Dutch East India Company - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/19/2019 Dutch East India Company - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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3/20/2016 Dutch East Indi a Company - Wikipedia, the fr ee encyclopedia

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Dutch East India Company

Former type Public company

Industry Trade

Fate DissolvedFounded 20 March 1602[1]

Defunct 31 December 1799

Headquarters East India House, Amsterdam andOost-Indisch Huis, Middelburg,Dutch Republic

The shipyard of the Dutch East India Company inAmsterdam. 1726 engraving by Joseph Mulder.

Dutch East India CompanyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The United East Indian Compan y (Dutch:Vere enigde Oost-In dische Compagnie ; VOC ),referred to by the British as theDutch East India

Company ,[2]

was originally established as a charteredcom pany in 1602, when the Dutch governmentgranted it a 21-year monopoly on Dutch spice trade. Itis often considered to have been the first multinationalcorporation in the world[3] and it was the firstcompany to issue stock .[4] It wasa powerful company, possessing quasi-governmental powers, includingtheability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts,[5]negotiate treaties, strike its own coins, and establish

colonies.[6]

Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in theAsia trade. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sentalmost a million Europeans to work in the Asia tradeon 4,785 ships, and netted for theirefforts more than2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. By contrast, therest of Europe combined sent only 882,412 peoplefrom 1500 to 1795, and the fleet of the English (later British) East India Company, the VOC's nearest

competitor, was a distant second to its total trafficwith 2,690ships and a mere one-fifth the tonnage of goods carried by the VOC. The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the17th century.[7]

Having been set up in 1602, to profit from theMalukan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established acapital in the port city of Jayakarta and changed thecity name into Batavia (now Jakarta). Over the nexttwo centuries the Company acquired additional portsas trading bases and safeguarded their interests bytaking over surrounding territory.[8] It remained animportant trading concern and paid an 18% annualdividend for almost 200 years.[9]

Weighed down by corruption in the late 18th century, the Company went bankrupt and was formallydissolved in 1800,[9] its possessions and the debt being taken over by the government of the DutchBatavian Republic. The VOC's territories became the Dutch East Indies and were expanded over the

course of the 19th century to include the whole of the Indonesian archipelago, and in the 20th centurywould form the Republic of Indonesia.

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Contents

1 History

1.1 Background

1.2 Formation (1602)1.3 Growth

1.4 Reorientation

1.5 Decline

2 European discovery of Australia

3 Organization

3.1 VOC outposts

3.2 Council of Justice in Batavia

3.3 Use of slaves

4 Notable VOC ships

5 See also

6 References

7 Further reading

8 Dutch sources

9 External links

History

Background

During the 16th century, the spice trade was dominated by the Portuguese who used Lisbon as a staple port. Before the Dutch Revolt, Antwerp had played an important role as a distribution centre in northeEurope. However, after 1591 the Portuguese used an international syndicate of the German Fuggers anWelsers, and Spanish and Italian firms, that used Hamburg as its northern staple port to distribute theirgoods, thereby cutting Dutch merchants out of the trade.

At the same time, the Portuguese trade system was unable to increase supply to satisfy growing demanin particular the demand for pepper. Demand for spices was relatively inelastic, and therefore each lag the supply of pepper caused a sharp rise in pepper prices.

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A bond issued by the Dutch EastIndia Company, dating from 7 November 1623, for the amount of 2,400 florins

VOC headquarters in Amsterdam

In addition, as the Portuguese crown had been united in a personal union with the Spanish crown in 1580, with which theDutch Republic was at war, the Portuguese Empire became anappropriate target for Dutch military incursions. These threefactors motivated Dutch merchants to enter the intercontinentalspice trade themselves. Further, a number of Dutchmen like JanHuyghen van Linschoten and Cornelis de Houtman obtained first

hand knowledge of the "secret" Portuguese trade routes and practices, thereby providing opportunity.[10]

The stage was thus set for Houtman's 1595 four-ship exploratoryexpedition to Banten, the main pepper port of West Java, wherethey clashed with both the Portuguese and indigenousIndonesians. Houtman's expedition then sailed east along thenorth coast of Java, losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack atSidayu and killing a local ruler in Madura. Half the crew werelost before the expedition made it back to the Netherlands the following year, but with enough spices t

make a considerable profit.[11]

In 1598, an increasing number of fleets were sent out bycompeting merchant groups from around the Netherlands. Somefleets were lost, but most were successful, with some voyages producing high profits. In March 1599, a fleet of eight shipsunder Jacob van Neck was the first Dutch fleet to reach the 'SpiceIslands' of Maluku, the source of pepper, cutting out the Javanesemiddlemen. The ships returned to Europe in 1599 and 1600 andthe expedition made a 400 percent profit.[11]

In 1600, the Dutch joined forces with the Muslim Hituese onAmbon Island in an anti-Portuguese alliance, in return for whichthe Dutch were given the sole right to purchase spices from Hitu.[12] Dutch control of Ambon wasachieved when the Portuguese surrendered their fort in Ambon to the Dutch-Hituese alliance. In 1613,the Dutch expelled the Portuguese from their Solor fort, but a subsequent Portuguese attack led to asecond change of hands; following this second reoccupation, the Dutch once again captured Solor, in1636.[12]

East of Solor on the island of Timor, Dutch advances were halted by an autonomous and powerful grouof Portuguese Eurasians called the Topasses. They remained in control of the Sandalwood trade andtheir resistance lasted throughout the 17th and 18th century, causing Portuguese Timor to remain underthe Portuguese sphere of control.[13][14]

Formation (1602)

At the time, it was customary for a company to be set up only for the duration of a single voyage, and be liquidated upon the return of the fleet. Investment in these expeditions was a very high-risk venturenot only because of the usual dangers of piracy, disease and shipwreck, but also because the interplay oinelastic demand and relatively elastic supply[15] of spices could make prices tumble at just the wrongmoment, thereby ruining prospects of profitability. To manage such risk the forming of a cartel to

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Reproduction of a map of the cityBatavia circa 1627, collectionTropenmuseum

Dutch Batavia in 1681, built in whatis now North Jakarta

The Isle of Amboina

control supply would seem logical. The English had been thefirst to adopt this approach, by bundling their resources into amonopoly enterprise, the English East India Company in 1600,thereby threatening their Dutch competitors with ruin.[16]

