Dwight Eisenhower APUSH

7/30/2019 Dwight Eisenhower APUSH

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Roger Cheng

APUSH Mrs. Toneatti Period 9

"Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket

fired, signifies in the final sense a theft from those who hunger

and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed."


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The time period of the 1950s into the 60s was rather peculiar due to the varying

economic, political, and social climate. As a matter of fact, most of these aspects did not follow

conventional theories or traditional patterns. Both the social and economic conditions were

thriving and momentous. Politics was even more dramatic at the time due to the threat posed by

Communism and the Soviet Union.

Social

After World War II, war veterans returned home to meet their wives, which led to the

phenomenon baby boomers. Women also became

more prominent in the workforce as many of them

retained their jobs after the war. Also during this

time period, families began to settle away from the

cities. Many city dwellers moved to the suburbs with

their family. This movement shows how living

standards have improved. Families in the United States were expected to own a house, a car, as

well as the new inventionthe television. Many other forms of entertainment such as the new

music style Rock & Roll were introduced as well. Elvis Presley is one of the most well-known

singers of Rock & Roll.

It was also in this time period when the black civil rights movement became more

prominent. Led by Martin Luther King Jr., the civil rights movement gained popularity and

momentum in the US and eventually brought about the many changes in African American

education. Speaking of education, in 1962, James Watson and Francis Crik (and later Maurice

Wilkins) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for decoding the structure of


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DNA. Also in 1955, Jonas Salk discovered a vaccine that began to rid the polio virus from

America.

Economics

The economy at the time was not as booming as it was during the war, but there was a

steady increase as it soon reached its peak in the 60s. Typically after war, economy would

generally slow down as factories slowdown in production of munitions and switch back to

consumer goods. But in this time period, factories began producing many consumer goods that

were in high demand. Since during the war, people generally saved their money, after the war

they were able to spend it on several new innovative consumer products such as the television.

Another reason for the continuing growth in

economy after the war is the relatively cheap supply of

fuel. Constant supply of petroleum from the Middle East

gave America the ability to increase the electricity-

generating capacity. With more energy and power,

productivity began to increase annually. With increased

productivity to match high demands, the United States witnessed an amazing time period of

sustained growth that lasted for two decades. Also as the Korean War progressed, American

economy experienced a short period of boom due to war time production. Yet a major problem

that occurred in the 1950s to late 60s was inflation. But under Eisenhowers administration, the

inflation rate, unemployment rate, and national debt declined.


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Politics

After World War II ended, a new conflict arose. This conflict was known as the Cold

War. In the 1950s the tensions between the two superpowers, United States and the USSR,

caused global division between communism and anti-communism. Tensions were furthered

stressed when in 1955 the Warsaw Pact was established as a formal Soviet alliance. The

American policies of containment were enacted and NATO was soon formed to counter Soviet

aggression. During his presidency, Eisenhower had to deal with the struggle of the Korean War

and the unpopular war in Vietnam. It was also during this time period when the space race

began, otherwise known as Star Wars. In October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first

satellite, Sputnik, into orbit. This struck fear into the hearts of Americans because they realized

that if the Soviets were able to launch things into an airspace that the United States have no

control over, then American lives could potentially be at risk if the Soviets were to develop a

weapon that could be launched into orbit.


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Chief Executive:

President Eisenhower accomplished various events and activities as Chief Executive.

Although he was unfamiliar and inexperienced in politics, he relied on his secretary of state,

John Foster Dulles, and other advisors for perspective on issues. One of the major enforcement

that Eisenhower did was the Little Rock Crisis, where a riot occurred in response to the

enrollment of nine African American students. The background of this incident starts with the

Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education in 1954. The Supreme Court ruled in this case that

segregated schools violate the 14th

amendment, stating that segregation is inherently unequal.

This ruling encouraged nine African American students to enroll in Central High School in Little

Rock, Arkansas. In spite of this, the Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas

National Guard to prevent these nine students from entering the school. In response to this,

Eisenhower ordered the 101st

Airborne Division into Little Rock to insure that the nine students

may safely enter the school. This was important to the civil rights movement at the time as the

African Americans won in another aspect of gaining more footage in the social and racial

equality of America.

