, 1972-76,which reviewed federal and statestandards for pure water. A fewyears earlier in 1965, as Governorof New York, Rockefeller hadsuccessfully recommended amajor program to improve the treatment of wastewaterthroughout the state of NewYork. The Center holds the fullrecord of Nelson A. Rockefeller’sgubernatorial service.

Documenting the recent historyof humankind’s interrelationshipwith water is a fine example ofthe strength of the collections atthe Rockefeller Archive Center.

Darwin H. StapletonExecutive Director

Director’s Comments(continued from page 2)

Da-qing ZhangProfessor, Center for the History ofMedicine, Peking University HealthScience Center, Beijing, China.“A Study on the History of MedicalExchanges between China and theUnited States.”

Targeted Grants for Research inthe History of the Cold War Era

Victoria BestorAssociate in Research, ReischauerInstitute of Japanese Studies,Harvard University.“The Cold War and the RockefellerLegacy in Japan.”

Matthew FarishPh.D. Candidate, Department ofGeography, University of BritishColumbia, Canada.“Strategic Environments: Geopoliticsand Science in Cold War America,1940-1960.”

Christina HainzlPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of Salzburg,Austria.

“American Art Politics in the ColdWar: A Comparison between Austriaand Italy.”

John KrigeKranzberg Professor, School ofHistory, Technology and Society,Georgia Institute of Technology.“The Rockefeller Foundation and theConstruction of a TransatlanticScientific Community.”

Klaus LarresJean Monnet Professor and Reader,School of Politics, Queen’s Universityof Belfast, Northern Ireland.“Competition and Cooperation: The United States and the Unity ofEurope.”

Gigi PetersonAssistant Director and Lecturer, LatinAmerican Studies, Jackson School ofInternational Studies, University ofWashington.“Roots of Containment: U.S. PolicyToward Mexican and U.S. Activists inthe Early Cold War Era.”

Residencies in the History ofBasic Medical ResearchPnina Abir-AmVisiting Scholar, Department of theHistory of Science, Harvard University.“A Comparative Study of theRockefeller Foundation’s Involvementin Molecular Biology in the UnitedKingdom, United States and France.”

José AmadorPh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, University of Michigan.“Tropics of Disease: Race, Nation,and Transnational Medicine in Cuba,Puerto Rico, and Brazil, 1898-1940.”

Robin RohrerAssociate Professor, Department ofHistory, Seton Hill College.“Clinical Research and Treatment inPediatric Oncology, 1948 to the Present.”

Bobby WintermutePh.D. Candidate, Department ofHistory, Temple University.“Waging Health: The United StatesArmy Medical Department and PublicHealth in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920.”

Recent Publications

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ArticlesAbir-Am, Pnina G. “The RockefellerFoundation and the Rise of MolecularBiology.” Nature Reviews 3 (January2002), pp. 5-10.

Abir-Am, Pnina G. “The Strategy ofLarge versus Small Scale Investments,1930-1960: The RockefellerFoundation’s International Network Protein Research Projects.” InAmerican Foundations and Large-Scale Research: Construction andTransfer of Knowledge, edited byGiuliana Gemelli. Bologna, Italy:CLUEB, 2001, pp. 71-90.

Birn, Anne-Emanuelle. “No MoreSurprising Than a Broken Pitcher?Maternal and Child Health in the EarlyYears of the Pan American SanitaryBureau,” Canadian Bulletin of MedicalHistory, 19: 1 (2002), pp. 17-46.

Buxton, William J. and Charles R.Acland. “Interview with Dr. Frank N.Stanton: Radio Research Pioneer.”Journal of Radio Studies 8: 1 (2001),pp. 191-229.

Chen, Kaiyi. “Missionaries and theEarly Development of Nursing inChina.” Nursing History Review 4(1996), pp. 129-149.

Collins, Michael J. “The EnchantedDecember: Elizabeth von Arnim and Charles Augustus Strong.” In“Otherness: Anglo-American Women in 19th and 20th Century Florence,”edited by Bruno P.F. Wanrooij, ItalianHistory and Culture, vol. 7 (2001),Yearbook of the GeorgetownUniversity at Villa Le Balze, Fiesole(Florence), pp. 57-68.

