Dreams and Realities - TeachingEnglish | British Council | BBC

Dreams and Realities:Developing Countries and the English LanguageEdited by Hywel Coleman

Paper 4

Language policy in education and the role of English in India: From library language to language of empowerment

by Ramanujam Meganathan

www.britishcouncil.org

Policy planning and implementation

4

Language policy in education and the role of English in India: From library language to language of empowermentRamanujam Meganathan

IntroductionThroughout India, there is an extraordinary belief, among almost all castes and classes, in both rural and urban areas, in the transformative power of English. English is seen not just as a useful skill, but as a symbol of a better life, a pathway out of poverty and oppression. Aspiration of such magnitude is a heavy burden for any language, and for those who have responsibility for teaching it, to bear. The challenges of providing universal access to English are significant, and many are bound to feel frustrated at the speed of progress. But we cannot ignore the way that the English language has emerged as a powerful agent for change in India. (Graddol 2010:120)

This chapter explores language policy-making processes in the Indian context, implementation issues and the place and role of English in school education. Language in education policy derives from the Indian Constitution which guarantees linguistic rights to all citizens; most importantly, members of minority groups (both religious and linguistic) are granted a special right to be educated in their mother tongue. Despite this consensus, there have been numerous political and educational controversies regarding implementation of these constitutional provisions.

The national language policy (or strategy) for school education, the three-language formula recommended by the National Commission on Education 1964–1966, was incorporated into the national education policies of 1968 and 1986. Accommodating at least three-languages in school education has been seen as a convenient strategy, but concerns have also been expressed from various quarters about its ‘unsatisfactory’ implementation.

India’s pluralism is reflected in its linguistic diversity. According to the 1971 census, the country has 1,652 languages belonging to five different language families: Indo-

2 | Policy planning and implementation Policy planning and implementation | 3

Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burmese and Semito-Hamitic (GOI 1971). The Indian constitution identifies 22 ‘recognised languages’. About 87 languages are used in print media, 71 languages are used on radio and the administration of the country is conducted in 15 languages. According to Rao (2008), two decades ago the number of languages used as media of instruction was about 60 but by the time Rao’s study was carried out the number had dropped to 47. (As we will see below, it appears that this number has now fallen further still.) English – formerly perceived as a library language and the language of higher education – is now in demand by every quarter as a means of progress and the key to a better life. As Graddol points out, the language which was a ‘key part of the mechanism of exclusion because of its very unequal distribution in society’ is now seen ‘as a means of inclusion’ (Graddol 2010:120). The English language in India today is both an admired and a hated phenomenon. On the one hand, there is an increasing demand for the language which is associated with progress and development, while on the other the language is perceived as a killer of native or indigenous languages.

The demand for English emerges from many factors, as recognised by the position paper on the teaching of English produced by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT 2006) in connection with the National Curriculum Framework 2005 (NCERT 2005):

English in India today is a symbol of people’s aspirations for quality in education and fuller participation in national and international life ... The level of introduction of English has now become a matter of political response to people’s aspirations, rendering almost irrelevant an academic debate on the merits of a very early introduction. (NCERT 2006:1)

However, the disparity in the quality of English language education experienced by children further intensifies the already existing divide between English language-rich and English language-poor children. The present condition of English language teaching in the varied contexts of India is summed up in the following manner:

1. TP EE (e.g. English medium private/government aided elite schools): Proficient teachers; varying degrees of English in the environment, including as a home or first language.

2. TP EE (e.g. New English medium; private schools, many of which use both English and other Indian languages): Teachers with limited proficiency; children with little or no background in English; parents aspire to upward mobility through English.

3. TP EE (e.g. Government-aided regional medium schools): Schools with a tradition of English education along with regional languages, established by educational societies, with children from a variety of backgrounds.

4. TP EE (e.g. Government regional medium schools run by district and municipal education authorities): They enrol the largest number of elementary school children in rural India. They are also the only choice for the urban poor (who, however, have some options of access to English in the environment). Their teacher may be the least proficient in English in these four types of school.

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TP = Teachers’ English language proficiency; EE = English language environment (Kurrien 2005 quoted in NCERT 2006:9)

The rest of this chapter consists of seven sections, beginning with a brief historical overview of the three-language policy. The next section discusses the number of languages taught in Indian schools. This is followed by details of languages taught as first, second and third languages. The following section looks at the languages used as media of instruction. There is then a section focusing on the introduction of the second and third languages. The penultimate section then summarises all the findings reported here which relate to English and the chapter ends with a conclusion.

Language policy in school education: The three-language formulaLanguage planning for school education in India can be seen more as a question of status planning rather than corpus or acquisition planning. The language policy which emerged as a political consensus in the formative years of independence is also an illustration of democratic processes in the Asian context. The three-language formula emerged as a policy or a strategy after a quarter of a century of debate and deliberations from political and academic perspectives by educational advisory bodies and politicians representing national and regional interests.

The Central Advisory Board on Education (CABE), the oldest statutory body on education in India, initiated the discussion on languages in school education in the 1940s and this continued to be a major concern in their discussions until 1960. CABE identified five major issues which required attention:

1. The number of languages to be taught at various levels of school education

2. The introduction of second and third languages

3. The place and role of English

4. The place and role of Hindi

5. The teaching of Sanskrit and minor language(s) in school.

The Board devised the ‘three-language formula’ in its 23rd meeting held in 1956 with a view to removing inequalities among the languages of India. It recommended that three-languages should be taught in the Hindi as well as non-Hindi-speaking areas of the country at the middle and high school stages and suggested the following two possible formulae:

1. (a) i. Mother tongue or ii. Regional language or iii. A composite course of mother tongue and a regional language or iv. A composite course of mother tongue and a classical language or v. A composite course of regional language or a classical language, (b) Hindi or English (c) A modern Indian language or a modern European language provided it has not already been taken under (a) and (b) above.


2. (a) As above (b) English or a modern European language (c) Hindi (for non-Hindi-speaking areas) or another modern Indian language (for Hindi-speaking areas) (MOE 1957, quoted in Agarwal 1993:79)

The three-language formula was simplified and approved by the Conference of Chief Ministers held in 1961 as follows:

1. The regional language or the mother tongue when the latter is different from the regional language

2. Hindi or any other Indian language in Hindi speaking areas; and

3. English or any other modern European language. (GOI 1962:67)

CABE also deliberated in detail on the study of English as a compulsory subject as recommended by the education ministers’ conference held in 1957:

1. English should be taught as a compulsory language both at the secondary and the university stages, students acquire adequate knowledge of English so as to be able to receive education through this language at the university level.