In 1602 the Dutch government followed suit, sponsoring thecreation of a single "United East Indies Company" that was also

granted monopoly over the Asian trade. The charter of the newcompany empowered it to build forts, maintain armies, andconclude treaties with Asian rulers. It provided for a venture thatwould continue for 21 years, with a financial accounting only atthe end of each decade.[16]

In 1603, the first permanent Dutch trading post in Indonesia wasestablished in Banten, West Java and in 1611, another wasestablished at Jayakarta (later "Batavia" and then "Jakarta").[17]In 1610, the VOC established the post of Governor General tomore firmly control their affairs in Asia. To advise and controlthe risk of despotic Governors General, a Council of the Indies( Raad van Indië ) was created. The Governor General effectively became the main administrator of the VOC's activities in Asia,although the Heeren XVII , a body of 17 shareholdersrepresenting different chambers, continued to officially haveoverall control.[12]

VOC headquarters were located in Ambon during the tenures of the first three Governors General (1610–1619), but it was not a satisfactory location. Although it was athe centre of the spice production areas, it was far from the Asian trade routes and other VOC areas of activity ranging from Africa to India to Japan.[18][19] A location in the west of the archipelago was thussought; the Straits of Malacca were strategic, but had become dangerous following the Portugueseconquest and the first permanent VOC settlement in Banten was controlled by a powerful local ruler ansubject to stiff competition from Chinese and English traders.[12]

In 1604, a second English East India Company voyagecommanded by Sir Henry Middleton reached the islands of Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda; in Banda, they encountered

severe VOC hostility, which saw the beginning of Anglo-Dutchcompetition for access to spices.[17] From 1611 to 1617, theEnglish established trading posts at Sukadana (southwestKalimantan), Makassar, Jayakarta and Jepara in Java, and Aceh,Pariaman and Jambi in Sumatra which threatened Dutchambitions for a monopoly on East Indies trade.[17]

Diplomatic agreements in Europe in 1620 ushered in a period of co-operation between the Dutch and the English over the spice

trade.[17]

This ended with a notorious, but disputed incident, known as the 'Amboyna massacre', whereten Englishmen were arrested, tried and beheaded for conspiracy against the Dutch government.[20]Although this caused outrage in Europe and a diplomatic crisis, the English quietly withdrew from moof their Indonesian activities (except trading in Bantam) and focused on other Asian interests.

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Graves of Dutch dignitaries in theruined St. Paul's Church, Malacca inthe former Dutch Malacca

Growth

In 1619, Jan Pieterszoon Coen was appointed Governor-Generalof the VOC. He saw the possibility of the VOC becoming anAsian power, both political and economic. On 30 May 1619,Coen, backed by a force of nineteen ships, stormed Jayakartadriving out the Banten forces; and from the ashes established

Batavia as the VOC headquarters. In the 1620s almost the entirenative population of the Banda Islands was driven away, starvedto death, or killed in an attempt to replace them with Dutch plantations.[21] These plantations were used to grow cloves andnutmeg for export. Coen hoped to settle large numbers of Dutchcolonists in the East Indies, but implementation of this policynever materialised, mainly because very few Dutch were willingto emigrate to Asia.[22]

Another of Coen's ventures was more successful. A major problem in the European trade with Asia atthe time was that the Europeans could offer few goods that Asian consumers wanted, except silver andgold. European traders therefore had to pay for spices with the precious metals, and this was in shortsupply in Europe, except for Spain and Portugal. The Dutch and English had to obtain it by creating atrade surplus with other European countries. Coen discovered the obvious solution for the problem: tostart an intra-Asiatic trade system, whose profits could be used to finance the spice trade with Europe. the long run this obviated the need for exports of precious metals from Europe, though at first it requirthe formation of a large trading-capital fund in the Indies. The VOC reinvested a large share of its profto this end in the period up to 1630.[23]

The VOC traded throughout Asia. Ships coming into Batavia from the Netherlands carried supplies forVOC settlements in Asia. Silver and copper from Japan were used to trade with India and China for silcotton, porcelain, and textiles. These products were either traded within Asia for the coveted spices or brought back to Europe. The VOC was also instrumental in introducing European ideas and technologyto Asia. The Company supported Christian missionaries and traded modern technology with China andJapan. A more peaceful VOC trade post on Dejima, an artificial island off the coast of Nagasaki, was fmore than two hundred years the only place where Europeans were permitted to trade with Japan.[24]When the VOC tried to military force Ming dynasty China to open up to Dutch trade, the Chinesedefeated the Dutch in a war over the Penghu islands from 1623-1624 and forced the VOC to abandonPenghu for Taiwan. The Chinese defeated the VOC again at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633.

The Vietnamese Nguyen Lords defeated the VOC in a 1643 battle during the Trịnh–Nguyễn War, blowing up a Dutch ship. The Cambodians defeated the VOC in a war from 1643-44 on the MekongRiver.

In 1640, the VOC obtained the port of Galle, Ceylon, from the Portuguese and broke the latter'smonopoly of the cinnamon trade. In 1658, Gerard Pietersz. Hulft laid siege to Colombo, which wascaptured with the help of King Rajasinghe II of Kandy. By 1659, the Portuguese had been expelled frothe coastal regions, which were then occupied by the VOC, securing for it the monopoly over cinnamoTo prevent the Portuguese or the English from ever recapturing Sri Lanka, the VOC went on to conque

the entire Malabar Coast from the Portuguese, almost entirely driving them from the west coast of IndiWhen news of a peace agreement between Portugal and the Netherlands reached Asia in 1663, Goa wathe only remaining Portuguese city on the west coast.[25]

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VOC Monogram formerly above theentrance to the Castle of Good Hope

Dutch factory of Hugly-Chinsurah inBengal

Trade area of the VOC around 1700

In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck established an outpost at the Cape of Good Hope (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in CapeTown, South Africa) to re-supply VOC ships on their journey toEast Asia. This post later became a full-fledged colony, the CapeColony, when more Dutch and other Europeans started to settlethere.

VOC trading posts werealso established in Persia,Bengal, Malacca, Siam,Canton, Formosa (nowTaiwan), as well as theMalabar and Coromandelcoasts in India. In 1662, however, Koxinga expelled the Dutchfrom Taiwan[26] ( see History of Taiwan).