Dosso, Diane. “Les ScientifiquesFrançaise Réfugiés en Amérique et laFrance Libre.” [French Scholars andScientists Exiled in the United Statesand the Free French] Matériaux pourl’Historie de Notre Temps, No. 60(October-December 2000), pp. 34-40.

Fujiata, Fumiko. “The U.S.-JapanIntellectual Interchange Program andU.S.-Japanese Relations in the 1950s.”University of Tokyo Journal ofAmerican Studies 5 (2000), pp. 69-85.[In Japanese]

Gemelli, Giuliana. “Progettualità eOrganizzazione tra Europa e StatiUniti: Le Origini della FondazioneAdriano Olivetti (1962-1976).” Società eStoria no. 90 (Ottobre-Dicembre 2000),pp. 757-789.

Glave, Dianne. “The African AmericanCooperative Extension Service: A Folk Tradition in Conservation andPreservation in the Early TwentiethCentury.” International Journal ofAfricana Studies 6: 1 (November/December 2000), pp. 85-100.

Groutt, John and Calvin Hill. “UpwardBound: In the Beginning.” OpportunityOutlook; Journal of the Council forOpportunity in Education, April 2001,pp. 26-33.

Kotlowski, Dean. “The Knowles Affair:Nixon’s Self-Inflicted Wound.”Presidential Studies Quarterly 30: 3(September 2000), pp. 443-463.

Matsuda, Takeshi. “InstitutionalizingPostwar U.S.-Japan CulturalInterchange: The Making of Pro-American Liberals, 1945-1955.” In The Age of Creolization in the Pacific:In Search of Emerging Cultures andShared Values in the Japan-AmericaBorderlands, edited by TakeshiMatsuda. Hiroshima, Japan: KeisuishaCo., Ltd., 2001, pp. 41-97.

Ortoll, Servando. “My Dear Mrs.Rockefeller: Frida Kahlo se cartea conAbby Aldrich Rockefeller.” Paula[Mexico], September 2001, pp. 60-64.

Ortoll, Servando. Review of GabrielaVargas Cetina, ed., Mirando . . .¿haciaafuera? In Descantos: Revista deAntropología Social (Autumn 2001),pp. 169-173.

Page, Benjamin B. “First Steps: TheRockefeller Foundation in Early Czech-oslovakia,” East European Quarterly35: 3 (September 2001), pp. 259-308.

Picard, Jean-François and William H.Schneider. “From the Art of Medicineto Biomedical Science in France:Modernization or Americanization?” In American Foundations and Large-Scale Research: Construction andTransfer of Knowledge, edited byGiuliana Gemelli. Bologna, Italy:CLUEB, 2001, pp. 91-114.

Prescott, Heather Munro. “I Was aTeenage Dwarf: The SocialConstruction of ‘Normal’ AdolescentGrowth and Development in theUnited States.” In Alexandra MinnaStern and Howard Markel, editors,Formative Years: Children’s Health inthe United States, 1880-2000. AnnArbor, Michigan: University ofMichigan Press, 2002.

Saunier, Pierre-Yves. “‘Selling the Ideaof Cooperation’: The U.S. Foundationsand the European Components of the‘Urban Internationale’ (1920s-1960s).” In American Foundations and Large-Scale Research: Construction andTransfer of Knowledge, edited byGiuliana Gemelli. Bologna, Italy:CLUEB, 2001, pp. 219-246.

Saunier, Pierre-Yves. “Sketches fromthe Urban Internationale, 1910-50:Voluntary Associations, InternationalInstitutions and U.S. PhilanthropicFoundations.” International Journal ofUrban and Regional Research 25: 2(June 2001), pp. 380-403.

Siegmund-Schultze, Reinhard. “Supportby Rockefeller’s InternationalEducation Board for the Cooperationof Physics and Mathematics atGöttingen and Paris in the 1920s and1930s.” In American Foundations andLarge-Scale Research: Constructionand Transfer of Knowledge, edited byGiuliana Gemelli. Bologna, Italy:CLUEB, 2001, pp. 51-67.

