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Chapter II
EARLY COINAGE
PUNCH-MARKED COINS AND ROMAN COINS
In this chapter Part I includes the emergence and spread of punch-
marked coins its hoards in Kerala coins of the Cheras of the classical period
and their Importance In Part II the Indo-Roman Trade contact is discussed
Along with this the list of goods of exchange the issue of Roman coins
available Roman coin hoards in Kerala are discussed with their common
features
Part I
Punch- marked coins
Punch-marked coins which represent Indialsquos earliest known numismatic
issues have played a vital role in ancient Indian economy for well over five
centuries from the sixth to the first century BC1
Punch-marked coins known
generally in silver and rarely in copper are of various sizes and weights They
were in vogue when writing was not current in India and were rarely used2
Symbols are the most conspicuous features of these coins and they do not bear
any legend or inscription Various forms of representations like hills birds
trees animals human figures floral and geometrical patterns etc appear on
them the exact importance of which is still not clear and remain as
1 The issue of the silver punch-marked coins stopped sometime by the second
century BC but the coinage exerted great influence during the next four or five
hundred years See PLGupta Coins New Delhi 1969 p-17
2 Shankar Goyal Historiography of the Punch-marked Coins JNSI Vol LX shy
LXI p 73
88
89
mysteriousas ever3
The punching devices of these coins may be identified into
several hundred varieties Earlier symbols were simple and bold but later ones
tended to be comparatively small and complex in design The name punch shy
markedlsquo is derived from the fact that the coins concerned bear symbols
stamped by different punches and these punch-marked symbols were generally
associated with villages towns cities mountains river banks and mint
masters 4
Each of the symbol is found confined to the coins of a particular area
or on those of a particular variety or type Thus they enable one to isolate the
coins of one area from those of another of one state from those of another and
of one period from those of another
In order to remove the difficulties from barter and to have a portable and
convenient standard different metals were introduced and in course of time
different stamps or marks were imprinted on them by the issuing authorities5
Highly controversial theories originated about the date and origin of these
coins In the opinion of ALBasham the uninscribed punch-marked coins
were minted from the 6th century BC onwards and were in circulation for
many centuries6
Moreover from a careful study of the symbols such as the
sun mountains trees branches of trees human figures rabbits dogs
3 RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1083 p 5 Some of the symbols of the
animals marked on the reverse may represent the totemic nature of the tribes or
clans Some geometrical signs have been taken to represent Brahmi letters and
they may represent the initial letter of a personal name Some scholars have tried
to interpret them as Tantric symbols with the help of Tantric texts See Durga
Prasad Observations on different types of Silver Punch Marked Coins their
Periods and Locale Numismatic Supplement XL VII (1938) p 56
4 Visuddhimagga Vide M Chandas presidential address at the 43 Annual Session
of the Numismatic Society of India December 1953 in JNSI XVI XVI Pt 1 p
7
5 The symbols were the identification of the issuing authority and that
symbolssometimes differed according to the provenance and will of the authority
Romila Thapar From Lineage to State Bombay 1984 p 101
6 AL Basham The Wonder that Was India New Delhi 1967 p 504
90
scorpions snakes etc it can be suggested that the punch-marked coins were
issued even earlier than the 6th
century BC when the most primitive Indians
happened to worship sun mountains trees spirits animals snakes and the like
Most scholars consider the punch-marked coins as of indigenous origin We do
not know in which part of India they originated However in the light of recent
evidences we consider that the birth place of punch-marked coins was in some
territories of north India7
There are also differences of opinion about the
issuing authority of the punch-marked coins8
7 CJ Brown The Coins of India New delhi 1988 p 16
8 Some scholars held the view that this coinage was issued by certain private
authorities while others considered it as a government issue According to VA
Smith The punch-marked coinage was a private coinage issued by guilds and
silversmiths with the permission of the rating powers This theory was also
accepted by DC Sircar Durga Prasad strongly refuted the view that the punch-
marked coins were private issues John Allan is of the view that these coins were
issued by a government authority and not by private individuals For further
details see ANLahiri Numismatography of punch-marked Coins JNSI - XLIX shy
Pp 157 -160 Romila Thapar opines that punch-marked coins were issued by a
central authority and probably the imperial mints were situated in the five major
cities of the empire She does not accept the idea that these coins were traders
tokens which gradually acquired the status of a national coinage See Romila
Thapar Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas p 247 Kautilyalsquos Arthasasthra