In 1663, the VOC signed "Painan Treaty" with several local lords

in the Painan area that were revolting against the Aceh Sultanate.The treaty resulted in VOC to build a trading post in the area andeventually monopolise the trade there, especially in gold

trade.[27]

By 1669, the VOC was the richest private company the world had ever seen, with over 150 merchantships, 40 warships, 50,000 employees, a private army of 10,000 soldiers, and a dividend payment of 40% on the original investment.[28]

Many of the VOC employees inter-mixed with the indigenous peoples and expanded the population of Indos in pre-colonial history[29][30]

Reorientation

Around 1670, two events caused the growth of VOC trade tostall. In the first place, the highly profitable trade with Japanstarted to decline. The loss of the outpost on Formosa to Koxingain the 1662 Siege of Fort Zeelandia and related internal turmoilin China (where the Ming dynasty was being replaced with the

Qing dynasty) brought an end to the silk trade after 1666.Though the VOC substituted Bengali for Chinese silk other forces affected the supply of Japanese silver and gold. Theshogunate enacted a number of measures to limit the export of these precious metals, in the process limiting VOC opportunitiesfor trade, and severely worsening the terms of trade. Therefore,Japan ceased to function as the lynchpin of the intra-Asiatic tradeof the VOC by 1685.[31]

Even more importantly, the Third Anglo-Dutch War temporarily interrupted VOC trade with Europe.

This caused a spike in the price of pepper, which enticed the English East India Company (EIC) toaggressively enter this market in the years after 1672. Previously, one of the tenets of the VOC pricing policy was to slightly over-supply the pepper market, so as to depress prices below the level whereinterlopers were encouraged to enter the market (instead of striving for short-term profit maximisation)The wisdom of such a policy was illustrated when a fierce price war with the EIC ensued, as that

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Natives of Arakan sell slaves tothe Dutch East India Company, c.1663

In the first place, there was a revolutionary change in the tastesaffecting European demand for Asian textiles, and coffee and tea,around the turn of the 18th century. Secondly, a new era of anabundant supply of capital at low interest rates suddenly openedaround this time. The second factor enabled the Company to easilyfinance its expansion in the new areas of commerce.[37] Between the1680s and 1720s, the VOC was therefore able to equip and man an

appreciable expansion of its fleet, and acquire a large amount of precious metals to finance the purchase of large amounts of Asiancommodities, for shipment to Europe. The overall effect was toapproximately double the size of the company.[38]

The tonnage of the returning ships rose by 125 percent in this period. However, the Company's revenues from the sale of goodslanded in Europe rose by only 78 percent. This reflects the basicchange in the VOC's circumstances that had occurred: it nowoperated in new markets for goods with an elastic demand, in whichit had to compete on an equal footing with other suppliers. Thismade for low profit margins.[39] Unfortunately, the business information systems of the time made thisdifficult to discern for the managers of the company, which may partly explain the mistakes they madefrom hindsight. This lack of information might have been counteracted (as in earlier times in the VOChistory) by the business acumen of the directors. Unfortunately by this time these were almostexclusively recruited from the politicalregent class, which had long since lost its close relationship withmerchant circles.[40]

Low profit margins in themselves do not explain the deterioration of revenues. To a large extent the

costs of the operation of the VOC had a "fixed" character (military establishments; maintenance of thefleet and such). Profit levels might therefore have been maintained if the increase in the scale of tradinoperations that in fact took place, had resulted in economies of scale. However, though larger shipstransported the growing volume of goods, labour productivity did not go up sufficiently to realise theseIn general the Company's overhead rose in step with the growth in trade volume; declining grossmargins translated directly into a decline in profitability of the invested capital. The era of expansionwas one of "profitless growth".[41]

Concretely: "[t]he long-term average annual profit in the VOC's 1630–70 'Golden Age' was 2.1 millionguilders, of which just under half was distributed as dividends and the remainder reinvested. The long-

term average annual profit in the 'Expansion Age' (1680–1730) was 2.0 million guilders, of which threquarters was distributed as dividend and one-quarter reinvested. In the earlier period, profits averaged percent of total revenues; in the latter period, 10 percent. The annual return of invested capital in theearlier period stood at approximately 6 percent; in the latter period, 3.4 percent."[41]

Nevertheless, in the eyes of investors the VOC did not do too badly. The share price hoveredconsistently around the 400 mark from the mid-1680s (excepting a hiccup around the GloriousRevolution in 1688), and they reached an all-time high of around 642 in the 1720s. VOC shares thenielded a return of 3.5 percent, only slightly less than the yield on Dutch government bonds.[42]

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Pieter Cnoll and hiswife Cornelia van Nijenrode by JacobCoeman (1665)

Dutch church atBatavia, 1682

Engraving of Colombo, circa 1680

Panorama of Ayutthaya in theBushuis, Amsterdam

Kraak porcelain in amuseum in Malacca

The cover of theHortus Malabaricus byHendrik Adriaan vanReede tot Drakenstein

The shipVryburg on a platter, commissioned1756

Anonymous paintingwith Table Mountain inthe background, 1762

The VOC factory atSurat

Decline

However, from there on the fortunes of the VOC started to decline. Five major problems, not all of equweight, can be used to explain its decline in the next fifty years to 1780.[43]

There was a steady erosion of intra-Asiatic trade because of changes in the Asiatic political andeconomic environment that the VOC could do little about. These factors gradually squeezed thecompany out of Persia, Suratte, the Malabar Coast, and Bengal. The company had to confine itsoperations to the belt it physically controlled, from Ceylon through the Indonesian archipelago.The volume of this intra-Asiatic trade, and its profitability, therefore had to shrink.The way the company was organised in Asia (centralised on its hub in Batavia) that initially had

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Surattehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dutch_East_India_Company%27s_warehouse_and_living_quarters_in_Surat.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anonymous_The_Noord-Nieuwland_in_Table_Bay,_1762.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_van_Rheedehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus_Malabaricushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaccahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraak_porcelainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bushuis&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colombo,_after_Kip.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Jakartahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AMH-4802-KB_The_Dutch_church_or_%27Kruiskerk%27_at_Batavia.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Coemanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_van_Nijenrode