2. English should not be introduced earlier than class V. The precise point at which English should be started at the middle stage was left to each individual state to decide. (MOE 1957, quoted in Agarwal 1993:98)

A comprehensive view of the study of languages at school was undertaken and concrete recommendations were made by the Education Commission between 1964 and 1966 (MOE 1966). The Commission, having taken account of the diversity of the Indian context, recommended a modified or graduated three-language formula:

1. The mother tongue or the regional language

2. The official language of the Union or the associate official language of the Union so long as it exists; and

3. A modern Indian or foreign language not covered under (1) and (2) and other than that used as the medium of instruction. (MOE 1966:192)

The Commission’s observation on the status and role of English is of importance from the point of view of language planning and the way the language was perceived by policy planners. The Commission said:


English will continue to enjoy a high status so long as it remains the principal medium of education at the university stage, and the language of administration at the Central Government and in many of the states. Even after the regional languages become media of higher education in the universities, a working knowledge of English will be a valuable asset for all students and a reasonable proficiency in the language will be necessary for those who proceed to the university. (MOE 1966:192)

This brief historical scan of the evolution of the language policy in India tells us how the apprehension about the dominance of English (as a colonial language which signifies the master’s language) has been naturally alleviated by the role which the language has attained. This is in spite of the efforts (political and systemic) to contain its spread. Today, every child and parent wants the language.

Number of languages available and taught The Sixth All India School Education Survey in 1993 explored the number of languages actually taught and the number of languages actually used as media of instruction at different stages of schooling throughout India. It also found the number and percentage of schools teaching particular languages and using specific languages as media of instruction (NCERT 1993). The Seventh All India Survey replicated this research in 2002 and its report was published in 2007 (NCERT 2007).

According to the 2002 Survey, the number of schools in the country having primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary stages are 850,421, 337,980, 130,675 and 43,869 respectively (NCERT 2007).

Some of the findings of the two surveys are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1: School language policies in India ( per cent)

PoliciesPrimary Upper primary Secondary

1993 2002 1993 2002 1993 2002

‘Three-Language Formula’ offered * * 82.16 90.61 79.54 84.86

Two or more languages offered 34.85 91.95 95.56 90.61 96.65 84.86

Hindi taught as first language 40.49 59.70 38.25 39.92 30.85 33.08

Hindi taught as second language 11.97 - 29.81 - 31.99 -

English taught as first language** 2.09 - 4.52 9.89 6.57 13.26

English taught as second language 60.33 - 55.05 - 54.12 -

*The Three-language Formula comes into effect from Class 6. **Although it is very difficult to define English as a first language in India, some schools and school systems mentioned it as a first language.


Table 1 shows that in 2002 nearly 91 per cent of schools followed the three-language formula at the upper primary stage and almost 85 per cent did so at the secondary stage. An increase in the percentage of schools following the formula can be seen because in 1993 the corresponding figures were 82 per cent and almost 80 per cent respectively.

Table 1 also reveals that in 2002 almost 40 per cent of schools at the upper primary stage and 33 per cent at the secondary stage were teaching Hindi as a first language. These figures show a slight increase compared to 1993 when the comparable figures were 38 per cent and 31 per cent respectively.

Meanwhile, in 2002 almost ten per cent of schools at the upper primary stage and 13 per cent of schools at the secondary stage claimed to be teaching English as a first language. Although these figures are still relatively modest they indicate that the percentage of schools teaching English as a first language had more or less doubled over a period of ten years, from five per cent and seven per cent respectively. (It has to be remembered that the term ‘first language’ is used here in the context of India’s three-language policy. In other words, it is the first language which the child encounters at school and not necessarily the child’s own first language or mother tongue.)

Box 1 lists all the languages taught in each state and Union Territory. The information shown here was collected from curricular documents, syllabi and statements by officials in the states and UTs. The information covers all stages of schooling from Primary to Higher Secondary, from Classes I to XII. The languages listed here are taught as first, second, third, classical and elective languages.

Box 1: Languages taught in the school curriculum

No. State/Union Territory

Languages available/offered Total languages available

1.Andhra Pradesh

Telugu, Urdu, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, Oriya, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English

11

2.Arunachal Pradesh

English, Hindi, Sanskrit, Assamese, Butia, Bhoti 6

3. AssamAssamese, Bengali, Bodo, Garo, Hindi, Khasi, Manipuri, Mizo, Nepali, Urdu, Hmar, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English

15

4. BiharHindi, Urdu, Bengali, English, Bhojpuri, Arabic, Maithili, Persian, Magahi, Sanskrit

10

5. ChhattisgarhHindi, English, Marathi, Bengali, Gujarati, Tamil, Punjabi, Urdu, Sindhi, Telugu, Malayalam, Sanskrit, Kannada, Oriya

14

6. GoaKonkani, Marathi, Hindi, English, Urdu, French, Portuguese, Sanskrit, Arabic

9

7. GujaratGujarati, Hindi, Marathi, English, Urdu, Sindhi, Tamil, Sanskrit

8

8. Haryana Hindi, English, Punjabi, Sanskrit, other MILs 4


9.Himachal Pradesh

Hindi, English, Sanskrit, other MILs 3

10.Jammu and Kashmir

Urdu, Kashmiri, English, Dogri, Punjabi, Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian, Gojri, Pahari, Hindi

11

11. Jharkhand Bengali, English, Hindi, Urdu, others 4

12. KarnatakaKannada, English, Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil, Sanskrit, Arabic, Konkani, Persian

11

13. KeralaMalayalam, Tamil, Kannada, Sanskrit, Hindi, English, Urdu, Arabic, French, Latin, Syriac, Russian

12

14.Madhya Pradesh

Hindi, English, Urdu, Marathi, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Sindhi, Malayalam, Persian, Arabic, French, Russian

12

15. Maharashtra Data could not be collected -

16. ManipurManipuri, Hindi, English, Bengali, Paite, Hmar, Thadou-Kuki, Mizo, Tangkhul, Zou, Nepali, Kom, Vaiphei, Mao

14

17. Meghalaya Data could not be collected -

18. Mizoram Mizo, English, Hindi, Bengali, Nepali, Manipuri 6

19. Nagaland English, Jenyidie, Sumi, Ao, Lotha, Hindi, Bengali 7

20. OrissaOriya, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, English, Sanskrit, Persian

8

21. Punjab

Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Nepalese, Tibetan, French, German, Portuguese, Russian, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Oriya, Kannada

23

22. RajasthanHindi, English, Sanskrit, Urdu, Sindhi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Malayalam, Tamil, Rajasthani, Prakrit, Persian