Torge, Reimund. “Otto Lummer, FritzReiche, Mieczyslaw Wolfke und ‘DieLehre von der Bildentstehung imMikroskop von Ernst Abbe.’” JenaerJahrbuch zur Technik- undIndustriegeschichte 2 (2000), pp. 24-48.

Witkowski, Jan A. “Mad Hatters at theDNA Tea Party: A Unique DiscoveryBrings Fresh Insight to the Discoveryof DNA’s Structure.” Nature, Vol. 415(January 31, 2002), pp. 473-474.

Books and DissertationsAnderson, Warwick. The Cultivation ofWhiteness: Science, Health and RacialDestiny in Australia, MelbourneUniversity Press, 2002.

Recent Publications

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Appel, Toby A. Shaping Biology:The National Science Foundation andAmerican Biological Research, 1945-1975. Baltimore and London: TheJohns Hopkins University Press, 2000.

Bacon, Mardges. Le Corbusier inAmerica: Travels in the Land of theTimid. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2001.

Basdeo, Sahadeo and Graeme Mount.The Foreign Relations of Trinidad andTobago, 1962-2000: The Case of a SmallState in the Global Arena. San Juan,Trinidad: Lexicon Trinidad Ltd., 2001.

Benchimol, Jaime Larry, ed. FebreAmarela: A Doença e a Vacina, umaHistória Incabada. Rio de Janeiro:Editora FIOCRUZ, 2001.

Berol, David Nathaniel. “LivingMaterials and the Structural Ideal: The Development of the ProteinCrystallography Community in theTwentieth Century.” Ph. D. disserta-tion, Program in the History ofScience, Department of History,Princeton University, 2001.

Binnewies, Robert O. Palisades:100,000 Acres in 100 Years. NewYork: Fordham University Press andPalisades Interstate Park Commission,2001.

Brenko, Aida, Zelko Dugac andMirjana Randi. Narodna Medicina;Folk Medicine. Catalog for an exhibition at the Zagreb Museum ofEthnography, November 2001-March2002. Zagreb: Etnografski MuzejZagreb, 2001.

Bryson, Dennis. Socializing theYoung: The Role of the Foundations,1923-1941. Westport, Connecticut:Bergin & Garvey, an imprint ofGreenwood Publishing Group, Inc.,2002.

Cassidy, David C. Uncertainty: TheLife and Science of Werner Heisenberg.New York: W. H. Freeman andCompany, 1992.

Castro-Santos, Luiz A.de and LinaRodrigues de Faria, ed. 61 Broadway,New York City: Cartas Americanas:

Correspondência Inédita Entre osEscritórios Brasileiro e Norteamericanoda Divisão Sanitária Internacional daFundação Rockefeller, 1927-1932.2 parts. Série Estudos em Saúde Cole-tiva, nos. 207 and 208. Rio de Janeiro:Universidade do Estado do Rio deJaneiro, Institute de Medicina Social, 2000.

Chen, Kaiyi. Seeds from the West: St. John’s Medical School, Shanghai,1880–1952. Chicago: ImprintPublications, 2001.

Cody, Jeffrey W. Building in China:Henry K. Murphy’s “AdaptiveArchitecture,” 1914-1935. Hong Kong:The Chinese University Press, 2001.

Cohn, Lucy. Colombianas en laVanguardia. Medellín, Colombia:Editorial Universidad de Antioquia, 2001.

Dawley, Katherine Louise. “Leaving theNest: Nurse-Midwifery in the UnitedStates, 1940-1980.” Ph.D. dissertation,Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, 2001.

DeVoe, Jennifer. “New NationalApproaches to Community Health: AComparative Analysis of Historical CaseStudies from Australia and the UnitedStates.” Ph.D. dissertation, NuffieldCollege, 2001.

Dowie, Mark. American Foundations:An Investigative History. Cambridge,Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2001.

Ewin, Jeannette. Fine Wine and FishOil: The Life of Hugh MacDonaldSinclair. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2002.