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offered advantages in gathering market information, began to cause disadvantages in the 18thcentury, because of the inefficiency of first shipping everything to this central point. Thisdisadvantage was most keenly felt in the tea trade, where competitors like the EIC and the OstenCompany shipped directly from China to Europe.The "venality" of the VOC's personnel (in the sense of corruption and non-performance of dutiesthough a problem for all East-India Companies at the time, seems to have plagued the VOC on alarger scale than its competitors. To be sure, the company was not a "good employer". Salarieswere low, and "private-account trading" was officially not allowed. Not surprisingly, it proliferated in the 18th century to the detriment of the company's performance.[44] From about the1790s onward, the phrase perished by corruption (also abbreviated VOC in Dutch) came tosummarise the company's future.A problem that the VOC shared with other companies was the high mortality and morbidity ratesamong its employees. This decimated the company's ranks and enervated many of the survivors.A self-inflicted wound was the VOC's dividend policy. The dividends distributed by the companyhad exceeded the surplus it garnered in Europe in every decade but one (1710–1720) from 1690 1760. However, in the period up to 1730 the directors shipped resources to Asia to build up thetrading capital there. Consolidated bookkeeping therefore probably would have shown that total profits exceeded dividends. In addition, between 1700 and 1740 the company retired 5.4 millionguilders of long-term debt. The company therefore was still on a secure financial footing in theseyears. This changed after 1730. While profits plummeted thebewindhebbers only slightlydecreased dividends from the earlier level. Distributed dividends were therefore in excess of earnings in every decade but one (1760–1770). To accomplish this, the Asian capital stock had to be drawn down by 4 million guilders between 1730 and 1780, and the liquid capital available inEurope was reduced by 20 million guilders in the same period. The directors were thereforeconstrained to replenish the company's liquidity by resorting to short-term financing fromanticipatory loans, backed by expected revenues from home-bound fleets.

Despite of all this, the VOC in 1780 remained an enormous operation. Its capital in the Republic,

consisting of ships and goods in inventory, totalled 28 million guilders; its capital in Asia, consisting ofthe liquid trading fund and goods en route to Europe, totalled 46 million guilders. Total capital, net of outstanding debt, stood at 62 million guilders. The prospects of the company at this time therefore neednot have been hopeless, had one of the many plans to reform it been taken successfully in hand.However, then the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War intervened. British attacks in Europe and Asia reduced theVOC fleet by half; removed valuable cargo from its control; and devastated its remaining power in AsiThe direct losses of the VOC can be calculated at 43 million guilders. Loans to keep the companyoperating reduced its net assets to zero.[45]

From 1720 on, the market for sugar from Indonesia declined as the competition from cheap sugar fromBrazil increased. European markets became saturated. Dozens of Chinese sugar traders went bankruptwhich led to massive unemployment, which in turn led to gangs of unemployed coolies. The Dutchgovernment in Batavia did not adequately respond to these problems. In 1740, rumours of deportation othe gangs from the Batavia area led to widespread rioting. The Dutch military searched houses of Chinese in Batavia for weapons. When a house accidentally burnt down, military and impoverishedcitizens started slaughtering and pillaging the Chinese community.[46] This massacre of the Chinese wasdeemed sufficiently serious for the board of the VOC to start an official investigation into theGovernment of the Dutch East Indies for the first time in its history.

After the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the VOC was a financial wreck, and after vain attempts by the provincial States of Holland and Zeeland to reorganise it, was nationalised on 1 March 1796[47] by thenew Batavian Republic. Its charter was renewed several times, but allowed to expire on 31 December 1799.[47] Most of the possessions of the former VOC were subsequently occupied by Great Britain

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during the Napoleonic wars, but after the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by theCongress of Vienna, some of these were restored to this successor state of the old Dutch Republic by thAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814.

European discovery of Australia

In terms of world history of geography and exploration, the VOC can be credited with putting most of Australia's coast (then Hollandia Nova and other names) on the world map, between 1606 and 1756.[48]An Australian vintner has used the VOC logo since the late 20th century, having re-registered thecompany's name for the purpose.[49]

Organization

The VOC had two types of shareholders: the participanten , who could be seen as non-managingmembers, and the 76bewindhebbers (later reduced to 60) who acted as managing directors. This was theusual set-up for Dutch joint-stock companies at the time. The innovation in the case of the VOC was,that the liability of not just the participanten , but also of thebewindhebbers was limited to the paid-incapital (usually,bewindhebbers had unlimited liability). The VOC therefore was a limited liabilitycompany. Also, the capital would be permanent during the lifetime of the company. As a consequence,investors that wished to liquidate their interest in the interim could only do this by selling their share toothers on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange.[50] Confusion of confusions , a 1688 dialogue by the SephardiJew Joseph de la Vega analysed the workings of this one-stock exchange.

The VOC consisted of six Chambers ( Kamers ) in port cities: Amsterdam, Delft, Rotterdam, Enkhuizen,Middelburg and Hoorn. Delegates of these chambers convened as the Heeren XVII (the Lords

Seventeen). They were selected from thebewindhebber -class of shareholders.[51]

Of the Heeren XVII , eight delegates were from the Chamber of Amsterdam (one short of a majority onits own), four from the Chamber of Zeeland, and one from each of the smaller Chambers, while theseventeenth seat was alternatively from the Chamber of Middelburg-Zeeland or rotated among the fivesmall Chambers. Amsterdam had thereby the decisive voice. The Zeelanders in particular hadmisgivings about this arrangement at the beginning. The fear was not unfounded, because in practice itmeant Amsterdam stipulated what happened.

The six chambers raised the start-up capital of the Dutch East India Company:

Chamber Capital (Guilders)

Amsterdam 3,679,915Middelburg 1,300,405Enkhuizen 540,000Delft 469,400Hoorn 266,868Rotterdam 173,000

Total: 6,424,588

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_guilderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoornhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enkhuizenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delfthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_de_la_Vegahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Confusion_of_confusions&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Stock_Exchangehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint-stock_companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintnerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Republichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Viennahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_wars


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Both sides of a duit, a

coin minted in 1735 bythe VOC.

Various VOC soldier uniforms, circa

1783.

The logo of theAmsterdam Chamber of the VOC.

The raising of capital in Rotterdam did not go so smoothly. A considerable part originated from inhabitants of Dordrecht. Although it did not raise asmuch capital as Amsterdam or Middelburg-Zeeland, Enkhuizen had thelargest input in the share capital of the VOC. Under the first 358shareholders, there were many small entrepreneurs, who dared to take therisk. The minimum investment in the VOC was 3,000 guilders, which pricedthe Company's stock within the means of many merchants.[52]

Among the early shareholders of theVOC, immigrants played animportant role. Under the 1,143tenderers were 39 Germans and nofewer than 301 from the Southern Netherlands (roughly presentBelgium and Luxembourg, thenunder Habsburg rule), of whomIsaac le Maire was the largest

subscriber with ƒ85,000. VOC's totalcapitalisation was ten times that of its British rival.

