DUIM

Effective learning websites

Session 3

Aims & Outcomes– Aims:

To address the conceptual issues involved in using pedagogical theory to design interactive multimedia and how these have been addressed by instructional technology developers.

– Objectives: Understanding of the myth of pedagogical neutrality in

Instructional technology

Appreciation of the difficulties involved in moving from pedagogical theory to instructional design

Knowledge of how instructional media designers have made the move from theory to practice (in particular the application of single pedagogical paradigms, e.g. behaviourism, constructivism)

Outline

• Nature of pedagogical theory

• Theories and models

• A new paradigm of ISD

• Ways of implementing pedagogical theory

Nature of pedagogical theory

• Pedagogy as “the art and science of teaching” Collis & Moonen (2001)

• Pedagogy/education is a soft (unrestricted), applied discipline Becher (1989)

• Changing conception (Watkins & Mortimore (1999)

– Focus on teacher types (good/bad approaches)– Focus on contexts of teaching (activity system)– Focus on teaching and learning– Complex, integrated model

What are Theories and Models?• A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over

time. (See Theory into Practice TiP database - http://tip.psychology.org/theories.html )

• A theory explains and predicts behavior.

• A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.

• A theory may be modified.

• Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved.

A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something we cannot see or experience directly.

Re-build

Re-

desi

gn

Re-analyse

Evaluate

Build

Des

ign

Evaluation/Design

Analyse

Work from theory

Feedback into theory

Instructional design v. learning theories/models (Reigeulth, 1999)

• ISD Offers explicit guidance on how to help people learn & develop.

• Unlike traditional theory, it is design-oriented (focusing on means to attain goals rather than results of given events)

• Learning theories are descriptive - they describe how learning occurs - but not necessarily how to teach

• Pedagogical (learning) theory is descriptive, based on research, instructional-design theory is prescriptive

• Learning theories usually produced by research communities, instructional-design theories requested by courseware developers

What is Instructional Design?• Instructional Design is the systematic process of

translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning.

• There is a scientific discipline of instruction and a technology of instructional design founded on this science. (Merril et al 96)(http://www.coe.usu.edu/it/id2/ddctoc.htm)

• See also Gagne Gagne - conditions of learning (http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/cp/04d.htm)

New paradigm of ISD

• Shift from emphasis on representational view of learning with acquisition metaphor at heart of design to constructivist view in which learning is developed through activity

• Shift in focus from individual to social contexts of learning

Instruction’s supersystem

• Standardization

• Bureaurocratic organisation

• Centralized control

• Adversarial relationships

• Autocratic decision making

• Compliance

• Conformity

• One-way communications

• Compartmentalization

• Parts oriented

• Planned obsolescence

• Boss as king

• Customisation

• Team-based organisation

• Autonomy with accountability

• Cooperative relationships

• Shared decision making

• Initiative

• Diversity

• Networking

• Holism

• Process oriented

• Total quality

• Customer as king

Industrial age Information Age

Reigeluth 99

Learning architectures

…designers usually have at their disposal some conceptual architectures reflecting the theories and perspectives that their professional communities have developed through conceptual analysis of their domain of design. The purpose of a conceptual architecture is to lay down the general elements of design. It is not a recipe; it does not tell a designer how to perform a specific design.

Wenger 98

Ways of designing pedagogically

Ped

agog

ical

neu

tral

ity?

Impl

emen

tati

on o

f si

ngle

theo

ry

Gro

unde

d th

eory

/mul

tipl

e th

eori

es

Ped

agog

y in

sit

uate

d co

ntex

t

Use

of

a si

ngle

mod

el e

.g. G

agne

Act

ion

rese

arch

Sys

tem

s th

at le

arn

Pedagogical neutrality?

• Or pedagogical naivety? “…If a pedagogical position is not made explicit, it does not exist….”

• Folk psychologies (Bruner, 1996)

Implementation of a single theory

• Jonassen (1999) offers a six-step framework for designing constructivist learning environments.

• Reigeluth (1999) offers an operationalisation of a number of theories.

Use of single model

• Gagne - constructivist (?) /behaviourist

• Merrill

• Mayes & Fowler

– Fifth Dimension – Plato

The (re)conceptualisation or learning cycle

Conceptualisation

Construction

Dialogue

Primary Courseware

Secondary Courseware

Tertiary Courseware

NB: need different pedagogical models at different phases

Mayes & Fowler

Phases in learning cycles

• Conceptualisation: user’s initial contact with other peoples’ concepts

• Construction: process of building and combining concepts through use in performance of meaningful tasks

• Dialogue: testing and tuning of conceptualisations through use in applied contexts

Nature of courseware• Primary courseware: intended mainly to present

subject matter, and usually authored by subject matter experts

• Secondary courseware: environment and set of tools by which the learner performs the learning task, and the tasks (and task materials) themselves

• Tertiary courseware: material that has been produced by previous learners, and is valuable in vicarious learning

Grounded design/eclectic approach

• Tutors can (and should) use an eclectic/toolbox approach to their choice of pedagogical strategies - however, they should be logically consistent.

• Designing for flexibility (Collis 2001)

• Reeves 14 dimensions of CBE

• STAR Legacy

• Although context does not always permit...

Activity TheoryTools/artefacts

Rules Community Divisionof labour

ObjectSubject OutcomeTransformation

Action Research

– JASPER

– CSILE/Knowledge Forum

Systems that learn

• The future of learning objects (http://www.reusability.org/read/#5)

• The IDXelerator™: Learning-centered Instructional Design (http://www.coe.usu.edu/it/id2/xelor.htm)

• CANDLE (www.candle.eu.org)

Some software to examine

• How to develop an online course

• Nasa Quest

• Fifth Dimension

• ELM-ART Lisp tutorial

• Jasper Woodbury

• Transforming learning