12

23. SikkimEnglish, Nepali, Bhutia, Lepeha, Limboo, Newari, Tamang, Sharpa, Gurung, Rai, Manger, Sunuwar, Hindi

13

24. Tamil NaduTamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Urdu, English, Hindi, Kannada

7

25. TripuraBengali, Kokbarok, English, Bishnupriya, Chokma, Manipuri, Holam, Kuki, Lakshai, Hindi

10

26. Uttar Pradesh

Hindi, English, Sanskrit, Urdu, Pali, Arabic, Persian, Latin, Gujarati, Punjabi, Bengali, Marathi, Assamese, Kannada, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Nepali, French, German, Tibetan, Chinese, Russian

25

27. UttaranchalHindi, Sanskrit, English, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Nepali,

7

28. West BengalBengali, English, Hindi, Urdu, Oriya, Tamil, Telugu, Gujarati, Tibetan, Nepali, Santhali as first language with Alchiki script

11

29.Andaman and Nicobar Islands

English, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali 5

30. Chandigarh

Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Nepalese, Tibetan, French, German, Portuguese, Russian, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Oriya, Kannada

21


31.Dadra Naagar Haveli

English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Sanskrit, others 5

32.Daman and Diu

Gujarati, Hindi, English 3

33. DelhiHindi, Urdu, Punjabi, English, Sanskrit; also any modern Indian language as students wish

5

34. Lakshadweep Data could not be collected -

35. PuducherryTamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Urdu, English, Hindi, French, Kannada

8

Box 1 shows that three states/UTs did not provide data. Among the remaining 32 states/UTs, Daman and Diu offers the smallest number of languages – just three – while at the other extreme 21 languages are taught as subjects in Chandigarh, 23 in Punjab and 25 in Uttar Pradesh.

Table 2: Most frequently mentioned languages offered by states/UTs

No. Language Number of states/UTs offering this language

N=32

1= Hindi 32

1= English 32

3= Urdu 21

3= Sanskrit 21

5 Bengali 15

6 Tamil 13

7 Telugu 12

8= Arabic 11

8= Persian 11

10= Punjabi 10

10= Marathi 10

12= Malayalam 9

12= Kannada 9

12= Gujarati 9

15 French 7

Sub-total 222

60 other languages 98

Total 320

Table 2 summarises the data in Box 1. The total number of language choices available is 320, an average of ten language choices per state/UT, with, as we saw, a range from three to 25. The two most frequently offered languages are Hindi and English, both of which are taught in all 32 states which made data available.


Another 13 languages are frequently offered by between seven and 21 different states. These 15 most frequently taught languages, therefore, account for 222 (69 per cent) of the 320 language choices available. A further 60 different languages are offered, accounting for just 98 language choices (1.6 states/UTs per language). Thus, in total, 75 different languages are taught in Indian schools (excluding the three states for which information is not available), but Hindi and English between them account for 20 per cent of all the language choices available.

Languages taught as first, second and third languageLanguages are taught or available to learners as first, second and third language.

Regarding the number of languages available and offered to students in 2002, the numbers are:

Upper primary 96.32 per cent of schools offered just one language as the first language 3.68 per cent of schools offered a choice of two or more languages as the first language

Secondary 93.62 per cent of schools offered only one language as the first language 6.38 per cent of schools offered a choice of two or more languages as the first language

Full details of the languages taught as first, second and third language in each state/UT are given in Box 2.

Box 2: First, second and third languages


Stage of schooling

Languages available/offered

1st language 2nd language 3rd language

1. Andhra Pradesh

Primary Mother tongue/ regional language, Telugu, Urdu, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, Oriya, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic

- English from Class III

Upper Primary

Telugu, Urdu, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, Oriya, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic

Hindi, English English, Hindi

Secondary Mother tongue, Telugu, Urdu, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, Oriya, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic

Hindi English


2. Arunachal Pradesh

Primary English Hindi -

Upper Primary

English Hindi Sanskrit, Assamese, Butia, Bhoti

Secondary English Hindi -

Higher Secondary

English - -

3. Assam Primary Assamese, Bengali, English

English -

Upper Primary

Assamese, Bengali, English

English Arabic, Assamese, Hindi, Sanskrit

Secondary Assamese, Bengali, English

English -

4. Bihar Primary Hindi, Urdu, Bengali

English -

Upper Primary

Hindi, Urdu, Bengali

English Sanskrit

Secondary Hindi, Urdu, Bengali

English

5. Chhattisgarh Primary Hindi, English Hindi, English -

Upper Primary

Hindi, English Hindi, English Sanskrit

Secondary Hindi, English Hindi, English Sanskrit

6. Goa Primary Konkani, Marathi English -

Upper Primary

English Hindi Konkani, Marathi

Secondary English Hindi Konkani, Marathi, French, Portuguese

Higher Secondary

English Konkani, Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, French

Modern Indian language (MIL)

7. Gujarat Primary Gujarati, English Gujarati, Hindi -

Upper Primary

Gujarati, English Gujarati, Hindi Hindi, English

Secondary Gujarati, English Gujarati, Hindi Hindi, English

8. Haryana Primary English, Hindi, MIL

- -

Upper Primary

English, Hindi, MIL

English, Hindi Punjabi, Sanskrit, MIL

Secondary English, Hindi, MIL

English, Hindi -

9. Himachal Pradesh

Primary Hindi, English - -

Upper Primary

English, Hindi English, Hindi Sanskrit

Secondary English, Hindi English, Hindi Sanskrit


10. Jammu and Kashmir

Primary Hindi, Urdu English Kashmiri

Upper Primary

Hindi, Urdu English Kashmiri

Secondary Hindi, Urdu English Dogri, Punjabi, Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian

Higher Secondary

English Hindi, Urdu Dogri, Punjabi, Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian

11. Jharkhand Primary Bengali, English, Hindi, Sanskrit, others

- -

Upper Primary

Bengali, English, Hindi, Urdu, others

English, Hindi, Sanskrit, others


Secondary Bengali, English, Hindi, Urdu, others



12. Karnataka Primary Kannada, English, Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil

- -

Upper Primary

Kannada, English, Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil

Kannada, English

Kannada, English, Sanskrit, Hindi, Arabic, Persian, Konkani

Secondary Kannada, English, Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil

- Kannada, English, Sanskrit, Hindi, Arabic, Persian, Konkani

13. Kerala Primary Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada

English -

Upper Primary

Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada; Option: Sanskrit/Arabic/Urdu

English Hindi

Secondary English Malayalam/Tamil, Kannada, Sanskrit, Arabic, Urdu, Hindi, Syriac, French