The logo of the VOC consisted of a large capital 'V' with an O on the left and aC on the right leg. It appeared on various corporate items, such as cannons andthe coin illustrated above. The first letter of the hometown of the chamber conducting the operation was placed on top (see figure for example of theAmsterdam chamber logo). The flag of the company was orange, white, blue(see Dutch flag) with the company logo embroidered on it.

The Heeren XVII (Lords Seventeen) met alternately 6 years in Amsterdam and 2years in Middelburg-Zeeland. They defined the VOC's general policy anddivided the tasks among the Chambers. The Chambers carried out all thenecessary work, built their own ships and warehouses and traded themerchandise. The Heeren XVII sent the ships' masters off with extensiveinstructions on the route to be navigated, prevailing winds, currents, shoals andlandmarks. The VOC also produced its own charts.

In the context of the Dutch-Portuguese War the company established its headquarters in Batavia, Java

(now Jakarta, Indonesia). Other colonial outposts were also established in the East Indies, such as on thMaluku Islands, which include the Banda Islands, where the VOC forcibly maintained a monopoly ovenutmeg and mace. Methods used to maintain the monopoly involved extortion and the violentsuppression of the native population, including mass murder.[53] In addition, VOC representativessometimes used the tactic of burning spice trees to force indigenous populations to grow other crops,thus artificially cutting the supply of spices like nutmeg and cloves.[54]

VOC outposts

Organization and leadership structures were varied as necessary in the various VOC outposts:Opperhoofd is a Dutch word (pl.Opperhoofden ) which literally means 'supreme chief'. In this VOCcontext, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English Chief factor, for the chief executivofficer of a Dutch factory in the sense of trading post, as led by a factor, i.e. agent.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_(agent)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_factorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gubernatorialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_murderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extortionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_(spice)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutmeghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banda_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maluku_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Indieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakartahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch-Portuguese_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_chartshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_flaghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_letterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_capitalizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_le_Mairehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Netherlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_peoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riskhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share_(finance)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dordrechthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VOC-Amsterdam.svghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AMH-5460-NA_Uniform_for_VOC_soldiers.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinage_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VOC_duit.jpg


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See more atVOC Opperhoofden in Japan

Council of Justice in Batavia

The Council of Justice in Batavia was the appellate court for all the other VOC Company posts in theVOC empire.

Use of slaves

By the time the settlement was established at the Cape in 1652, the VOC already had a long experiencof practising slavery in the East Indies. Jan van Riebeeck concluded within two months of theestablishment of the Cape settlement that slave labor would be needed for the hardest and dirtiest workInitially, the Dutch East India Trading Company considered enslaving men from the indigenousKhoikhoi population, but the idea was rejected on the grounds that such a policy would be both costlyand dangerous. Most Khoikhoi had chosen not to labor for the Dutch because of low wages and harshconditions. In the beginning, the settlers traded with the Khoikhoi but the harsh working conditions andlow wages imposed by the Dutch led to a series of wars. The European population remained under 200during the settlement's first five years, and war against neighbors numbering more than 20,000 wouldhave been foolhardy. Moreover, the Dutch feared that Khoikhoi people, if enslaved, could always escapinto the local community, whereas foreigners would find it much more difficult to elude their "masters."[55]

Between 1652 and 1657, a number of unsuccessful attempts were made to obtain men from the DutchEast Indies and from Mauritius. In 1658, however, the VOC landed two shiploads of slaves at the Capeone containing more than 200 people brought from Dahomey (later Benin), the second with almost 200 people, most of them children, captured from a Portuguese slaver off the coast of Angola. Except for a

few individuals, these were to be the only slaves ever brought to the Cape from West Africa.[55]

From 1658 to the end of the Company’s rule, many more slaves were brought regularly to the Cape invarious ways, chiefly by Company-sponsored slaving voyages and slaves brought to the Cape by itsreturn fleets. From these sources and by natural growth, the slave population increased from zero in1652 to about 1,000 by 1700. During the 18th century, the slave population increased dramatically to16,839 by 1795.[56]

After the slave trade was initiated, all of the slaves imported into the Cape until the British stopped thetrade in 1807 were from East Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, and South and Southeast Asia. Large

numbers were brought from India, Ceylon, and the Indonesian archipelago. Prisoners from other countries in the VOC's empire were also enslaved. The slave population, which exceeded that of theEuropean settlers until the first quarter of the nineteenth century, was overwhelmingly male and wasthus dependent on constant imports of new slaves to maintain and to augment its size.[55]

By the 1660s the Cape settlement was importing slaves from India, Malaya (Malaysia), and Madagascto work on the farms.[57]

Conflict between Dutch farmers and Khoikhoi broke out once it became clear to the latter that the Dutcwere there to stay and that they intended to encroach on the lands of the pastoralists. In 1659 Doman, aKhoikhoi who had worked as a translator for the Dutch and had even traveled to Java, led an armedattempt to expel the Dutch from the Cape peninsula. The attempt was a failure, although warfaredragged on until an inconclusive peace was established a year later. During the following decade, pressure on the Khoikhoi grew as more of the Dutch became free burghers, expanded their landholdingand sought pastureland for their growing herds. War broke out again in 1673 and continued until 1677,

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Replica of the VOC vessel "Batavia" 1620– 1629

VOC Amsterdam replicates the three-masted, full-rigged VOC vessel which waslaunched in 1748 and sunk in 1749.

when Khoikhoi resistance was destroyed by a combination of superior European weapons and Dutchmanipulation of divisions among the local people. Thereafter, Khoikhoi society in the western Capedisintegrated. Some people found jobs as shepherds on European farms; others rejected foreign rule anmoved away from the Cape. The final blow for most came in 1713 when a Dutch ship brought smallpoto the Cape. Hitherto unknown locally, the disease ravaged the remaining Khoikhoi, killing 90 percent the population.[58]

Throughout the eighteenth century, the settlement continued to expand through internal growth of theEuropean population and the continued importation of slaves. The approximately 3,000 Europeans andslaves at the Cape in 1700 had increased by the end of the century to nearly 20,000 Europeans, andapproximately 25,000 slaves.[58]

Notable VOC ships

Replicas have been constructed of several VOC ships, marked with an (R)

Akerendam Amsterdam (R) Arnhem Batavia (R) Braek Concordia

Dromedaris ("Dromedary camel") Duyfken ("Little Dove") (R) Eendracht (1615) ("Unity")GaliasGrooten Broeck ("Great Brook")Goede Hoop ("Good Hope")Gulden Zeepaert ("Golden Seahorse")

