Drinking water scarcity in Delhi: a geographical perspective...Table 1 Installed capacity of water treatment plants (2004-2012) in Delhi Sr. No. Source of Raw Water Name of Plant Capacity

Journal of Water and Land use Management

ISSN: 0973-9300, Volume 16, Issue 2

Drinking water scarcity in Delhi: a geographical

perspective

Kiran Dabas1

Received: 20 December 2017

Reviewed and Accepted: 15 January 2018

Published: 05 April 2018

Abstract The NCT Delhi is a territorially small and largely urbanized city state

with a huge and growing concentration of population which requires to be ser-

viced with water supply and sewage treatment . Delhi’s water system is in crisis

and the situation will only worsen in the coming decades. Delhi has limited inter-

nal natural resource endowment and is largely dependent on external resources

over which it exercises no direct control and always under pressure from upper

and lower riparians. Delhi is also facing reduction in its clean water resources due

to the intensive and unplanned exploitation of groundwater. At the same time, it is

experiencing an unprecedented increase in the demand for water due to a growing

and urbanising population and unfettered economic growth. An evaluation of the

water supply scenario in Delhi reveals that problems have arisen mainly due to

unplanned urbanization, inequitable distribution of water, lack of institutional re-

forms, insufficient allocation of funds for the development of urban water infra-

structure and institutions, under-utilization of funds, weak maintenance, manage-

ment and governance of water supply systems and local and regional water

resources, and inter-state issues. If the same trend continues, possible future

threats could be lower quantities of water available, more time and money spent

on addressing daily consumption needs, increased local conflicts over sharing of

water resources, and serious economic, environmental and health concerns.

Keywords: Population Growth, Urbanisation, Demand-Supply Gap, Inequitable

Distribution

Kiran Dabas ()

Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi [email protected]

26



Introduction

Water is essential for life and for most of the activities of human society. Both

economic and social development and the maintenance of human health are com-

pletely dependent upon ready access of adequate water supplies. The growing de-

mand for water due to population growth, urbanisation and economic growth has

resulted in tremendous pressure on water resources. With per capita availability of

water continuing to decline, the world hurtles towards water scarcity. Water scar-

city is an in-balance between demand and availability and exists when the demand

for water exceeds than supply. Increased temporal and spatial variation in availa-

bility of water is likely to exacerbate the water situation further. Urban water zone

is a zone as serious mismanagement in India. Typically, the large urban areas rep-

resent concentrated demands both due to large population and large per capita in-

come. Most urban areas in India have depleted, polluted or destroyed their local

water resources like lakes, groundwater etc. Therefore, the natural water supply of

water has been completely altered by the human beings. Delhi, the capital city of

India, is the centre of politics, administration and socio-economic activities. De-

spite its important position, it doesn’t present a balanced picture in the context of

water availability and its distribution. A large number of rural and urban areas

don’t get water according to the accepted/prescribed norms. People are not getting

water either of acceptable quality or inadequate quantity or both, in time. There-

fore, this study has been an attempt to explore the extent, causes and nature of the

problem of water scarcity in Delhi. The primary objectives of the present study are

to assess the existing water resource availability, to identify the causes of water

scarcity.

Database and Methodology

The present study has been done on the data generated from the secondary

sources. Secondary data is collected from various published and unpublished re-

ports of government and non-governmental organizations. Some specific sources

are survey of India topographical maps; Delhi water works reports, reports of Del-

hi Jal Board regarding drinking water supply, Central Groundwater Board publica-

tions and Delhi Groundwater Board publications. These organisations are provid-

ing data regarding various aspects of water resources and their uses and supply.

Data is processed with various statistical techniques and represented by a number

of tables, diagrams and maps.

27

Study Area

The study area is situated on a narrow strip of Indo-Gangetic plains lies at a height

of 700-750 feet above mean sea level. It shares boarders with Uttar Pradesh in the

east and Haryana in north, west and south. It occupies a very strategic and a nodal

key position in the Indian sub-continent. Though the area of whole Delhi is not so

bigger but its physiography varies from area to area. Delhi has total area of 1483

square kilometers out of which fully developed urban area is 525 square kilome-

ters. The region consists of flat topography interrupted outcrops of Aravali hills.