-


14. Madhya Pradesh

Primary Mother tongue General English or General Hindi

Urdu, Sanskrit, Marathi or any other MIL

Upper Primary

Mother tongue General English or General Hindi

Urdu, Sanskrit, Marathi or any other MIL

Secondary Hindi, English, Urdu Sanskrit

Hindi, English Any other MIL other than languages studied as Language L1 and L2

15. Maharashtra Primary Hindi, Marathi English -

Upper Primary

Marathi, English Hindi, Marathi, others

English, Hindi, others

Secondary Marathi, English Hindi, Marathi, others

English, Hindi, others

16. Manipur Primary (two languages)

Manipuri, Hindi, one of ten recognised tribal languages/MIL

English -

Upper Primary (three languages)

Manipuri, Hindi, one of ten recognised tribal languages/MIL

English Manipuri, Hindi, one of ten recognised tribal languages/MIL

Secondary (two languages)

Manipuri, Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Mizo, Paite, Hmar, Tangkhul, Nepali, Zou, Thadou-Kuki, Vaiphei, Korm, Mao

English -

17. Meghalaya Primary English, Garo, Khasi, others

English, Garo, Khasi, others

-

Upper Primary

English, Garo, Khasi, others

English, Garo, Khasi, Hindi, others

Hindi, others

Secondary English, Garo, Khasi, others

English, Garo, Khasi, Hindi, others

Hindi, others

18. Mizoram Primary Mizo English Hindi

Upper Primary

Mizo English Hindi

Secondary English Mizo Hindi up to Class VIII

Higher Secondary

English Mizo -


19. Nagaland Primary English MIL, alternative English

Hindi

Upper Primary

English MIL, alternative English

Hindi

Secondary English MIL, alternative English

-

Higher Secondary

English MIL, alternative English

-

20. Orissa Primary Oriya English -

Upper Primary

Oriya, Hindi, Sanskrit, others

English Hindi, Sanskrit

Secondary Oriya, Hindi, Sanskrit, others

English Hindi, Sanskrit

21. Punjab Primary Class I–III

Punjabi, Hindi and Urdu as first language

English as compulsory language

-

Primary Class IV–V as 2nd language

Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu


Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu (if not studied as L1)

Upper Primary


English Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu and many more MIL (not studied as L2)

Secondary Punjabi (pass in Punjabi is compulsory)

English Hindi; one of following languages can be taken as elective subject: Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Nepalese, Tibetan, French, German, Portuguese, Russian, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Oriya, Kannada


22. Rajasthan Primary Hindi English -

Upper Primary

Hindi English Sanskrit, Urdu, Sindhi, Gujarati, Punjabi

Secondary Hindi English Sanskrit, Urdu, Sindhi, Gujarati, Punjabi

23. Sikkim Primary English MIL/local/tribal languages

Hindi (from Class IV-V)

Upper Primary

English MIL/local/tribal languages

Hindi

Secondary Data could not be collected

24. Tamil Nadu Primary Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Urdu, Malayalam, Hindi

English -

Upper Primary

Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Urdu, Malayalam, Hindi

English -

Secondary Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Urdu, Malayalam, Hindi

English -

25. Tripura Primary Bengali, Kokborok, English, Bishnupriya, Manipuri, Chokma, Holam, Kuki

English -

Upper Primary

Bengali, English English, Bengali

Sanskrit, Hindi

Secondary Bengali, English English, Bengali

-

26. Uttar Pradesh Primary Data could not be collected

Upper Primary

Data could not be collected

Secondary Hindi, Urdu English Sanskrit, Urdu

27. Uttaranchal Primary Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit

English -

Upper Primary

Hindi, Urdu, English


English, Sanskrit, Urdu

Secondary Hindi, Urdu, English

English, Hindi. Sanskrit, others

English, Sanskrit, Urdu


28. West Bengal Primary Bengali, Hindi, Nepali, Santhali, Telugu, Oriya

English -

Upper Primary

Bengali, Hindi, Santhali, Tamil, Telugu, Oriya, Urdu, Nepali, Gujarati, Tibetan

English Hindi, Sanskrit, others

29. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Primary Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali

English -

Upper Primary

Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali

English -

Secondary Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali

English -

30. Chandigarh Primary Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu


Punjabi, Hindi Urdu (not studied as L1)

Upper Primary


English Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu and many more MIL (not studied as L1)

Secondary Punjabi (pass in Punjabi is compulsory)

English Hindi; one of following can be taken as elective subject: Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Nepalese, Tibetan, French, German, Portuguese, Russian, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Oriya, Kannada

31. Dadra Nahar Haveli

Primary Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi

English Sanskrit

Upper Primary

English, Gujarati, Marathi

Hindi English, Gujarati, Hindi, Sanskrit, others

Secondary English, Gujarati, Marathi

Hindi English, Gujarati, Hindi, Sanskrit, others


32. Daman and Diu

Primary Gujarati Hindi -

Upper Primary

Gujarati Hindi English

Secondary Gujarati Hindi English

33. Delhi Primary Hindi English, Urdu, Punjabi

-

Upper Primary

Hindi English Sanskrit, Urdu, Punjabi, any other MIL

Secondary Hindi English Sanskrit, Urdu, Punjabi, any other MIL

34. Lakshadweep Primary Data could not be collected

Upper Primary

Arabic, English, Malayalam

English, Hindi, English

Hindi, Malayalam

Secondary Arabic, English, Malayalam

English, Hindi, English

Hindi, Malayalam

35. Puducherry Primary Tamil English -

Upper Primary

Tamil English Hindi

Secondary Tamil English Hindi

As shown in Box 2, the ‘first language’ offered at the primary stage is usually – but not always – the language of the region or the language of neighbouring states; this is in line with the requirement that the ‘first language’ provided at the primary-level school should be the child’s mother tongue or home language. At the secondary stage it is also usually the mother tongue or home language, the language of the region or the state or the language of a neighbouring state which is offered. English is also available as a first language in some states.

Various patterns emerge in different regions of the country. In the primarily Hindi-speaking states the languages offered are generally Hindi, Urdu, English, Sanskrit and the language of the neighbouring state. For example, Bengali is available in the state of Bihar (which borders West Bengal) and Marathi is available in the state of Madhya Pradesh (which borders Maharashtra, the home of Marathi).

The states of the southern part of India tend to offer all four major languages of the region – Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam – as well as Urdu, Hindi and Sanskrit and the languages of neighbouring states. The state of Karnataka has Konkani as a language in addition to the languages mentioned above. These states also offer Persian and Arabic.