speaks about the officials like Lakshanadhyaksha or Rupyadhyaksha
Rupadarsika etc connected with coinage For more details See DR
Bhandarkar Lecture on Ancient Indian Numismatics Pp 156-160 See also
Upendra Thakur Minting of coins and Problems of forgery in Indian Coinslsquo in
GKuppuram and K Kumudamani (ed) History of Science and Technology in
India (in 12 volumes) Vol VIII New Delhi Pp3-6 DB Spooner strongly
refuted private issue theorylsquo of the punch-marked coins and he came to the
conclusion that the issuing authorities of these coins were not private agencies
rather than the states themselves See Asiatic Society of India Annual Report shy
1905 - 06 Pp 150-155 Quoted by MK Sheran Tribal Coins A Study Mysore
1975 p 25
91
Scholars also give divergent pictures regarding the metal of the original
coinage9
The earliest coins found at Kasi and Kosala in the Gangetic valley
and bent-bar coins of Gandhara region of 6th
Century BC are of silver Silver
was preferred for the manufacture of coins because it served better as the
medium of exchange with other regions Besides it carried value when melted
As indigenous silver was not available in much quantity there was the
possibility of it being imported from the West The coins in copper were most
likely local issues and they were issued mostly in the post-Mauryan period
In early periods the coins were manufactured usually by three
techniques - punching casting and striking To manufacture coins metal pieces
were cut into the required shape with the help of a chisel and marks were
punched on them later This type of coins can be seen in all possible shapes
such as square octagonal oblong oval circular rectangular bar-type and
irregular Probably the weight of each coin decided the shape In the beginning
only one side of these coins was punched with symbols and the other side
remained blank In course of time this blank side also came to be stamped with
punched marks
Indialsquos earliest silver punch-marked coins are almost certainly represented
by the Droplet issues10
However in early historic India various states followed
minting techniques according to their suitability These techniques consisted of
two important processes viz preparing plantchets and striking coins from the
9 Copper came into use earlier than silver in India Silver was mainly imported from
abroad and so its purity stood in the way of its use for the manufacture of coins
See - SK Chakraborthy opcit Pp 40-41 AS Altekar thinks that Karshapana
Silver currency may not be earlier than C 800 BC but the east copper round and
square coins may be earlier JNSI XXII Pp 1 But this view does not appear to
be correct Copper came into use for coins most likely at the time of the Mauryas
To PL Gupta the early coins are all in silver and no coin of gold is known in
India prior to the advent of the Indo-Bactrians in the second-first centuries BC
PL Gupta opcit p8 Upendra Thakur is of the view that the number of gold
coins issued by the early Indian kings is far less compared to silver and copper
coins Upendra Thakur Source of gold for Early gold coins of India opcit p 71
10 For more details about the Droplet technique see JNSI Vol LV Pp 169 ff
92
plantchets and both these techniques embody a dozen techniques for the
fabrication of punch-marked coins in India11
Thousands of punch-marked coins have been discovered virtually from
all parts of the Indian subcontinent often in big hoards consisting of five to
eight thousand pieces They are of numerous denominations and fabric series
earlier ones being local found in restricted areas and later ones universal or
imperial punch-marked coins found almost throughout the country12
The coins
of the local series were chronologically earlier than the coins of the Imperial
series and they mainly represented the coinage of the various Janapadas of the
early Budhist age13
The Imperial series was the coinage of the Magadhan
Empire and it has further been classified into six categories14
The hoards of the
Imperial coins generally do not include the local type of coins But in a few
hoards where local type of coins are known along with the Imperial coins the
former are few in number and are in uquite worn-out condition This shows that
the regional coinage was anterior to the Imperial coinage But some scholars
have criticised this classification15
11 JNSI Vol L VIII - Pp 115-120
12 JNSI XLIX Pp 157-160
13 PL Gupta The Early Coins From KeralaTrivandrum 1965 Pp 3-4
14 Six Categories According to PL Gupta the coins of Period I of the Golakpur
hoardmay be attributed to Ajatasatru (552-520 BC) The coins of period II were
issued by the successors of Ajatasatru in between 520-440 BC the coins of
period III were in all probability issued by Sisunaga and his successors The coins
of period IV may be attributed to the kings of the Nanda dynasty while the coins
of period V may be attributed to Chandnagupta Maurya But it is not certain if all
the coins of this period were issued by him Some of the varieties might belong to
his son Bindusara The coins of period VI should be attributed to Asoka P L
Gupta Ibid
15 Some aspects of this theory have been criticised by SR Goyal According to him
There was no Imperial power in South India in the sixth century BC and coins
of the Imperial series which are recovered from all over India strictly speaking
should be ascribed to the Nandas and Mauryas SR Goyal Indegenous coins of