Delhi receives a total average rainfall of around 600 mm per year, of which 80 per

cent in three monsoon months i.e. from July to August. Delhi’s population is 16

million which is expected to cross 17 million very soon. The Yamuna flows in a

southerly direction in the eastern parts of the state, is the only perennial river.

Eastern and western Yamuna canals and Agra canal are three major canals which

originate from the Yamuna River with Bawana, Rajpur and Lampur distributaries.

Ochandi, Bhudanpur, Sultanpur, Mundka, Mangolpur, Nahari, Dhansa and Shu-

khpur are some of important minors. Situated on the bank of the Yamuna, the city

is mainly supplied by surface water (eighty six per cent) from Yamuna, Ravi-Beas

(Bhakhara storage) and the Ganga water. With the population of Delhi increasing

from 0.4 million in 1911 to 13.8 million in 2001 and 16.7 million in 2011, there is

an ever-increasing pressure on the water resource. Delhi faces an unparalleled wa-

ter crisis. The water supply network of Government of Delhi has always been lag-

ging behind in fulfilling the demands of the residents of the city.

Result and Discussion

Sources of water for Delhi

Surface water

Delhi gets over 86 per cent of its water supply from surface water. The river Ya-

muna is the only perennial drainage which flows through the National Capital Ter-

ritory of Delhi. Yamuna provides the major share of this supply. Delhi’s share of

this river’s resources, as per interstate agreements, is 6.04 per cent. Water from

the Yamuna river is abstracted both directly from the river at Delhi and indirectly

via the western Yamuna canal, which also delivers water to Delhi. Another

sources of water supply to Delhi, through different interstate agreements, include

the Himalayan Rivers and sub-surface sources like ranney wells and tubewells.

Raw water from the Himalayan rivers is conveyed via the Upper Ganga and

28



Bhakhra Canal (Narwana branch) respectively. Surface water source availability

in Delhi was 690 MGD in 2013, out of which 310 MGD comes from Yamuna riv-

er, 240 MGD from Ganga river and 140 MGD from Bhakhra Beas Management

Board. About 115 MGD of groundwater is being explored through ranney wells

and tubewells of Delhi Jal Board (Figure 1).

Source: Economic Survey of Delhi 2012

Figure 1 Sources of water supply in Delhi

Groundwater

Groundwater is one of the major sources of water supply in many parts of the

country. In Delhi too, groundwater contributes a substantial quantity of water sup-

ply. Especially in newly developed areas, groundwater is largely being used as

drinking water resources. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) assessed the total

groundwater potential to be 292 million cubic meter (MCM) in 2008 as compared

to 428.07 MCM in 1983, showing an overdraft and reduction of around 130 MCM

over the past 25 years. Groundwater exploration is carried out at a depth ranging

from 50 to 150 meters. Groundwater represents around 14 per cent of Delhi’s wa-

ter resources officially. According to CGWB (2008), 48 per cent of groundwater is

used for domestic purposes, 40 per cent for irrigation and 9 per cent for industrial

use, 3 per cent groundwater loses during different uses. Owing to escalating

population, without a commensurate increase in the availability of raw water, the

groundwater in Delhi has been over exploited. This has disturbed hydrological

balance leading to decline in the productivity of tubewells, increasing pumping

cost and more energy requirements. The quality of groundwater is also deteriorat-

ing and has been found to be unfit for human consumption at several places.

29

Water Production System

Delhi Jal Board (DJB) carries the raw water from the rivers and canals. The water

is pre-chlorinated to destroy the algae and bacteria present in it and then taken to

clarifloculators. In clarifloculators, water is cleaned through a process of sedimen-

tation. After that water is passed through a series of filters in order to remove re-

maining impurities. Once that is over, water is chlorinated again to kill any re-

maining germs. This treated water reaches all parts of the city through a network

of water mains/lines. Water from the tubewells and ranney wells is just chlorinat-

ed and not filtered because groundwater is naturally filtered. Table 1 and Figure 2

reveals the water treatment capacity of DJB in different years and hence the total

amount of surface water treated and supplied by DJB.