During his presidency, Eisenhower also appointed several officials in the executive

branch. He appointed Earl Warren as chief justice of the Supreme Court and William J. Brennan,

Jr. as an Associate Justice. But he later exclaimed that doing so was the two worst mistakes he

made. Apparently he nominated both to support his ideologies, but didnt realize that both were

outspoken with civil rights. Believing that he actually had a conservative leader appointed as

chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eisenhower immediately regretted appointed Warren, who

turned out to be more progressive than anyone imagined. In fact, Warrens ideologies were so

progressive that he led the most liberal Court in history, which were not Eisenhowers intentions


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at all. Besides these two appointments, Eisenhower made 3 other Supreme Court appointments,

appointed 45 judges to the United States Court of Appeals, and 129 more judges to the United

States District Courts.


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Chief Diplomat:

Eisenhower had to take many diplomatic actions due to Cold War. Soon after he had

taken office, Joseph Stalin, the Communist dictator of the USSR, passed away. In an attempt to

improve diplomatic relations and end the arms race, Eisenhower delivered his Chance for Peace

speech on April 16, 1953. The main reason for doing this is that he hoped that a new form of

government may take control ofthe USSR and that the arms race (which, to Eisenhowers

distaste, greatly increased military spendings) would come to an end. Despite his effort, the

speech had little impact on relieving the tensions between the two superpowers. In the year of

1953, Eisenhower also opened relations with Spain, which was currently under the rule of the

Fascist ruler Francisco Franco. By opening diplomatic relations with Spain with the Pact of

Madrid, Eisenhower created a trade and military alliance with Spain.

Another major diplomatic action Eisenhower took was signing the armistice to end the

stalemate of the Korean War. Although the United States did not formally go to war against

Korea, Eisenhower took police action and sent troops and supplies to South Korea to aid the

fight against Communists. Yet their plight was unsuccessful as Communist China intervened and

pushed the US and Republic of Koreas forces back to the 38th

parallel. The armistice

Eisenhower signed is known as the Korean Armistice Agreement. In addition, Eisenhower also

signed defense treaties with South Korea and the Republic of China. Also the Southeast Asia

Treaty Organization was formed (developed by Eisenhowers Secretary of State, John Foster

Dulles) in order to halt the further spread of Communism in Asia.

Another incident in Asian was the Vietnam War. Similar to the Korean War, there was a

stalemate between the northern communists and the southern non-communists. Eisenhower sent


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Dulles to the Geneva Conference, ending the First Indochina War. Eventually the southern non-

communists declared that they would become their own independent state under the leader Ngo

Dinh Diem. Eisenhower immediately recognized the newly formed Republic of Vietnam and

offered military and economic aid.


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Commander in Chief:

Prior to his presidency, Eisenhower had become one

of Americas greatest military commanders during World

War II. He excelled in his army career and served under

various generals. After the Pearl Harbor bombing,

Eisenhower was called to Washington to command Allied

forces in North Africa. He was also the supreme commander

of the troops invading France on D-Day.

During his presidency he exercised his military

powers as the Commander in Chief. During the Korean War, Eisenhower sent troops into

southern Korea to aid to non-communists. The Allied forces and Republic of Korea were mostly

successful in driving out the communists until China intervened and pushed them back to the 38th

parallel. At this point of the war a stalemate was already determined and an armistice was

therefore signed to end the fighting. The Korean Armistice Agreement created a DMZ which is a

fortified buffer zone between North and South Korea.

Another incident where Eisenhower took military action was in the Vietnam War. Similar

to the Korean War, police action was applied to Vietnam as well. Eisenhower, as the

Commander in Chief, had the authority to send troops into Vietnam without the approval of

Congress. At the end of the First Indochina War, Vietnam was still split, and the non-communist

Republic of Vietnam lead by Ngo Dinh Diem was offered military and economic assistance by

Eisenhower.


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Eisenhower also acted upon conflicts in the Middle East. The Suez Canal crisis represents

one of Eisenhowers most stressful military positions. Should he have sent troops to the Suez

Canal to fight; the world would have been engaged in another major global crisis. But instead,

Eisenhower put his troops on hold as he engaged in diplomatic affairs and managed to resolve

the problem by announcing the actions of Britain and France as a violation of self-determination.