The states of Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengali fall into a different category. At the primary stage they tend to offer the state’s majority language, Hindi, Urdu and another modern Indian language as first language and then English as second language. At the upper primary stage the scene is a bit different. For example, Maharashtra has Marathi and Hindi as first languages and English as second language at the primary stage; however, at the upper primary stage Marathi and English become first languages and Hindi becomes the second language. It is clear, then, that Marathi, Hindi, English and other modern Indian


languages (MIL) are studied as first, second and third languages in the state. Similarly, Punjab offers Punjabi, Hindi and Urdu as first language and English as a compulsory second language. Meanwhile, Orissa provides Oriya and English as first and second language respectively at the primary stage while Oriya, Hindi, Sanskrit or another MIL are studied as first language at the upper primary stage with English as second language and Hindi or Sanskrit as third language.

The states of the North East region offer some of the tribal languages of that region together with English, Hindi, Sanskrit and Bengali. Some of the North East states teach English as a first language.

The state of Jammu and Kashmir stands alone on many counts. It is the only state which introduces the third language as late as Class IX; consequently, the duration of study of the third language is reduced to only two years.

Tables 3 and 4 summarise the data of Box 2. Data was provided by all 35 states/UTs, but with some gaps. Table 3 shows the number of first, second and third language choices offered by the states at each school level as well as the total number of individual languages made available by the states at each school level. It can be seen that collectively the 33 states for which data is available, provide 83 choices of first language at primary level (an average of 2.5 languages per state); these choices involve 25 different languages. The richest choice is available for first languages at the upper primary level (an average of 2.8 language choices per state) while the least choice is offered for third languages at the primary level (an average of only 0.4 languages per state; in other words, many states do not offer any third language at the primary level). In terms of individual languages, the richest choice is for first languages at the secondary level where, across India, 27 different languages are available. The least choice occurs at the primary level where for both second and third languages only seven different languages are offered.

Table 3: Numbers of first, second and third language choices and number of individual languages offered by states/UTs (N=35)

School Level

Language choices offered by states/UTs

Individual languages available

L1 L2 L3L1 L2 L3

N —x N —x N —x

Primary N=33* 83 2.5 33 1.0 12 0.4 25 7 7

Upper primary N=34** 95 2.8 48 1.4 69 2.0 23 8 19

Secondary N=34*** 93 2.7 51 1.5 88 2.6 27 15 25

Sub-total 271 132 169 31 16 30

Total 572 75

* Data for primary level missing from two states ** Data for upper primary level missing from one state *** Data for secondary level missing from one state


Table 4: Languages most frequently offered by states/UTs as L1, L2 and L3 (N=35)

School level L1/L2/L3 English Hindi Urdu Sanskrit

Primary N=33*

L1 10 18 7 2

L2 23 5 1 0

L3 1 4 2 2

Upper primary N=34**

L1 16 16 11 3

L2 27 14 0 2

L3 8 18 6 15

Secondary N=34***

L1 17 18 10 3

L2 21 14 1 3

L3 8 12 6 12

Total 131 119 44 42

* Data for primary level missing from two states ** Data for upper primary level missing from one state *** Data for secondary level missing from one state

Table 4 shows the frequency with which the four most popular languages – Hindi, English, Urdu and Sanskrit – are offered as first, second and third languages at each of the three school levels. It can be seen from this analysis that English is the most frequently offered second language (offered by 27 of 34 states at the upper primary level, 23 of 33 states at the primary level and 21 of 34 states at the secondary level). However, Hindi is the most frequently offered first language and third language at almost all educational levels.

Media of instructionThe three-language formula envisaged that children in primary school would study through their mother tongue and that this would lead to harmonious personal development and contribute to a pedagogically sound high quality education. This vision was proposed by the Education Commission in 1964–1966 and was reflected again in the national curricular frameworks from 1975, the National Education Policy (GOI 1986) and the Programme of Action (GOI 1992). In this section we discuss the extent of mother tongue schooling in 2002 (NCERT 2007) in comparison with the situation ten years earlier (NCERT 1993).

Table 5 summarises the proportion of primary and upper primary schools which taught using the mother tongue in 1993 and 2002.

Table 5: Schools teaching through mother tongue in India (per cent)

PoliciesPrimary Upper primary

1993 2002 1993 2002

Rural schools 91.70 92.39 89.49 92.71

Urban schools 91.32 90.39 86.07 87.37

All schools 91.65 92.07 88.64 91.34


The Seventh Survey found that in 2002 just over 92 per cent of primary schools were teaching through the mother tongue; ten years earlier the figure was almost identical, just below 92 per cent. Rural schools showed an increase of less than one per cent in their tendency to use the mother tongue while urban schools showed a decline of less than one per cent over the ten-year period.

As far as the upper primary stage is concerned, more than 91 per cent of schools were using the mother tongue in 2002, an increase of just over two percentage points compared to 1993. In 1993 rural upper primary schools were about three per cent more likely to use the mother tongue compared to urban schools. By 2002 the proportion of both rural and urban schools using the mother tongue had increased, but the rate of increase was slightly higher in the rural schools.

Overall, then, more than 90 per cent of schools at the primary and upper primary stages teach through the children’s mother tongue; there was a slight overall increase in the number of schools teaching through the mother tongue between 1993 and 2002.

The Seventh Survey also found that 12.14 per cent of primary schools, 14.47 per cent of upper primary schools and 8.53 per cent of secondary schools were offering two or more media of instruction. The sixth Survey, a decade earlier, showed that the equivalent figures were 7.21 per cent, 12.49 per cent and 13.34 per cent respectively. In other words, the proportion of primary and upper primary schools offering multiple media of instruction had increased while the proportion of secondary schools making such an offer had declined quite sharply.

The sixth and seventh surveys also reported how many schools were teaching through the media of Hindi and English. The findings are summarised in Table 6. In 1993 Hindi was used as a medium of instruction in 42 per cent of primary schools, 41 per cent of upper primary schools and 34 per cent of secondary schools. By 2002 the figures had become almost 47 per cent at primary level, just over 47 per cent at upper primary and 41 per cent at secondary. That is to say, there had been an increase in schools offering Hindi medium education at each educational level over the decade, but secondary schools continued to be rather less likely than primary and upper primary schools to do this.

Table 6: Schools with Hindi and English medium policies in India (per cent)

PoliciesPrimary Upper primary Secondary

1993 2002 1993 2002 1993 2002

Hindi as medium 42.26 46.79 40.93 47.41 33.94 41.32

English as medium 4.99 12.98 15.91 18.25 18.37 25.84

The pattern regarding the use of English as a medium of instruction is rather different. In 1993 English was used in five per cent, 16 per cent and 18 per cent of primary, upper primary and secondary schools respectively. But in 2002 the equivalent figures were 13 per cent, 18 per cent and 26 per cent. In other words, the tendency for schools to offer English as a medium of instruction had increased at every level over the decade, with the most rapid increases occurring in primary and secondary schools.