Halve Maen ("Half moon") (R) Haerlem [59][60]

Hoogkarspel Heemskerck Hollandia Klein Amsterdam ("Small Amsterdam") Landskroon Leeuwerik ("Lark") Leyden Limmen Mauritius Meermin ("Mermaid") Naerden Nieuw Hoorn ("New Hoorn")Oliphant ("Elephant")

Pera ("Perak") Prins Willem ("Prince William") (R) Reijger

Ridderschap van Holland ("Knighthood of Holland") Rooswijk SardamTexel Utrecht

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Utrecht&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Texel&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VOC_ship_Rooswijkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridder_(title)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridderschap_van_Holland_(1682)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reijger&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prins_Willemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Pera&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oliphant_(VOC_Ship)&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nieuw_Hoorn&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naerden&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mermaidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meermin_(VOC_ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius_(1618_ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Limmen&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Leyden&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leeuwerik&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VOC_ship_Landskroonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klein_Amsterdam&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollandia_(1742_ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Heemskerck&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoogkarspel_(VOC_ship)&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haerlem_(VOC_ship)&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halve_Maenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gulden_Zeepaert&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goede_Hoop&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grooten_Broeck&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galias&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eendracht_(1615_ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duyfkenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dromedaris&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordia_(1696_ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Braek&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batavia_(ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnhem_(ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VOC_ship_Amsterdamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VOC_ship_Akerendamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_replicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VOC_ship_Amsterdamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Replica_Amsterdam.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ship_Batavia_1.jpg


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A modern reconstruction of the 18thcentury VOC Amsterdam is permanentlyanchored in the harbour at the NederlandsScheepvaartmuseum (the NationalMaritime Museum) in Amsterdam.

A scale model of a warship used by DutchEast India Company.

Dutch and other Europeansettlements in India.

Vergulde Draeck ("Gilded Dragon")VianenVliegende Hollander ("Flying Dutchman")Vliegende Swaan ("Flying Swan")Walvisch ("Whale")Wapen van Hoorn ("Arms of Hoorn")Wezel ("Weasel")

Zeehaen ("Sea Cock") Zeemeeuw ("Seagull") Zeewijk Zuytdorp ("South Village")

See also

Chartered companiesCorporatocracyList of trading companies

Spice warsWhampoa anchorage

Other trade companies of the age of the sail

Muscovy Company, English trading companychartered in 1555 as the first major chartered jointstock companyThe British East India Company, founded in 1600The Danish East India Company, founded in 1616The Danish West India Company, founded in 1671The Dutch West India Company, founded in 1621The Portuguese East India Company, founded in 1628The French East India Company, founded in 1664The Swedish East India Company, founded in 1731The Emden Company, founded 1751The Swedish West India Company, founded in 1786

Governors General of the Dutch East India Company

Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies

References

1. "The Dutch East India Company (VOC)". Canon van Nederland.Retrieved 19 March 2011.

2. THE DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY (http://european-heritage.org/netherlands/alkmaar/dutch-east-indiacompany), European Heritage Project , "The Dutch name was Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, whatliterally means the United East Indian Company."

3. http://www.kb.nl/themas/geschiedenis-en-cultuur/koloniaal-verleden/voc-1602-1799 VOC at the NationalLibrary of the Netherlands (in Dutch)

4. Mondo Visione web site: Chambers, Clem. "Who needs stock exchanges?"(http://www.mondovisione.com/exchanges/handbook-articles/who-needs-stock-exchanges/) Exchanges Handbook . – retrieved 21 August 2011.

5. "Slave Ship Mutiny: Program Transcript".Secrets of the Dead . PBS. 11 November 2010. Retrieved12 November 2010.

6. Ames, Glenn J. (2008).The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 . pp. 102–103.

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/transcripts/slave-ship-mutiny-program-transcript/755/http://www.mondovisione.com/exchanges/handbook-articles/who-needs-stock-exchanges/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_of_the_Netherlandshttp://www.kb.nl/themas/geschiedenis-en-cultuur/koloniaal-verleden/voc-1602-1799http://european-heritage.org/netherlands/alkmaar/dutch-east-india-companyhttp://entoen.nu/voc/enhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Dutch_East_Indieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_West_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emden_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_East_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_East_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_East_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_West_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_East_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_East_India_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscovy_Companyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whampoa_anchoragehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_trading_companieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatocracyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_companieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuytdorphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeewijkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Zeemeeuw&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VOC_ship_Zeehaen&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wezel&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wapen_van_Hoornhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walvisch&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vliegende_Swaan&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Dutchmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Dutchmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vianen_(ship)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergulde_Draeckhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.pnghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DSCF9400.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Maritime_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlands_Scheepvaartmuseumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VOC_ship_Amsterdamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VOC_Amsterdam.jpg


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7. Van Boven, M. W. "Towards A New Age of Partnership (TANAP): An Ambitious World Heritage Project(UNESCO Memory of the World – reg.form, 2002)".VOC Archives Appendix 2, p.14 .

8. Vickers (2005), p. 109. Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition . London: MacMillan.

p. 110. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.10. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 38311. Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition . London: MacMillan. p. 27.

ISBN 0-333-57689-6.

12. Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition . London: MacMillan. pp. 25–28. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.13. (Portuguese) Matos, Artur Teodoro de (1974),Timor Portugues, 1515–1769 , Lisboa: Instituto Histórico

Infante Dom Henrique.14. (Dutch) Roever, Arend de (2002), De jacht op sandelhout: De VOC en de tweedeling van Timor in de

zeventiende eeuw , Zutphen: Walburg Pers.15. In the medium term, as new suppliers could enter the market. In the short term the supply was, of course, a

inelastic.16. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 384–38517. Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition . London: MacMillan. p. 29.

ISBN 0-333-57689-6.

18. Om Prakash,The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630–1720 (Princeton UniversityPress, 1985)19. William De Lange, Pars Japonica: the first Dutch expedition to reach the shores of Japan , (2006)20. Miller, George (ed.) (1996).To The Spice Islands and Beyond: Travels in Eastern Indonesia . New York:

Oxford University Press. xvi. ISBN 967-65-3099-9.21. Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition . London: MacMillan. p. 30.