Early India (Hence forth ICEI) Jodhpur 1994 Pp 90-93 16
93
The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as
Karshapanas Mashas and Panas16
The early punch-marked coins as we have
seen were local with their respective characteristics The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another Literary records speak of Karshapanas
which is derived from Karsha17
of gold silver and copper The gold
Karshapanalsquo was also known as suvarna and niska whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana18
However most of these coins are of silver they
are of 32 rattis19
and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin20
The units of Karshapana are karshapana ardha-karshapana pada
karshapana chatur - mashaka trimashaka dvi-mashaka and kakani21
Among
the coins of the punch-marked class the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22
Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas
16 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p 31
17 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century AD London 1891 p 6
18 DC Sircar Studies in Indian coins Delhi 1968 p 2
19 A Cunnigham opcit
20 Ibid p 42
21 DR Bhadarkar Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics Calcuta 1921 p 77
22 DC Sircar op cit Pp 5-6
94
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
89
mysteriousas ever3
The punching devices of these coins may be identified into
several hundred varieties Earlier symbols were simple and bold but later ones
tended to be comparatively small and complex in design The name punch shy
markedlsquo is derived from the fact that the coins concerned bear symbols
stamped by different punches and these punch-marked symbols were generally
associated with villages towns cities mountains river banks and mint
masters 4
Each of the symbol is found confined to the coins of a particular area
or on those of a particular variety or type Thus they enable one to isolate the
coins of one area from those of another of one state from those of another and
of one period from those of another
In order to remove the difficulties from barter and to have a portable and
convenient standard different metals were introduced and in course of time
different stamps or marks were imprinted on them by the issuing authorities5
Highly controversial theories originated about the date and origin of these
coins In the opinion of ALBasham the uninscribed punch-marked coins
were minted from the 6th century BC onwards and were in circulation for
many centuries6
Moreover from a careful study of the symbols such as the
sun mountains trees branches of trees human figures rabbits dogs
3 RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1083 p 5 Some of the symbols of the
animals marked on the reverse may represent the totemic nature of the tribes or
clans Some geometrical signs have been taken to represent Brahmi letters and
they may represent the initial letter of a personal name Some scholars have tried
to interpret them as Tantric symbols with the help of Tantric texts See Durga
Prasad Observations on different types of Silver Punch Marked Coins their
Periods and Locale Numismatic Supplement XL VII (1938) p 56
4 Visuddhimagga Vide M Chandas presidential address at the 43 Annual Session
of the Numismatic Society of India December 1953 in JNSI XVI XVI Pt 1 p
7
5 The symbols were the identification of the issuing authority and that
symbolssometimes differed according to the provenance and will of the authority
Romila Thapar From Lineage to State Bombay 1984 p 101
6 AL Basham The Wonder that Was India New Delhi 1967 p 504
90
scorpions snakes etc it can be suggested that the punch-marked coins were
issued even earlier than the 6th
century BC when the most primitive Indians
happened to worship sun mountains trees spirits animals snakes and the like
Most scholars consider the punch-marked coins as of indigenous origin We do
not know in which part of India they originated However in the light of recent
evidences we consider that the birth place of punch-marked coins was in some
territories of north India7
There are also differences of opinion about the
issuing authority of the punch-marked coins8
7 CJ Brown The Coins of India New delhi 1988 p 16
8 Some scholars held the view that this coinage was issued by certain private
authorities while others considered it as a government issue According to VA
Smith The punch-marked coinage was a private coinage issued by guilds and
silversmiths with the permission of the rating powers This theory was also
accepted by DC Sircar Durga Prasad strongly refuted the view that the punch-
marked coins were private issues John Allan is of the view that these coins were
issued by a government authority and not by private individuals For further
details see ANLahiri Numismatography of punch-marked Coins JNSI - XLIX shy
Pp 157 -160 Romila Thapar opines that punch-marked coins were issued by a
central authority and probably the imperial mints were situated in the five major
cities of the empire She does not accept the idea that these coins were traders
tokens which gradually acquired the status of a national coinage See Romila
Thapar Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas p 247 Kautilyalsquos Arthasasthra
speaks about the officials like Lakshanadhyaksha or Rupyadhyaksha
Rupadarsika etc connected with coinage For more details See DR