Table 1 Installed capacity of water treatment plants (2004-2012) in Delhi

Sr. No. Source of Raw Water Name of Plant Capacity (MGD)

2004 2007 2010 2012

1 River Yamuna Chandrawal Water House

No. I and II

90 90 90 90

2 River Yamuna Wazirabad I, II and III 120 120 120 120

3 Bhakhra Storage/River

Yamuna

Haiderpur 200 200 200 200

4 Upper Ganga Canal North Shahadra (Bhagira-

thi )

100 100 100 100

5 River Yamuna Bawana - - 20 20

6 Bhakhra Storage Nangloi 40 40 40 40

7 Upper Ganga Canal Sonia Vihar - 140 140 140

8 Groundwater Ranney Wells and

Tubewells

81 100 100 100

9 Optimisation of W.T.P 19 - - -

10 Recycling of Waste Water

at Chandrawal, Bhagira-

thi, Haiderpur and Wazir-

abad

- - 37 37

11 Commonwealth

Games Village

- - - 1

Total 650 790 847 848

Source: Economic Survey of Delhi, 2012-13

30



Source: NCR fact Sheet, 1999.

Figure 2 Sources of raw water and water treatments plants in Delhi

Delhi Jal Board has network of 306 UGRs (Under Ground Reservoirs) and 468

BPSs (Booster Pumping Stations), 3222 tubewells and several ranney wells. Be-

sides the network, the Delhi Jal Board supplies water through tankers also.

Water Transmission and Distribution System

The transmission system consists of approximately 572 kilometers of mains in di-

ameters ranging from 300 mms to 1500 mms. There are about 550 pumping sta-

tions in the DJB water supply system, excluding those at the water treatment

plants. Out of these, only three are associated with the transmission system, these

being in-line booster pumping stations (BPSs). The remaining pumping stations

supply water to the various distribution systems from the transmission system

terminal reservoirs or are in–line boosters within the distribution systems them-

selves. There are 61 main ground reservoirs associated with the transmission and

31

distribution systems. Storage capacities at the various reservoir sites range from

1,400 to 86,370 cubic meters, with a combined total storage of 731,760 cubic me-

ters. Around 8,363 kilometers of distribution pipe, of which 69 per cent is in cast

iron material and a further 16 per cent in asbestos cement. About 42 per cent of

the distribution pipes are more than 20 years old, but only 6 per cent older than 40

years (Table 2).

Table 2 Transmission and distribution network in Delhi

Sr. No. Item 2001 As on 01.04.2009

1 Length of Water mains (kil-

ometers)

8363 More than 9,560

2 No. of Water connections 13,33,833 About 15.52 lakh

3 No. of Water Stand

Posts(Public Water hy-

drants)

11533 -

4 No. of Water Tankers 493 1100 as per re-

vised budget es-

timate 2008-09

5 No. of Private Tubewells 2,00,000 -

6 Capacity of Exiting Ground

Reservoirs

175 MG corre-

sponding to 6-7

hours of produc-

tion

Proposed to build

35 per cent of av-

erage demand as

storage capacity.

Source: NCR – Socio-Economic Profile, 2011

Water Supplies

The water supply system is through piped water network in urban area through in-

house supply in planned areas; public stand posts, hand pumps in nonplanned are-

as; in some parts through private motorised wells I tubewells, and in some of the

other areas without planned water supply, through tankers. The tanker service is

also available - vide monetary payment - on demand through DJB's telephonic

services. . The information regarding the households availing the sources of water

in Delhi as per 2011 Census is presented in Figure 2. Table 3 presents mode of

water supply in Delhi.

32



Source: Census of India, 2011

Figure 3 Household’s source of drinking water in Delhi

Table 3 Delhi Jal Board’s mode of water supply

Type of supply Supply mode

Domestic connections 16,61,356 connections

Commercial and Institutional connection 1,01,595 connections

Industrial connection 22,073 connections

Bulk supply to DCB and NDMC Bulk supply

Public stand posts 11533 stand posts

Water tanker 1100 vehicles

Source: Economic Survey of Delhi, 2012-13

Causes of Water Scarcity in Delhi

Increasing Gap between Water Demand and Supply

The water supply network of Government of Delhi has always been lagging be-

hind in fulfilling the demands of the residents of the city. The service coverage of

water supply in Delhi is as high as 99 per cent but the city faces an unparalleled

water crisis. High rate of urbanization and population growth in Delhi have laid

tremendous stress on drinking water supply system. Growth process and expan-

sion of economic activities inevitably led to increasing demands for water for di-

verse purposes; domestic, industrial, recreational, agricultural etc. The nation’s

capital is perpetually in the grip of water crises due to increasing gap between de-

mand and supply. Table 4 presents role of population dynamics in assessing gap

between demand and supply of water in Delhi.