ISBN 0-333-57689-6.22. The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800, p.21823. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 38624. Ames, Glenn J. (2008).The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 . p. 115.25. VOC Warfare - political interaction (http://vocwarfare.net/thesis/3/political-interaction)

26. Andrade, Tonio (2005). How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han Colonization in theSeventeenth Century . Columbia University Press.27. http://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/1982/07/31/BK/mbm.19820731.BK47129.id.html28. The share price had appreciated significantly, so in that respect the dividend was less impressive29. De Witt, D. "The Easternization of the West: The Role of Melaka, the Malay-Indonesian archipelago and th

Dutch (VOC). (International seminar by the Melaka State Government, the Malaysian Institute of Historicaland Patriotism Studies (IKSEP), the Institute of Occidental Studies (IKON) at the National University of Malaysia (UKM) and the Netherlands Embassy in Malaysia. Malacca, Malaysia, 27 July 2006".Children of the VOC at .

30. Blusse, Leonard.Strange company: Chinese settlers, Mestizo women, and the Dutch in VOC Batavia.(Dordrecht-Holland; Riverton, U.S.A., Foris Publications, 1986. xiii, 302p.) number: 959.82 B659 .

31. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 434–43532. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 430–43333. During the Nine Years' War, the French and Dutch companies came to blows on the Indian Subcontinent. Th

French sent naval expeditions from metropolitan France, which the VOC easily countered. On the other hanthe VOC conquered the important fortress of Pondichéry after a siege of only 16 days by an expedition of 3,000 men and 19 ships under Laurens Pit from Negapatnam in September 1693. The Dutch then made thedefenses of the fortress impregnable, which they came to regret when the Dutch government returned it to thFrench by the Treaty of Ryswick in exchange for tariff concessions in Europe by the French. Chauhuri andIsrael, p 424

34. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 433–43435. Chaudhuri and Israel, pp. 428–429

36. However, the VOC had been defeated many times before. On the Indian Subcontinent, the EIC had sufferedresounding defeat from the Mughal forces in its 1689 Mughal War; Chaudhury and Israel, pp. 435–43637. It was also helpful that the price war with the EIC in the early decade had caused the accumulation of

enormous inventories of pepper and spices, which enabled the VOC to cut down on shipments later on,thereby freeing up capital to increase shipments of other goods; De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 436

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1689_Mughal_War&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Ryswickhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negapatnamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laurens_Pit&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pondicherry_(city)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliancehttp://www.dutchmalaysia.net/press/Easternization.htmlhttp://majalah.tempointeraktif.com/id/arsip/1982/07/31/BK/mbm.19820731.BK47129.id.htmlhttp://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade11.html#s02/http://vocwarfare.net/thesis/3/political-interactionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57689-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-65-3099-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57689-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57689-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57689-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57689-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/22635/11546101681netherlands_voc_archives.doc/netherlands%2Bvoc%2Barchives.doc


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38. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 436–43739. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 437–44040. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 441–44241. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 44742. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 44843. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 449–45544. A particularly egregious example was that of the "Amfioen Society". This was a business of higher VOC-

employees that received a monopoly of the opium trade on Java, at a time when the VOC had to pay monop

prices to the EIC to buy the opium in Bengal; Burger, passim45. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 454–45546. Kumar, Ann (1997). Java and Modern Europe: Ambiguous Encounters . p. 32.47. TANAP, The end of the VOC48. "The AOTM Landings List 1606 – 1814".history and heritage division of the Australasian Hydrographic

Society . Australia on the Map. 6 February 2008. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved2 April 2013. "After leaving Banda on 18 November 1605, at about the end of March 1606 VOC CaptainWillem Janszoon,* Supercargo Jan Lodewijkszoon van Rosingeyn and their crew onboard the Duyfken,charted about 300 km of the west coast of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland. First documented visit of Europeans to the shores of Australia."

49. Tim Treadgold (13 March 2006). "Cross-Breeding". Forbes . Archived from the original on 2 April 2013.

Retrieved 2 April 2013. "Michael Wright replicates the Dutch East India Company at his winery in WesternAustralia."50. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 38551. De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 384–38552. Ames, Glenn J. (2008).The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 . p. 103.53. Hanna, Willard A. (1991). Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands.

Bandanaira: Yayasan Warisan dan Budaya Banda Naira.54. Ames, Glenn J. (2008).The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 . p. 111.55. Byrnes, Rita (1996).South Africa: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.

pp. Establishing a Slave Economy.56. 5.2 Numbers, Origins, and Trades in Which Slaves were Engaged.

57. Appiah, Anthony; Henry Louis Gates (2004). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the Afr ican and African American Experience . Oxford University Press. p. 732.58. Byrnes, Rita (1996).South Africa: A Country Study . Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.

pp. Emergence of a Settler Society.59. Worden, N. van Heyningen, E. and Bickford-Smith, S.:Cape Town: The making of a City Cape Town: David

Philip Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86486-435-260. http://www.vocsite.nl/schepen/detail.html?id=11610

Further reading

Ames, Glenn J.The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 . Pearson Prentice Hall,2008.Blusse, Leonard. An Insane Administration and Insanitary Town: The Dutch East India Company and

Batavia (1619–1799) (Springer Netherlands, 1985)Borschberg, Peter, Journal, Memorials and Letters of Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge. Security, Diplomacy and Commerce in 17th-Century Southeast Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2015) https://www.academia.edu/4302783Boxer, Charles Ralph. Jan Compagnie in War and Peace, 1602-1799: A Short History of the Dutch East-

India Company (Heinemann Asia, 1979)Boxer, Charles R. Jan Compagnie in Japan, 1600–1850: An Essay on the Cultural Artistic and Scientific

Influence Exercised by the Hollanders in Japan from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Den Haag,1950.

Boxer, Charles R.The Dutch Seaborne Empire: 1600–1800 (London, 1965.)Braam Houckgeest, Andre Everard Van (1798), An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-IndiaCompany, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1794 and 1795 , London: R. Phillips,OCLC 002094734 v.2 (https://archive.org/stream/authenticaccount02vanb#page/n5/mode/2up)Bruijn, J.R., Femme Gaastra, and I. Schöffer, eds., Dutch-Asiatic shipping in the 17th and 18th centuries .