It is particularly striking that over a quarter of all secondary schools in India now claim to offer English as a medium of instruction.

It is also interesting to note that the number of states/UTs offering education at primary and upper primary levels through the medium of languages other than the majority language increased from 30 to 32, indicating an increasing awareness of the need to cater to the needs of linguistic minorities.

Box 3 shows, state by state, the languages offered as media of instruction at each educational level.

Box 3: Media of instruction


Media of instruction

Primary Upper Primary Secondary

1. Andhra Pradesh

Telugu, Urdu, Oriya, English, Hindi, Marathi, Kannada, Tamil



2. Arunachal Pradesh

English, Hindi English English

3. Assam Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, English

Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, English, Hindi, others

Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, English. Hindi, others

4. Bihar Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit, English

English, Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu

English, Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu, others

5. Chhattisgarh Hindi, others Hindi, others English, Hindi, others

6. Goa English, Konkani, Marathi, Urdu, Kannada (dual medium)

English, Marathi English, Marathi

7. Gujarat Gujarati, others English, Gujarati, Hindi, others

English, Gujarati, Hindi, others

8. Haryana English, Hindi, others English, Hindi, Sanskrit, others


9. Himachal Pradesh

English, Hindi, others English, Hindi, others English, Hindi, others

10. Jammu and Kashmir

Dogri, English, Hindi, Kashmiri, Urdu, others



11. Jharkand English, Hindi, Sanskrit, others

Bengali, English, Hindi, Sanskrit, others

Bengali, English, Hindi, Sanskrit, others

12. Karnataka Kannada, English, Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Malayalam, Sanskrit, Arabic

Kannada, English, Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Malayalam, Sanskrit, Arabic

Kannada, English, Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Malayalam, Sanskrit, Arabic

13. Kerala Malayalam, English, Tamil, Kannada (dual medium)

Malayalam, English, Tamil, Kannada (dual medium)

Malayalam, English, Tamil, Kannada (dual medium)

14. Madhya Pradesh

Hindi, English, Urdu, Marathi

English, Hindi, Urdu, Marathi, others

English, Hindi, Urdu


15. Maharashtra Marathi, Hindi English, Marathi, Hindi, others

English, Marathi, Hindi, others

16. Manipur English, Hindi, Manipuri, others

English, Hindi, Manipuri, others

English, Hindi, Manipuri, others

17. Meghalaya English, Garo, Khasi, others

English English

18. Mizoram English, Mizo English, Mizo, others English, Mizo, others

19. Nagaland Angami, Ao, English, Hindi, Konyak, Lotha, Sema, others

Angami, Ao, English, Hindi, Konyak, Sema, others

Angami, English, Hindi, others

20. Orissa English, Oriya English, Hindi, Oriya, others

English, Hindi, Oriya, Sanskrit, others

21. Punjab English, Hindi, Punjabi English, Hindi, Punjabi, others

English, Hindi, Punjabi, others

22. Rajasthan Hindi, others Hindi, others Hindi, others

23. Sikkim English, others English, others English, others

24. Tamil Nadu English, Tamil (dual medium)

Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Urdu, Kannada

Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Urdu, Kannada

25. Tripura Bengali, Kokborok, English, others

Bengali, English, others

Bengali, English, others

26. Uttar Pradesh Hindi, others English, Hindi, Sanskrit, others


27. Uttaranchal Hindi, others English, Hindi, Urdu, others

English, Hindi, Urdu, others

28. West Bengal Bengali, others Bengali, Hindi, English, Urdu, Oriya, Tamil, Telugu, Gujarati, Tibetan, Nepali

Bengali, Hindi, English, Urdu, Oriya, Tamil, Telugu, Gujarati, Tibetan, Nepali

29. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Bengali, English, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu



30. Chandigarh English, Hindi, Punjabi, others



31. Dadra Nagar Haveli

English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi

English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Sanskrit

English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Sanskrit

32. Daman and Diu English, Gujarati English, Gujarati English, Gujarati

33. Delhi English, Hindi, Urdu, others



34. Lakshadweep Malayalam, others English, Malayalam, others

English, Malayalam

35. Puducherry English, Tamil, others English, Tamil, others English, Tamil, others


From Box 3 we can see that at least two languages are available as the media of instruction in each state/UT, while two states (Karnataka and West Bengal) offer as many as ten. The state with the largest number of media of instruction at the primary level is Nagaland, with at least seven languages on offer.

There is a general tendency for a wider range of languages to be made available as media of instruction in upper primary and secondary schools compared to primary schools. An example is Orissa, which offers just Oriya and English as media of instruction at the primary level but in addition provides Hindi, Sanskrit and other MILs at the secondary stage.

Other states and UTs, however, offer the same number of media of instruction at all levels. These include Daman and Diu, which provides only Gujarati and English in primary, upper primary and secondary schools.

Yet other states have a policy of offering a wider range of languages of instruction in primary schools compared to higher levels. Goa provides an illustration here, where five languages – Konkani, Marathi, Kannada, Hindi and English – are used at the primary level but only two – Marathi and English – are available at the upper primary and secondary levels.

Unlike the rest of the country, three states (Goa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) have a ‘dual medium’ policy, which means that two different media of instruction are available in the same school.

Tables 7 and 8 summarise the data recorded in Box 3. From Table 7 we can see that the 35 states/UTs offer a total of 355 language choices for medium of instruction, with somewhat greater choice at the upper primary and secondary levels (124 choices each) compared to the primary level (107 choices). The total number of individual languages offered as medium of instruction is 31. As we noted in the Introduction above, according to Rao (2008), approximately 60 languages were used as media of instruction in the 1980s and 47 were used as media at the time of Rao’s own survey.

Table 7: Number of language choices and number of individual languages offered as medium of instruction by states/UTs (N=35)

School level Language choices offered by states/UTs

Individual languages available

Primary 107 31

Upper primary 124 25

Secondary 124 24

Total 355 31

Meanwhile, Table 8 summarises information concerning the five most frequently reported languages used as media of instruction. It is interesting to note that higher proportions of states and UTs claim to make English available as a medium of instruction than do those offering Hindi as a medium; this pattern applies at all three educational levels. For example, 33 of 35 states say that they offer English as


a medium of instruction at the secondary level, while only 24 states offer Hindi as a medium at this level.

Table 8: Languages most frequently offered by states/UTs as medium of instruction (N=35)

School level English Hindi Urdu Tamil Sanskrit

Primary 27 21 7 6 3

Upper primary 32 24 9 7 6

Secondary 33 24 9 7 7

However, a word of caution is required here. The fact that a state allows English to be offered as a medium of instruction does not mean that every school in the state will be able to implement this policy, nor that every child in each school will choose English. In fact, as we saw from Table 5, 91 per cent of schools teach through the mother tongue, while from Table 6 it was observed that only 26 per cent of schools offer English as a medium of instruction compared to 41 per cent offering Hindi as medium.