With Britains and Frances eventual agreement along with the consent of the United Nations, a

cease-fire was enacted and the immediate withdrawal of the invading troops was called.


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Chief Legislator:

President Eisenhower, although unfamiliar with politics, happened to pass promising and

good laws. As a promoter of civil rights, he pushed for the Civil Rights Act of 1957. This bill

was the first civil rights legislation that was passed since Reconstruction. The Civil Rights Act of

1957 was primarily a voting bill. It maintained that all Americans may exercise their right to

vote. This was a response to the voting restrictions on Africans Americans in the South due to

white supremacists who participated in discriminatory practices such as literacy tests and poll

taxes. In order to strengthen and enforce this, near the end of his administration, Eisenhower

passed the Civil Rights Act of 1960 through Congress. This bill was a federal law stating that

local voter registration polls are subject to federal inspection. Also this law introduced penalties

to those who prohibited anothers registration to vote.

In accord with the Korean War and Vietnam War, Eisenhower passed various legislations

that were needed to ensure tranquility and containment in Asia. Also he passed legislation

regarding the disputes in the Middle East. The Eisenhower Doctrine stated that any country may

request US for economic assistance or military aid if the country was being threatened by armed

aggression of another state.

The most important legislation that was

passed was the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956.

This act created the United States Interstate High

ways. Eisenhower based this system of his experience

in Germany where he saw the use of the German

autobahn system. He was impressed with the speed of which vehicles can use these connected


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roadways to quickly transport munitions and food supplies across the country. This project was

one of the biggest public works project in US history. The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956

provided for a length of 41,000 miles of roadways, tunnels and bridges.

Eisenhower also signed the legislation creating NASA. In a response to the Soviet

success in launching Sputnik, Eisenhower did not want America to fall behind. He knew that the

arms race was dangerous and that starting a space race could place the world in an even more

precarious situation. He also was against the idea of giving money to the private research of

aeronautics. So he claimed that the signing of the administration was for peaceful discoveries in

space.

Probably not as significant as his major legislations, but he also admitted Alaska and

Hawaii as the 49th

and 50th

states, respectively.


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Chief of State:

Eisenhower, as chief of state, represented America and the people to the world. He

participated in many events in which he represented the people of America and symbolized

himself as the head of the nation. As head of state, Eisenhower portrayed America in a positive

way. In one instance he awarded a Korean War veteran:

Eisenhower also signed a bill in 1956 to pay tribute to the unknown soldiers of World

War II and the Korean War.

Eisenhower also participated in the ceremonial tradition of throwing the first pitch of the

season in baseball.

In this picture Eisenhower

awards the Medal of Honor

to Korean War veteran

Army Staff Sgt. Hiroshi H.Miyamura in 1953.

Eisenhower throwing the pitch at

the Washington Senators game in

1957.


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J udicial Powers:

President Eisenhower pardoned, commuted or rescinded the convictions of 1,157 people

during his term. One of the famous pardons was the change in death penalty of Master Sergeant

Maurice L Schick. Schick was convicted of brutally murdering an eight-year-old girl and was

sentenced to death. After six years, this case was sent to Eisenhower for the final review in

which he commuted the punishment to confinement to hard labor without parole. Schick, later,

challenged this decision and took it Supreme Court where it was decided that life imprisonment

without parole is constitutional.

Eisenhower also appointed several officials to federal courts. Eisenhower made 5

Supreme Court appointments, appointed 45 judges to the United States Court of Appeals, and

129 more judges to the United States District Courts.

Head of Party:

Dwight Eisenhower was the head of the Republican Party. As the head of the party, it

was his duty and his best interest to raise funds for campaigns, influence back party candidates,

employ party ideologies and appoint party officials to promote the Republican Party. He

appointed various party officials as judges in the federal courts. Although he regretted appointing

Earl Warren as chief justice of the Supreme Court and William J. Brennan, Jr. as an Associate

Justice, he made other appointments that he was proud of. Two of such appointments are Frank

Johnson and Elbert Tuttle. These two judges maintained civil rights laws, which were very

important to Eisenhower. Eisenhower received much respect as head of the Republican Party as

well as president. Many Democratic leaders as well as the party itself were supportive of

Eisenhower.