75.3

3.2

18.7

2.8

81.3

8.4 5.3 5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Tap Water Tubewell Handpump Other Source of

Water

House

hold

s in

per

cen

t

2001 2011

33

Table 4 Water requirement vis-a-vis production in Delhi

Five Year Plan Pe-

riod

Population

(in lakh)

Water Requirement

@ 70 Gallon Per

Person Per Day

Water Treatment

Capacity in MGD

Supply and De-

mand Gap in MGD

1st 1951-56 21.66 152 60 92

2nd

1956-61 26.59 186 90 96

3rd

1961-66 32.88 230 130 100

4th 1969-74 46.19 323 175 148

5th 1974-79 57.13 400 240 160

6th 1980-85 73.64 515 337 178

7th 1985-90 94 658 437** 221

8th 1992-97 110 770 580 190

9th 1997-02 138 966 650 316

10th

2002-07 176 1050 780 270

Source: Delhi Statistical Abstract, Department of Economic and Statistics, Government of NCT

of Delhi. Requirement was computed by the Department at 70 GPCD (gallon per capita per day)

upto Ninth Five Year Plan and at 60 GPCD during the 10th Five Year Plan.

**Installed capacity. CAG (2008)

The trends in the projected requirement, actual production and short fall in the

supply of water in different years are given in the Figure 6.2 below.

Source: Delhi Jal Board, 2013.

Figure 4 Year wise production and shortfall of water in Delhi

34



Discriminate Distribution of Water Supply

Though the per capita availability of water in Delhi is still the highest in the coun-

try, the inadequacy is mainly on account of inequitable distribution of water and

loss of water through leaking pipes residential areas or in industrial areas. It is ev-

ident from Table 5 that although production of treated water is adequate, 20 per

cent of Delhi population has no piped water supply and 30 per cent of population

has grossly inadequate water supply. This demands serious overhaul of the supply

management. Even planned areas of MCD with in-house connections have a short-

fall of 42 per cent.

Water is a basic requirement for human survival. A certain minimum quantity

of potable water is essential for all types of human settlements. In a huge city like

Delhi, different levels of supply to different types of settlements are natural. When

this gap is too wide, it puts a question mark on the overall supply scenario. About

40 per cent of Delhi’s population lives in J. J. Clusters, slum designated areas and

unauthorized colonies. About 20 per cent of the people of Delhi have no access to

piped water supply and 30 per cent of the population is getting a very low level of

supply (4-10 lpcd) through stand posts against a planned level of 42.5 lpcd.

Table 5 Water supply structure in Delhi

Source: Status Report for Delhi 21: Delhi Urban Environment and Infrastructure Improvement

Project (DUEIIP).

There is lot of inconsistency in the level of water supplied to different areas in

Delhi. A document published by National Capital Region (NCR) Planning Board

in 1999 gives water supply for different parts of Delhi (Figure 5).

Sr. No. Type of Settlement Population in

lacs

Demand in

million litres

per day (MLD)

Supply in

MLD Shortfall/Excess

.

1

J. J. Cluster, Desig-

nated Slum Area and

Unauthorized Colo-

ny (I)

13.96 59.33 No piped

supply (-) 100 per cent

2

J. J. Cluster, Desig-

nated Slum Area and

Unauthorized Colo-

ny (II)

40.80 173.40 20.43 (-) 88 per cent

3 Planned Area (H.C)

(MCD) 75.50 1698.75 990 (-) 42 per cent

35

Source: Delhi 1999-A Fact Sheet

Figure 5 Inequality of water supply in Delhi

It is evident from Figure 4 that in Delhi, different amount of Water is supplied in

different parts of the city. The level of supply in the Cantonment is the highest and

is almost 18 times the level of supply in the Mehrauli area. Narela and Mehrauli,

the peripheral areas of the city have very low levels of water supply that is 31 and

29 lpcd respectively. The level of supply in South Delhi is too low (148 lpcd) con-

sidering the high demand expected from a largely medium/high-income residential

area.