Introduction of second and third languagesThis section considers the points in a child’s education when the second and third languages are introduced and the number of years which are allocated for studying these languages.

Introduction of second languageTable 9 summarises policies regarding when the second language should be used. In all states and UTs the second language is introduced within the first five years of schooling.

Table 9: Introduction of second language (N=35)

Class at which L2 is introduced

Duration of study (years)

States/Union Territories

Class I 10

Andhra Pradesh (English), Arunachal Pradesh (Hindi), Bihar (Urdu, Bengali), Chhattisgarh (English/MIL), Goa (English), Gujarat (English), Himachal Pradesh (English), Jammu and Kashmir (English), Madhya Pradesh (General English/General Hindi), Manipur (Hindi/one of the recognised languages/MIL), Mizoram (English), Nagaland (MIL/Alternative English), Punjab (Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu), Rajasthan (English), Sikkim (MIL), Tamil Nadu (English), Tripura (English), Uttaranchal (English), Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Hindi/English), Chandigarh (Hindi/English), Delhi (English, Urdu, Punjabi), Puducherry (English)

Class III 8Assam (Hindi/Bengali), Kerala (English), Orissa (English, Hindi, Sanskrit), Daman and Diu (Hindi), Dadra Nahar Haveli (Hindi)

Class V 5 Karnataka (English), West Bengal (English)


From Table 9 it can be seen that 22 out of the 35 states/UTs introduce the second language from the first year of schooling; in the other states teaching of the second language starts either in Class III (for example, Assam) or in Class V (Karnataka and West Bengal).

In 21 cases the second language is English while Hindi is offered as a second language in eleven states. Urdu, Bengali and Punjabi are also offered as second languages in states where these languages are spoken or which have neighbour states where they are spoken. Out of the 21 states offering English as the second language, 17 introduce it from Class I, two from Class III and two from Class V.

Assuming children stay in school until they complete Class X, those in the majority of states will be able to study their second language for ten years. However, those who begin studying the second language in Class III will be able to study it for a maximum of eight years and children in Karnataka and West Bengal will be able to study English as their second language for just five years.

Introduction of third language Only 26 states reported offering a third language, but there is considerable variation in policy, as Table 10 indicates. Fourteen states introduce the third language from Class VI, meaning that children who stay in school until the end of Class X will be able to study that language for five years. Four states start the third language in Class V, so allowing children six years of study. Three states offer a third language from Class III and two make third language provision from Class IV. Just one state begins third language teaching in Class VII, another in Class VIII and yet another in Class IX.

Table 10: Introduction of third language (N=26)

Class at which L2 is introduced

Duration of study (years)

States/Union Territories

Class III 8Manipur, Mizoram (Hindi), Nagaland (Hindi), Uttaranchal (English, Sanskrit, MIL])

Class IV 7 Punjab (Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, any MIL), Sikkim (Hindi)

Class V 6Dada Nagar Haveli, Goa (Marathi, Konkani, French, Portuguese), Kerala (Hindi)

Class VI 5

Andhra Pradesh (Hindi), Arunachal Pradesh (Sanskrit, Assamese, Butia), Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (Urdu, Sanskrit, Marathi or any MIL), Rajasthan (Sanskrit, Urdu, Sindhi, Gujarati, Punjabi, any MIL), Uttar Pradesh (Sanskrit, Urdu, any MIL), West Bengal (Sanskrit, Hindi), Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Daman and Diu (English), Delhi (Sanskrit, Urdu, Punjabi, any MIL).

Class VII 4 Tripura (Sanskrit, Hindi)

Class VIII 3 Orissa (Hindi, Bengali, Sanskrit, Telugu, MIL)

Class IX 2Jammu and Kashmir (Dogri, Boding, Punjabi, Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian)


The third language in most non-Hindi-speaking states is Hindi if it has not already been introduced as a second language, while in Hindi-speaking states it is Urdu, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Persian or the language of a neighbouring state.

English is mentioned as a third language by only two states (Uttaranchal from Class III and Daman and Diu from Class VI).

The role and place of EnglishEnglish was perceived as a library language during the formative years of India’s independence; indeed at one point there was a proposal that Hindi should be given fully fledged official language status and that English should be abolished from public use. However, having been granted ‘associate official language’ status (though it is still not a language listed in the eighth schedule of the Indian constitution), English continued to dominate higher education. Increasingly, it has been spreading its wings and is moving into school education.

This study has found that:

■■ 75 different languages are used in India’s education system.

■■ 31 different languages are used as media of instruction; this is approximately half the number of languages that were being used for this purpose in the 1980s.

■■ English is taught somewhere in the curriculum of all the 32 states and Union Territories which provided data for the survey reported here. Only Hindi is taught in as many states.

■■ The percentage of schools teaching English as a ‘first language’ doubled between 1993 and 2002 from five per cent to ten per cent in primary schools and from seven per cent to 13 per cent in upper primary schools.

■■ English is offered as a second language by more states than any other language.

■■ 33 of 35 states claim to offer English as a medium of instruction; this is more than any other language.

■■ Between 1993 and 2002 there was an increase in the proportion of schools offering English as a medium of instruction; the sharpest increase (from five per cent to 13 per cent) occurred in primary schools.

■■ By 2002, more than a quarter of all secondary schools were offering English as a medium of instruction.

■■ English is offered as a second language in 19 states, of which 16 introduce it in Class I, one in Class III and two as late as Class V.

There has been a shift in perception as the demand for English is now felt in every quarter, even though there are pedagogically sound arguments against the early introduction of the language. As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, the recent curricular revision at the national level – which culminated in the framework for the National Curriculum 2005 – records half a century of development in


attitudes towards English. English is now an institutionalised subject in the school curriculum.

