7/22/2019 Drums in Communication
1/2
Drums in communicationDeveloped and used byculturesliving
inforestedareas, drums served as an early form of long
distancecommunication, and were
used duringceremonialandreligiousfunctions.
Talking drum[edit]
While this type of instrument can bemodulatedquite closely, its
range is limited to a gathering or market-place, and it is
primarily
used in ceremonial settings. Ceremonial functions could include
dance, rituals, story-telling and communication of points of
order.
Some of the groups of variations of the talking drum among West
African ethnic groups:
Tama(WolofofSenegal)
Gan gan, Dun Dun(YorubaofNigeriaand easternBenin)
Dondo(Akanof central Ghana andCote d'Ivoire)
Lunna(Dagombaof northernGhana;MossiofBurkina Faso)
Kalangu(Hausaof northernNigeria,Niger,
northernGhana,BeninandCameroon)
Doodo(SonghaiandZarmaofMali,Burkina Faso, andNiger)
In the 20th century the talking drums have become a part of
popularmusicin West Africa, especially in the music genres
ofJj(Nigeria) andMbalax(Senegal).
Drum languages[edit]
InAfrica,New Guineaand the tropical America, people have used
drum telegraphy to communicate with each other from far away
for centuries. When European expeditions came into the jungles
to explore the primeval forest, they were surprised to find that
the
message of their coming and their intention was carried through
the woods a step in advance of their arrival. An African
message
can be transmitted at the speed of 100 miles in an hour.[2]
Among the famous communication drums are the drums ofWest
Africa(seetalking drum). From regions known today
asNigeriaandGhanathey spread across West Africa and toAmericaand
theCaribbeanduring theslave trade. There they were
banned because they were being used by the slaves to communicate
over long distances in a code unknown to their enslavers .[3]
Talking drums were also used in East Africa and are described by
Andreus Bauer in the 'Street of Caravans' while acting assecurity
guard in the Wissmann Truppe for the caravan of Charles Stokes.
Smoke signalThe smoke signal is one of the oldest forms of
long-distance communication. It is a form ofvisual
communicationused over long
distance.
History and usage[edit]
InAncient China, soldiers stationed along theGreat Wallwould
alert each other of impending enemy attack by signaling from
tower
to tower. In this way, they were able to transmit a message as
far away as 750 kilometres (470 mi) in just a few hours.
Polybius, a Greekhistorian, came up with a more complex system
of alphabetical smoke signals around 150 BC. He invented a
system of converting Greek alphabetic characters into numeric
characters. It was devised to enable messages to be easily
signaled
by holding sets oftorchesin pairs. This idea, known as the
"Polybius square", also lends itself
tocryptographyandsteganography.
This cryptographic concept has been used with
JapaneseHiraganaand the Germans in the later years of theFirst
World War.
TheNorth American Indiansalso communicated via smoke signal.
Eachtribehad its own signaling system and understanding. A
signaler started a fire on an elevation typically using damp
grass, which would cause a column of smoke to rise. The grass
would
be taken off as it dried and another bundle would be placed on
the fire. Reputedly the location of the smoke along the incline
conveyed a meaning. If it came from halfway up the hill, this
would signify all was well, but from the top of the hill it would
signify
danger.[citation needed]
Smoke signals are still in use today. In Rome, theCollege of
Cardinalsuses smoke signals to indicate the selection of a
newPope.Eligible cardinals conduct asecret ballotuntil someone
receives a vote of two-thirds plus one. The ballots are burned
after each
vote. Black smoke indicates a failed ballot; white smoke means a
new Pope has been elected.
In general smoke signals are used to transmit news, signal
danger, or gather people to a common area.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolof_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolof_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolof_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akan_peoples&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akan_peoples&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akan_peoples&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cote_d%27Ivoirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cote_d%27Ivoirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cote_d%27Ivoirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagomba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagomba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagomba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B9j%C3%BA_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B9j%C3%BA_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B9j%C3%BA_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbalaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbalaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbalaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-Epstein-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-Epstein-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-Epstein-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraganahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraganahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraganahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Indianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Indianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Indianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_ballothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_ballothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_ballothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_ballothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Cardinalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Indianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraganahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_squarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-Epstein-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbalaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B9j%C3%BA_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Fasohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagomba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cote_d%27Ivoirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akan_peoples&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolof_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drums_in_communication&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_drumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religioushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture
7/22/2019 Drums in Communication
2/2
Examples[edit]
Native Americans[edit]
Lewis and Clark's journals cite several occasions when they
adopted the Native American method of setting the plains on fire
to
communicate the presence of their party or their desire to meet
with local tribes.[1][2]
Ymana[edit]
Ymanasused fire to send messages by smoke signals, for instance
if a whale drifted ashore.[3]
The large amount of meat required
notification of many people, so that it would not decay.[4]They
might also have used smoke signals on other occasions, thus it
is
possible that Magellan saw such fires (which inspired him to
name the landscape Tierra del Fuego) but he may have seen the
smoke or lights of natural phenomena.[5][6]
Noon Gun[edit]
Noon Guntime signalling was used to setmarine
chronometersinTable Bay.
Australian Aborigines[edit]
Australian Aborigineswould send up smoke to notify others of
their presence, particularly when entering lands which were not
their
own. However, these were not complex signals; smoke simply told
others where one was located.
"The Four Seasons"The seasons changeFour times a yearFrom spring
to winterThey appearSpring is wet
The flowers grow
It rains a lot
And melts the snow
Summer is hot
It's full of sun
There is no school
It's lots of fun
Fall is cool
The leaves fall down
The colors change
All over town
Winter is cold
The snowflakes fall
We skate and ski
And make snowballs
The seasons change
From sun to snow
And that is all
You need to know
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaghanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaghanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuegohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuegohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuegohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noon_Gun#Time_signallinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noon_Gun#Time_signallinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_chronometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_chronometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_chronometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Aborigineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Aborigineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Aborigineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_chronometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noon_Gun#Time_signallinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuegohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaghanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoke_signal&action=edit§ion=2