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_Gaastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaap_R._Bruijnhttps://archive.org/stream/authenticaccount02vanb#page/n5/mode/2uphttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/002094734https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLChttps://archive.org/stream/authenticaccount01vanb#page/n5/mode/2uphttps://www.academia.edu/4302783http://www.vocsite.nl/schepen/detail.html?id=11610https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780864864352http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/5.htmhttps://books.google.co.za/booksid=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA732&lpg=PA732&dq=slave+trade+%22dutch+east+india+trading+company%22&source=bl&ots=ghV0FcuSRp&sig=Ahm0CplBnsK-23ATwGIiO8n1e_M&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwji_o3dprDJAhUFPRQKHZpyB7IQ6AEIMDAF#v=onepage&q=slave%20trade%20%22dutch%20east%20india%20trading%20company%22&f=falsehttp://countrystudies.us/south-africa/5.htmhttp://www.forbes.com/global/2006/0313/062.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbeshttp://www.webcitation.org/6FZrvHUQEhttp://www.australiaonthemap.org.au/landings-list/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia_on_the_Maphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasian_Hydrographic_Societyhttp://www.webcitation.org/6FZwtFMNB


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Rijks geschiedkundige publicatiën. Grote serie, vol. 165-167. (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1979, 1987).Burger, M. "The Forgotten Gold? The Importance of the Dutch opium trade in the Seventeenth Century", in

Eidos. University College Utrecht Academic Magazine . (2003), Issue 2/2003 Utrecht University(http://students.ucu.uu.nl/eidos/issues/eidos2.pdf)Chaudhuri, K.N., and Israel, J.I. "The English and Dutch East India Companies and the Glorious Revolutioof 1688-9", in Jonathan I. Israel, ed.The Anglo-Dutch moment. Essays on the Glorious Revolution and itsworld impact (Cambridge U.P. 1991), ISBN 0-521-39075-3, pp. 407–438De Lange, William. Pars Japonica: the first Dutch expedition to reach the shores of Japan , (Floating World

Editions 2006) . ISBN 1-891640-23-2Furber, Holden, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient 1600–1800 . Minneapolis, 1976Gelderblom, Oscar, and Joost Jonker. "Completing a financial revolution: The finance of the Dutch East Indtrade and the rise of the Amsterdam capital market, 1595–1612." Journal of Economic History 64.03 (2004):641-672. online (http://www.parisschoolofeconomics.com/hautcoeur-pierre-cyrille/M1_histoireeco/Gelderblom-Jonker_revolutionAmsterdam.pdf)Glamann, Kristof., Dutch-Asiatic Trade 1620–1740 . (The Hague, 1958)Irwin, Douglas A. (January 1991). "Mercantilism as Strategic Trade Policy: The Anglo-Dutch Rivalry for thEast India Trade". Journal of Political Economy 99 (6): 1296–1314. doi:10.1086/261801 – via JSTOR.Israel, Jonathan I., Dutch Primacy in World Trade 1585–1740 . (Oxford, 1989)Prakash, Om.The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal1630-1720 (Princeton University

Press, 1985)Steengaard, Niels.The Dutch East India Company as an Institutional Innovation (1982)Taylor, Jean Gelman.The Social World of Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia(University of Wisconsin Press, 2nd ed. 2009)Theal, George McCall. History of South Africa Under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company1652 to 1795 Vol. 2. (1897) online (https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=xzIPAAAAYAAJ).Vries, Jan de, and A. van der Woude.The First Modern Economy. Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the

Dutch Economy, 1500–1815 , (Cambridge University Press, 1997), ISBN 978-0-521-57825-7Wills, John Elliot. Pepper, Guns, and Parleys: The Dutch East India Company and China, 1662-1681(Harvard University Press, 1974)

Dutch sources

Femme Gaastra,The Dutch East India Company: expansion and decline . Zutphen: Walburg Pers,2003.Femme Gaastra, Particuliere geldstromen binnen het VOC-bedrijf 1640–1795 . Leiden:Rijksmuseum Het Koninklijk Penningkabinet, 2002.On the eighteenth century as a category of Asian history: Van Leur in retrospect , edited byLeonard Blussé and Femme Gaastra. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998.Ships, sailors and spices: East India companies and their shipping in the 16th, 17th and 18thcenturies , ed. by Jaap R. Bruijn and Femme Gaastra. Amsterdam: NEHA, 1993.

De archieven van de Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie = The archives of the Dutch East IndiaCompany: (1602–1795) , M.A.P. Meilink-Roelofsz (inventaris); R. Raben en H. Spijkerman. eds.'s-Gravenhage: Sdu Uitgeverij, 1992.

Dutch-Asiatic shipping in the 17th and 18th centuries , by J. R. Bruijn, Femme Gaastra and I.Schöffer; with assist. from A.C.J. Vermeulen. Three Volumes. Rijks geschiedkundige publicatiënGrote serie, 165-167. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1979–1987.Companies and trade: essays on overseas trading companies during the Ancien Régime , by P. H.Boulleet al. ; ed. by Leonard Blussé and Femme Gaastra. The Hague: Leiden University Press,1981.

Bewind en Belied bij de VOC: De financiële politik van de bewindhebbers, 1672–1702 by FemmeGaastra. Zutphen: De Walburg Pers, 1968.

External links

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_Gaastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bluss%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P._H._Boulle&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_Gaastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._R._Bruijn&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_Gaastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaap_R._Bruijnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_Gaastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bluss%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_Gaastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femme_Gaastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521578257https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=xzIPAAAAYAAJhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTORhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F261801https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/2937731http://www.parisschoolofeconomics.com/hautcoeur-pierre-cyrille/M1_histoireeco/Gelderblom-Jonker_revolutionAmsterdam.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1891640232https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521390753http://students.ucu.uu.nl/eidos/issues/eidos2.pdf


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zoomifyImagePath=http://www.swaen.com/os/zoom/03900/) (high resolution zoomable scan)Death of an East Indiaman (http://www.bymnews.com/new/content/view/8588/80/)Towards a New Age of Partnership; a Dutch/Asian/South-African programme of cooperation based on a mutual past (TANAP)(http://www.tanap.net/content/voc/organization/organization_intro.htm) - joint archival project ofUNESCO, and the Netherlands and Indonesian national archives on the VOC: "An AmbitiousWorld Heritage".VOC voyages (http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/DAS/voyages) - online database of voyages of VOC shipsAtlas of Mutual Heritage (http://www.nationaalarchief.nl/amh/main.aspx?lang=en) - online atlas

of VOC settlementsVOC shipwrecks database (http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/)(Dutch) Database of VOC crew members (http://vocopvarenden.nationaalarchief.nl/default.aspx)VOC Warfare (http://vocwarfare.net) Website on the military aspects of the history of the VOC

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