Friedman, Robert Marc. The Politics ofExcellence behind the Nobel Prize inScience. New York: Henry Holt andCompany, 2001.

Gemelli, Giuliana. Franco Ferrarotti:Un Imprenditore di Idee: Una testimoni-anza su Adriano Olivetti. Turin, Italy:Edizioni di Comunità, 2001.

Greenspan, Anders. Creating ColonialWilliamsburg. Washington and London:Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002.

Hager, Thomas. Force of Nature: TheLife of Linus Pauling. New York:Simon & Schuster, 1995.

Hartup, Willard W., Ann Johnson andRichard A. Weinberg. The Institute ofChild Development: Pioneering inScience and Application, 1925-2000.Minneapolis: Institute of Child Develop-ment, University of Minnesota, 2001.

Hoffman, Beatrix. The Wages ofSickness: The Politics of HealthInsurance in Progressive America.Chapel Hill and London: The Universityof North Carolina Press, 2001.

Humphreys, Margaret. Malaria:Poverty, Race, and Public Health in theUnited States. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press, 2001.

Kantor, Sybil Gordon. Alfred H. Barrand the Intellectual Origins of theMuseum of Modern Art. CambridgeMassachusetts: MIT Press, 2001.

King, Bruce. Derek Walcott: ACaribbean Life. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 2000.

Jeffrey, Kirk. Machines in Our Hearts:The Cardiac Pacemaker, the ImplantableDefibrillator, and American HealthCare. Baltimore: The Johns HopkinsUniversity Press, 2001.

Klaus, Susan L. A Modern Arcadia:Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and the Planfor Forest Hills Gardens. Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, 2002

Kotlowski, Dean J. Nixon’s Civil Rights:Politics, Principle and Policy. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 2001.

Lagemann. Ellen Condliffe. An ElusiveScience: The Troubling History of Education Research. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Lepicard, Etienne. “Une Réponse Bio-Médicale à la Crise des AnnésTrente: La Construction de L’homme, cetinconnu d’Alexis Carrel, 1935.” Ph.D.dissertation, Hebrew University, 2000.[in Hebrew, with an abstract in French]

Lewis, Jonathan E. Spy Capitalism: Itekand the CIA. New Haven and London:Yale University Press, 2002.

Löwy, Ilana. Virus, Moustiques etModernité: La Fièvre Jaune au Brésilentre Science et Politique. Historie desSciences, des Techniques et de laMédecine. Paris: Éditions de ArchivesContemporaines, 2001.

Recent Publications

Sanger, Martha Frick Symington. The Henry Clay Frick Houses:Architecture, Interiors, Landscapes in the Golden Era. New York: The Monacelli Press, Inc., 2001.

Scarpellini, Emanuela. Comprareall’Americana: Le Origini dellaRivoluzione Commerciale in Italia,1945-1971. [Buying American-style:The Origins of the Trade Revolution inItaly, 1945-1971; includes a chapter onthe role of IBEC and the developmentof supermarkets in Italy.] Bologna: Il Mulino, 2001.

Segal, Grant. John D. Rockefeller:Anointed with Oil. Oxford Portraits.New York: Oxford University Press,2001. [Young adult; grades 8 and up.]

Siegmund-Schultze, Reinhard.Rockefeller and the Internationaliza-tion of Mathematics Between the TwoWorld Wars. Documents and Studiesfor the Social History of Mathematicsin the 20th Century. Basel, Bostonand Berlin: Birkhäuser Verlag, 2001.

Silverstein, Arthur M. Paul Ehrlich’sReceptor Immunology: The MagnificentObsession. San Diego and London:Academic Press, 2002.

Mandell, Nikki. The Corporation asFamily: The Gendering of CorporateWelfare, 1890-1930. Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,2002.

Marks, Lara V. Sexual Chemistry: A History of the Contraceptive Pill.New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press, 2001.

McGrath, Patrick J. Scientists, Business,and the State, 1890-1960. Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 2001.

Perlmann, Bennard B., ed. AmericanArtists, Authors and Collectors: TheWalter Pach Letters, 1906-1958. StateUniversity of New York Press, 2002.