However, English is still simultaneously sought after and suspected (Tickoo 1996). The motives, generally, are not only social-political but academic too. While the demand increases on the one hand, the quality of English language education in our state-run schools, more particularly in rural schools, presents an abysmal picture. The divide between urban and rural is further exacerbated by the increasing tendency to use English as a medium of instruction. This paradox of demand and suspicion is reflected through the paradox of access depicted by the report of the National Knowledge Commission (NKC):

There is an irony in the situation. English has been part of our education system for more than a century. Yet English is beyond the reach of most of our young people, which makes for highly unequal access. Indeed, even now, barely more than one percent of our people use it as a second language, let alone a first language ... But NKC believes that the time has come for us to teach our people, ordinary people, English as a language in schools. Early action in this sphere would help us build an inclusive society and transform India into a knowledge society. (GOI 2007)

The National Focus Group on Teaching of English has adopted a strong position in addressing the ‘English language question’:

English is in India today a symbol of people’s aspiration for quality in education and a fuller participation in national and international life. Its colonial origins now forgotten or irrelevant, its initial role in independence India, tailored to high education now felt to be insufficiently inclusive socially and linguistically, the current state of English stems from its overwhelming presence on the world stage and the reflection of this in the national arena. (NCERT 2006:1)

Stating that ‘English does not stand alone’, the National Focus Group’s position paper argues that:

(English) needs to find its place. (i) Along with other Indian Languages (a) in regional medium schools, how can children’s other languages strengthen English learning? (b) in English medium schools, how can other Indian languages be valorised, reducing the perceived hegemony of English? (ii) In relation to other subjects, a language across the curriculum perspective is perhaps of particular relevance to primary education. Language is best acquired through different meaning-making contexts and hence all teaching in a sense is language teaching. This perspective also captures the centrality of language in abstract thought in secondary education. (NCERT 2006:4)

As stated above, English language education has to find its place in the holistic and broader plan of language education where it plays a complementary and supplementary role in the creation of multilinguals/bilinguals. The National Curriculum Framework 2005 stresses the need for a multilingual education from the beginning of schooling and English has its place in this scheme. However, the Framework also cautions about the danger of introducing English (or, for that


matter, any language) without ensuring that the basic provisions and infrastructure for its study are already in place. Language teachers with a satisfactory level of proficiency and quality materials to support the teaching-learning process are among the essentials for language learning in any context and are even more important in the case of second or third languages.

ConclusionsLanguage policy in India has adapted itself to the changing demands and aspirations of people over the period of time from 1947 to the present. Change has occurred on many counts. Firstly, the question of a national language – which was wisely addressed during the formative years of independence by not declaring any language as the national language – has now been permanently settled. The existence of English in India means that it is no longer necessary to consider the issue of a national language. In other words, India does not need a national language since there are no functions which a national language might play that are not already fulfilled in some other way. The beneficiaries of this de facto policy are the indigenous Indian languages in the regions where they prevail; if any additional function were to be required then it could be satisfied by bringing in English.

In a way an associate official language, English knowingly or unknowingly has played an instrumental role in maintaining the diversity of India’s language scene because the existence of English has meant that it has not been necessary to select any one Indian languages as a national language. In fact, the states which used to rally to slogans such as angriji hatao (remove English) are now eagerly introducing English in the first year of schooling.

English today is almost a compulsory second language. Once deprived sections of the society now perceive the language as an instrument for progress. The recent news of a temple for English language in a village in the Hindi heartland (Pandey 2011) tells the thing.

However, the public’s demands are not being met meaningfully. Most schools in the country do not have the facilities and proficient teachers needed to cater to the demand. As mentioned above, meaningful language education requires teachers who are skilled and knowledgeable as well as contextualised materials (print and others). But an enabling English language environment in the school also needs to be ensured. The most important of these three prerequisites is the English teacher, but the English language proficiency of English language teachers in quite a number of schools is questionable. Consequently, teacher education is one major area which needs drastic changes if quality teachers are to become available. Materials development (particularly textbooks) for the teaching and learning of English has not yet been professionalised. On the contrary, materials development has been commercialised to the extent that India now has thousands of publishers who publish English language textbooks. An enabling English language environment also cannot be created overnight. Learners need to experience appropriate input so that they can become engaged with the language, but a language teacher who himself or herself does not possess the required proficiency cannot create such an environment. Children need to feel the language in the air in school because, for


the vast majority of children, English is not available outside school. The creation of such an enabling environment has to be encouraged through curricular and other activities in and outside school.

It is better to have English taught as a subject rather than impose a bad English medium education. Equipping English language education with the essentials in the native medium schools would benefit learning in general and language learning in particular. But converting schools to become English medium without proper support would be detrimental and counterproductive. Schools can be developed as multimedia schools where both the content subjects and the language are taught and learnt well in a complementary and supplementary manner. A ‘language across the curriculum’ perspective and a strategy of multilingualism (NCERT 2005) would be of benefit on many counts. The centrality of language in learning needs to be recognised. English, then, can play a vital role as a language of mutual benefit – benefiting Indian languages as well as itself – and so enriching education as a whole.

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GOI (Government of India). 1962. Annual Report 1961-1962. New Delhi: Ministry of Education.

GOI (Government of India). 1971. Census of India 1971. New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India.

GOI (Government of India). 1986. National Policy on Education (NPE). New Delhi: GOI.

GOI (Government of India). 1992. Programme of Action (POA) NPE. New Delhi: GOI.

GOI (Government of India). 2007. Report of the National Knowledge Commission. New Delhi: GOI. Available online at www.knowledgecommission.gov.in

Graddol, D. 2010. English Next India. New Delhi: British Council.

Kurrien, J. 2005. Notes for the Meeting of the National Focus Group on Teaching of English and Notes on Introduction of English at the Primary Stage. Unpublished document.

MOE (Ministry of Education). 1957. Annual Report. New Delhi: GOI.

MOE (Ministry of Education). 1966. Report of the Education Commission 1964-1966. New Delhi: GOI.

NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training). 1993. Sixth All India School Education Survey. New Delhi: NCERT.


NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training). 2005. National Curriculum Framework 2005. New Delhi: NCERT.

NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training). 2006. National Focus Group Position Paper on Teaching of English. New Delhi: NCERT.

NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training). 2007. Seventh All India School Education Survey: Media of Instruction and Languages Taught. New Delhi: NCERT.

Pandey, G. 2011. An ‘English goddess’ for India’s down-trodden. BBC News South Asia 15 February 2011. Available online at www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12355740

Rao, S. 2008. India’s language debates and education of linguistic minorities. Economic and Political Weekly 6 September 2008.

Tickoo, M.L. 1996. English in Asian bilingual education: From hatred to harmony. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 17, 2-4.



In publishing this collection of papers, Dreams and Realities: Developing Countries and the English Language, the British Council seeks to make a powerful contribution to the growing debate about the role of English in the world. The book will be of interest to researchers working in a range of disciplines, such as applied linguistics and development studies, and indeed to anyone with an interest in the complex dynamics of language policy and practice.

Edited by Hywel ColemanHywel Coleman, editor of this publication, is a Life Fellow of the University of Leeds, UK, and also Honorary Senior Research Fellow in the School of Education there. He is a Trustee of the Language and Development Conferences. He lives in Jakarta, Indonesia.

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