Bhandarkar Lecture on Ancient Indian Numismatics Pp 156-160 See also
Upendra Thakur Minting of coins and Problems of forgery in Indian Coinslsquo in
GKuppuram and K Kumudamani (ed) History of Science and Technology in
India (in 12 volumes) Vol VIII New Delhi Pp3-6 DB Spooner strongly
refuted private issue theorylsquo of the punch-marked coins and he came to the
conclusion that the issuing authorities of these coins were not private agencies
rather than the states themselves See Asiatic Society of India Annual Report shy
1905 - 06 Pp 150-155 Quoted by MK Sheran Tribal Coins A Study Mysore
1975 p 25
91
Scholars also give divergent pictures regarding the metal of the original
coinage9
The earliest coins found at Kasi and Kosala in the Gangetic valley
and bent-bar coins of Gandhara region of 6th
Century BC are of silver Silver
was preferred for the manufacture of coins because it served better as the
medium of exchange with other regions Besides it carried value when melted
As indigenous silver was not available in much quantity there was the
possibility of it being imported from the West The coins in copper were most
likely local issues and they were issued mostly in the post-Mauryan period
In early periods the coins were manufactured usually by three
techniques - punching casting and striking To manufacture coins metal pieces
were cut into the required shape with the help of a chisel and marks were
punched on them later This type of coins can be seen in all possible shapes
such as square octagonal oblong oval circular rectangular bar-type and
irregular Probably the weight of each coin decided the shape In the beginning
only one side of these coins was punched with symbols and the other side
remained blank In course of time this blank side also came to be stamped with
punched marks
Indialsquos earliest silver punch-marked coins are almost certainly represented
by the Droplet issues10
However in early historic India various states followed
minting techniques according to their suitability These techniques consisted of
two important processes viz preparing plantchets and striking coins from the
9 Copper came into use earlier than silver in India Silver was mainly imported from
abroad and so its purity stood in the way of its use for the manufacture of coins
See - SK Chakraborthy opcit Pp 40-41 AS Altekar thinks that Karshapana
Silver currency may not be earlier than C 800 BC but the east copper round and
square coins may be earlier JNSI XXII Pp 1 But this view does not appear to
be correct Copper came into use for coins most likely at the time of the Mauryas
To PL Gupta the early coins are all in silver and no coin of gold is known in
India prior to the advent of the Indo-Bactrians in the second-first centuries BC
PL Gupta opcit p8 Upendra Thakur is of the view that the number of gold
coins issued by the early Indian kings is far less compared to silver and copper
coins Upendra Thakur Source of gold for Early gold coins of India opcit p 71
10 For more details about the Droplet technique see JNSI Vol LV Pp 169 ff
92
plantchets and both these techniques embody a dozen techniques for the
fabrication of punch-marked coins in India11
Thousands of punch-marked coins have been discovered virtually from
all parts of the Indian subcontinent often in big hoards consisting of five to
eight thousand pieces They are of numerous denominations and fabric series
earlier ones being local found in restricted areas and later ones universal or
imperial punch-marked coins found almost throughout the country12
The coins
of the local series were chronologically earlier than the coins of the Imperial
series and they mainly represented the coinage of the various Janapadas of the
early Budhist age13
The Imperial series was the coinage of the Magadhan
Empire and it has further been classified into six categories14
The hoards of the
Imperial coins generally do not include the local type of coins But in a few
hoards where local type of coins are known along with the Imperial coins the
former are few in number and are in uquite worn-out condition This shows that
the regional coinage was anterior to the Imperial coinage But some scholars
have criticised this classification15
11 JNSI Vol L VIII - Pp 115-120
12 JNSI XLIX Pp 157-160
13 PL Gupta The Early Coins From KeralaTrivandrum 1965 Pp 3-4
14 Six Categories According to PL Gupta the coins of Period I of the Golakpur
hoardmay be attributed to Ajatasatru (552-520 BC) The coins of period II were
issued by the successors of Ajatasatru in between 520-440 BC the coins of
period III were in all probability issued by Sisunaga and his successors The coins
of period IV may be attributed to the kings of the Nanda dynasty while the coins
of period V may be attributed to Chandnagupta Maurya But it is not certain if all
the coins of this period were issued by him Some of the varieties might belong to
his son Bindusara The coins of period VI should be attributed to Asoka P L
Gupta Ibid
15 Some aspects of this theory have been criticised by SR Goyal According to him
There was no Imperial power in South India in the sixth century BC and coins
of the Imperial series which are recovered from all over India strictly speaking
should be ascribed to the Nandas and Mauryas SR Goyal Indegenous coins of
Early India (Hence forth ICEI) Jodhpur 1994 Pp 90-93 16
93
The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as