Pivar, David J. Purity and Hygiene:Women, Prostitution and the‘American Plan,’ 1900-1931.Westport, Connecticut: GreenwoodPublishing Group, Inc., 2001.

Rivas, Darlene. Missionary Capitalist:Nelson Rockefeller in Venezuela.Chapel Hill: University of NorthCarolina Press, 2002.

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Selected RAC Publications

The staff of the Rockefeller ArchiveCenter has prepared a number ofdescriptive guides and subject surveysas introductions to the Center’s hold-ings. The guides provide a generaldescription of each collection, and thesurveys list by box and folder headingsmaterials related to specific subjects.The following publications are available(* denotes also available from theCenter’s homepage atwww.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr):

_____*A Guide to Archives and Manuscripts at the Rockefeller ArchiveCenter (1989), 77 pp., indexed.

_____*A Guide to the Social ScienceResearch Council Archives (1999), 34 pp.

_____Photograph Collections in theRockefeller Archive Center (1986), 37 pp., indexed.

_____*A Bibliography of Scholarship atthe Rockefeller Archive Center (1999).

Subject surveys of sources at theRockefeller Archive Center include the following:

______*Africa (1996), 57 pp.

______*African-American History and Race Relations (1993).

_____*Child Studies (1988), 86 pp.

_____*Labor and Industrial Relations2nd edition (1989), 47 pp.

_____*Nursing (1987; revised 1990),60 pp.

_____*Psychiatry and Related Areas(1985), 107 pp.

_____*The Transfer of Western Science,Medicine, and Technology to ChinaDuring the Republican Period (1989), 34 pp.

To order, please put a check beside anyguides and surveys you would like toorder and return a copy of this form,along with your address, to theRockefeller Archive Center, 15 DaytonAvenue, Sleepy Hollow, New York 10591.Checks should be made payable to TheRockefeller University, and must be drawnon an American bank. There is a $3.00charge for each publication ordered, and a$2.00 postage and handling fee.

Quantity_____ x $3.00=

Postage and Handling +2.00

Total enclosed $

Tone, Andrea. Devices and Desires: AHistory of Contraceptives in America.New York: Hill and Wang, 2001.

Wagner, Steven T. “Pursuing the‘Middle Way’: EisenhowerRepublicanism, 1952-1964.” Ph.D. dissertation, Purdue University, 1999.

Westermann-Cicio, Mary L. “Of Miceand Men: The Medical Profession’sResponse to the VivisectionControversy in Turn of the CenturyAmerica.” Ph.D. dissertation, StateUniversity of New York at StonyBrook, 2001.

Winter, Thomas. Making Men, MakingClass: The YMCA and Workingmen,1877-1920. Chicago: The Universityof Chicago Press, 2002.

Wolfe, Elin L., A. Clifford Barger andSaul Benison. Walter B. Cannon,Science and Society. Cambridge,Massachusetts: Harvard UniversityPress, 2000.

Worcester, Kenton W. Social ScienceResearch Council, 1923-1998. NewYork: Social Science Research Council,2001.

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Rockefeller Archive Center15 Dayton AvenueSleepy Hollow, NY 10591-1598Telephone: (914) 631-4505e-mail: archive@mail.rockefeller.eduwww.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr

The Rockefeller Archive Center Newsletter is anannual spring publication of the RockefellerArchive Center. It is intended to highlight the diverse range of subjects covered in the collections at the Center and to promote scholarship in the history of philanthropy.

If you wish to be added to the mailing list toreceive free of charge the print version of futureRAC Newsletters, as well as Research Reports fromthe Rockefeller Archive Center each fall, pleasenotify the Rockefeller Archive Center. Both publications also are available online from theCenter’s homepage on the World Wide Web athttp://www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr.

Both the Newsletter and Research Reports are edited by Erwin Levold and Ken Rose, and designed by Mitelman & Associates Ltd.,Tarrytown, NY.

The crowded biology class of Prof. D.A. Forbes at the academy of Shaw University, February 15, 1922. The General Education Boardworked to improve educational opportunities and conditions for African Americans throughout much of the 20th century, especially in theU.S. South. See the article beginning on page 1.

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