Non-Revenue Water

The problem of unaccounted for water, also called non-revenue water, is substan-

tial in Delhi. Non-revenue water does not earn any revenue. This could be due to

different reasons like unauthorized consumption through illegal connections, wa-

36



ter theft, metering inaccuracies, authorized consumption not billed such as public

taps and also real losses through leakages in the transmission and distribution net-

work. In terms of Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, Hand-

book on Service Level Benchmarking, the acceptable extent of non-revenue water

is considered as 15 per cent whereas in Delhi, non-revenue water in DJB was

more than four times the prescribed limit during last three years. (Table 6).

Table 6 Extent of non-revenue water in Delhi

Year Water Produced

(MGD)

Water Billed

(MGD)

Non-Revenue Wa-

ter (MGD)

Percentage of Non-

Revenue Water

2009-10 800 264.24 535.76 66.97

2010-11 835 293.94 541.06 64.79

2011-12 818 306.00 512.00 62.59

Source: Thematic Audit of Water Management in Delhi, 2013.

The water production and consumption data above indicate a high level of non-

revenue water. Technically, all these losses are considered as waste.

Faulty Site Selection of Water Treatment Plants

The planning for site station of the water treatment plants has been faulty. There

are eight water plants in Delhi. The six major water treatment plants are located in

an arch running from west to east whereas the bulk of population to which this

treated water is being supplied is largely concentrated in south and north at a dis-

tance of about 30-35 kilometers. (Figure 5). The only exception is the relatively

smaller Okhla water treatment plant. It is evident that the site selection was not

done taking cognizance of the future plans for the growth of Delhi, as envisaged

by the Town Planning and Urban Development Departments. As a result, the pre-

cious treated water is lost during transportation courtesy leakages, seepage and pil-

ferage. Moreover, the cost of laying down the transportation paraphernalia and the

associated perennial problem of maintenance and upkeep put stress on crucial fi-

nancial resources, expenses which could have been minimized to a substantial ex-

tent, had the site selection of these plants been done in sync with the town plan-

ning. Due to this faulty site selection, the areas situated at the tail end of

distribution network gets less water supply and face water scarcity.

37

Figure 6 Location of water treatment plant in Delhi

Dispute Over Raw Water Supply

Under the bilateral agreement between Delhi and Haryana, the city receives 725

cusec of water per day from Haryana whereas only 425 cusec of water actually

reaches Delhi. This water is released from Haryana into an open canal through

which it traverses to the city. The apparent and physical losses exceed more than

half of this released water during its journey towards Delhi. The factors contrib-

uting to this include; evaporation, leakage, seepage, deliberate breach of canal by

farmers to irrigate their agriculture fields etc. In order to reduce loss of water dur-

ing transit, Haryana proposed (February, 1990) construction of an exclusive paral-

lel water carrier system (WCS). The WCS was to be utilized for carrying raw wa-

ter to Haiderpur and Wazirabad water treatment plants. Accordingly, an MOU was

signed (February, 1993) between Haryana and Delhi for construction of this WCS

38



at an estimated cost of 314 crore rupees. Haryana was to maintain and operate this

WCS for which annual charges were to be paid by Delhi. Once operational, a sav-

ing of 80 MGD of water was expected which would have been sufficient to run

three Water Treatment Plants (WTP’s), one each at Dwaraka, Bawana and Okhla.

The construction was almost complete in June, 2012 and by that time Delhi gov-

ernment had released 414 crore rupees. Later a dispute arose between Delhi and

Haryana regarding ownership of the expected saving of 80 MGD of raw water.

Delhi Government approached (June, 2012) Central Government for resolution of

the matter. However, the expenditure of 414 crore rupees on construction of the

WCS remained unfruitful as Delhi did not receive the additional quantity of raw

water of 80 MGD.