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Evaluation:

I believe that Eisenhower was a very successful president. Even though he didnt bring

any radical changes that significantly improved or benefited the country, his role as a leader and

the effectiveness of his actions are very admirable. He knew that he was unfamiliar with politics

and foreign affairs, yet he strived to achieve and obtain Americas best interests in every step he

took.

The biggest challenge facing Eisenhower at the time was the Cold War and the

aggression of the Soviet Union. Eisenhower responded to this problem efficiently and skillfully.

When Stalin died, the Soviet Union was in a brief moment of distress since their worldly leader

had died. Eisenhower responded immediately with his Chance for Peace speech. He aimed to

take this moment and end the Cold War and the arms race. Although his speech was

unsuccessful in reducing tensions, his response to achieve the goal of ending the Cold War was

significant since it showed his immediate responsibility after he had taken office. Another

outcome of the aggression of the Soviet Union was the creation of NASA. Eisenhower at first

disapproved funding an agency like NASA. Yet after serious consideration, he knew that in order

to calm American fears and protect the US from further conflict a specialized research center for

aeronautical studies should be constructed. As NASA was created, Eisenhower maintained his

intentions that NASA should prioritize in peaceful discoveries in space. He did not want to

become involved in a space race knowing that it could bring the world into another major crisis.

Eisenhower was also very successful in domestic affairs. He supported civil rights and

passed two laws fighting against the voting discrimination in the south that has been around

since Reconstruction. The way he handled the Little Rock Nine is also very important to the


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civil rights movement. By ensuring that African Americans may attend school and receive

education, Eisenhower basically ended segregation and brought integration.

Eisenhowers contributions to the expansion of US economic and social development

were well received by the public. His actions proved to be strategic and beneficial. He was a very

successful president because of his gains and efforts to improve foreign relations as well as

domestic affairs.


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Comparison:

President Eisenhowers most significant action was his response to the Little Rock Nine

and his support for civil rights. In 1954, the Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education ended with

the ruling that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal which in the past was

deemed constitutional in the ruling of the Plessy vs. Ferguson case. This ruling technically ended

the prospects of segregation. Yet in some areas in the south continued to stop or harass African

American students who are enrolled or tried to enroll in white schools. In 1957 nine African

American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School. Yet segregationists in the town

threatened to hold protests in front of the school and physically prevent the nine African

American students from entering the building. The governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, even

sent in the Arkansas National Guard to aid the segregationists. Eisenhower responded by

ordering the 101st

Airborne Division to help the students safely enter the building and federalized

the Arkansas National Guard. This action exemplified the willingness of Eisenhower to use the

US army to uphold civil rights laws.

Similar to Eisenhower, Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) aimed to end segregation as well.

When he issued the Executive Order 8802, he aimed to end segregation by promoting equality in

employment. By signing the Executive Order 8802 (and later, the Executive Order 9346), FDR

created the Fair Employment Practice Commission, which required companies with government

contracts to not discriminate in their employment based on race or religion. He primarily did this

to help minorities to obtain jobs in the national defense industry and in the army.

Both Eisenhower and Roosevelt aimed to end segregation by implementing laws that

would bring minorities and whites together in various facilities. The Executive Orders signed by


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Roosevelt allowed for minorities and African Americans to take part in the federal army.

Eisenhower used the US army to aid African Americans as well. But instead of employing them

in the army, he employed the army for them. The difference between Eisenhowers actions and

FDRs is that Eisenhower enforced the law regarding the education status of racial equality while

FDRs stance supported the employment factor of racial equality.


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http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch37-econ1d.htm

http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/civil_rights_little_rock.html

http://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/essays/biography/5

http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/Ike/ike.htm

http://www.justice.gov/pardon/actions_administration.htm

http://www.nasa.gov/50th/50th_magazine/10presidents.html

http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/history/35th/thelaw/eo-8802.html

a
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Dwight Eisenhower APUSH