Groundwater Exploitation

Another dimension of the water crises in Delhi is the unregulated exploration of

groundwater. Delhi has also extracting water from ground. Officially only 14 per

cent of the city’s supply is met by groundwater. But the scale of withdrawal is

massive. In March 2014, the DJB owned over 3000 tubewells and 21 rainy wells

located near or on the Yamuna River bed. Additionally, about 449 deep bore hand

pumps had also been dug. In 2005-06, the government proposed to install 84 addi-

tional tubewells, re-bore 221 and installs 560 deep bore hand pumps. Added to

these have been the increasing numbers of ad hoc, illegal and unregulated private

tubewells; there is no precise information on the quantity of water these wells

withdraw. According to Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) in 2005-06,

legally registered private tubewells numbered around 100,000, but the actual

number probably ranged anywhere between 200000 and 400000. The growing

population has exerted undue pressure on the groundwater resource. Over exploi-

tation of groundwater has now become an issue of great concern, given the fact

that the demand for water is increasing phenomenally every year which resulted in

depletion of groundwater at an accelerating rate. Within a decade, unthinking and

unplanned exploration of groundwater has led to a decline of the water table of the

city by 1 meter. However, this rate varied from one region to another within the

capital. According to Central Ground Water Board (2010) in some places of south

and south-west Delhi, where the growing residential demand remained unmet by

the official piped supply, the water table had dropped by 2-20 meters. (Figure 6).

39

Source: Shekhar, S., Purohit, R. R. and Kaushik, Y. V. (2009), Groundwater Management in

Delhi.

Figure 7 Decadal fluctuation in groundwater level in Delhi

Deteriorating Quality of Water

Water quality is also a relevant issue in Delhi. As a result of the increasing re-use

and re-circulation of water, which is itself a response to water scarcity, water qual-

ity tends to deteriorate, thus reducing the availability of water of sufficient quality

for given uses. The deterioration of water quality therefore makes scarcity more

acute and damage economic growth. The deteriorating quality of surface water

and groundwater has for long been an alarming situation in Delhi. Not only is the

depletion of groundwater raising questions about future availability of water in the

capital city but also the quality of water. The fluoride contamination in groundwa-

ter has been noticed in samples of groundwater collected from south-west and

40



west districts. The nitrate concentration in groundwater has been reported mostly

from areas where domestic effluent is discharged into open unlined drains. The sa-

linity of groundwater is increasing in south-west and north-west Delhi. Salinity of

groundwater makes the citizen even more dependent on private suppliers of wa-

ter.(Figure 7). The poor quality of surface water of the Yamuna, a river traversing

a total distance of 48 kilometers in Delhi, has for long troubled the city planners.

The Yamuna accounts for about 40 per cent of Delhi’s water supply. However, the

stretch of the river running through Delhi is extremely polluted as a result of the

uncontrolled flow of untreated sewage and the discharge of industrial effluents.

An additional reason is that no fresh water is available for dilution in Yamuna, as

the entire fresh water from Wazirabad is used to meet drinking water needs of the

citizen of Delhi. It is alarming that the Yamuna has highest bio-chemical oxygen

demand (BOD). Therefore, the citizens of Delhi also incur higher costs to procure

water that is fit to drink by using systems like RO and Aqua guard, which the

poorer segments of population can’t afford. Therefore, providing safe drinking

water to all the segments of population is a issue of great concern in Delhi.

Source: Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), 2006.

Figure 8 Groundwater Quality in Delhi

41

Conclusion

Water is the most precious natural gift for the existence of life on earth. Access to

enough water of sufficient quality is fundamental for all human, animal and plant

life as well as for most economic activities. At present, Delhi with a population of

16.7 million is the third largest, but the fastest growing and most densely populat-

ed city in India. Safe and adequate quantity of drinking water is an essential input

for life. However, the efforts made by the state government and other organiza-

tions have not been enough in covering all habitants. Rapid increase in water de-

mand, degradation of water quality, depletion of groundwater and inter-sectoral

competition for water, bottlenecks in the system are putting extreme pressure on

water resources in Delhi. The solution to the problem in water largely lies in areas

of effective mechanism for conservation, distribution and efficient use and man-

agement of water resources. The management of water involves two strategies i.e.

Demand Management and Supply Management. The government has taken vari-

ous steps for the management of water resources in Delhi like measures for aug-

menting water supply, pollution control and for conservation of water resources.

Concerted efforts of all the stakeholders in water sector are needed to resolve the

problem of water scarcity.

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Documents

Drinking water scarcity in Delhi: a geographical perspective...Table 1 Installed capacity of water treatment plants (2004-2012) in Delhi Sr. No. Source of Raw Water Name of Plant Capacity