Karshapanas Mashas and Panas16
The early punch-marked coins as we have
seen were local with their respective characteristics The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another Literary records speak of Karshapanas
which is derived from Karsha17
of gold silver and copper The gold
Karshapanalsquo was also known as suvarna and niska whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana18
However most of these coins are of silver they
are of 32 rattis19
and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin20
The units of Karshapana are karshapana ardha-karshapana pada
karshapana chatur - mashaka trimashaka dvi-mashaka and kakani21
Among
the coins of the punch-marked class the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22
Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas
16 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p 31
17 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century AD London 1891 p 6
18 DC Sircar Studies in Indian coins Delhi 1968 p 2
19 A Cunnigham opcit
20 Ibid p 42
21 DR Bhadarkar Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics Calcuta 1921 p 77
22 DC Sircar op cit Pp 5-6
94
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
mysteriousas ever3
The punching devices of these coins may be identified into
several hundred varieties Earlier symbols were simple and bold but later ones
tended to be comparatively small and complex in design The name punch shy
markedlsquo is derived from the fact that the coins concerned bear symbols
stamped by different punches and these punch-marked symbols were generally
associated with villages towns cities mountains river banks and mint
masters 4
Each of the symbol is found confined to the coins of a particular area
or on those of a particular variety or type Thus they enable one to isolate the
coins of one area from those of another of one state from those of another and
of one period from those of another
In order to remove the difficulties from barter and to have a portable and
convenient standard different metals were introduced and in course of time
different stamps or marks were imprinted on them by the issuing authorities5
Highly controversial theories originated about the date and origin of these
coins In the opinion of ALBasham the uninscribed punch-marked coins
were minted from the 6th century BC onwards and were in circulation for
many centuries6
Moreover from a careful study of the symbols such as the
sun mountains trees branches of trees human figures rabbits dogs
3 RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1083 p 5 Some of the symbols of the
animals marked on the reverse may represent the totemic nature of the tribes or
clans Some geometrical signs have been taken to represent Brahmi letters and
they may represent the initial letter of a personal name Some scholars have tried
to interpret them as Tantric symbols with the help of Tantric texts See Durga
Prasad Observations on different types of Silver Punch Marked Coins their
Periods and Locale Numismatic Supplement XL VII (1938) p 56
4 Visuddhimagga Vide M Chandas presidential address at the 43 Annual Session
of the Numismatic Society of India December 1953 in JNSI XVI XVI Pt 1 p
7
5 The symbols were the identification of the issuing authority and that
symbolssometimes differed according to the provenance and will of the authority
Romila Thapar From Lineage to State Bombay 1984 p 101
6 AL Basham The Wonder that Was India New Delhi 1967 p 504
90
scorpions snakes etc it can be suggested that the punch-marked coins were
issued even earlier than the 6th
century BC when the most primitive Indians
happened to worship sun mountains trees spirits animals snakes and the like
Most scholars consider the punch-marked coins as of indigenous origin We do
not know in which part of India they originated However in the light of recent
evidences we consider that the birth place of punch-marked coins was in some
territories of north India7
There are also differences of opinion about the
issuing authority of the punch-marked coins8
7 CJ Brown The Coins of India New delhi 1988 p 16
8 Some scholars held the view that this coinage was issued by certain private
authorities while others considered it as a government issue According to VA
Smith The punch-marked coinage was a private coinage issued by guilds and
silversmiths with the permission of the rating powers This theory was also
accepted by DC Sircar Durga Prasad strongly refuted the view that the punch-
marked coins were private issues John Allan is of the view that these coins were
issued by a government authority and not by private individuals For further
details see ANLahiri Numismatography of punch-marked Coins JNSI - XLIX shy
Pp 157 -160 Romila Thapar opines that punch-marked coins were issued by a
central authority and probably the imperial mints were situated in the five major
cities of the empire She does not accept the idea that these coins were traders
tokens which gradually acquired the status of a national coinage See Romila
Thapar Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas p 247 Kautilyalsquos Arthasasthra
speaks about the officials like Lakshanadhyaksha or Rupyadhyaksha
Rupadarsika etc connected with coinage For more details See DR
Bhandarkar Lecture on Ancient Indian Numismatics Pp 156-160 See also
Upendra Thakur Minting of coins and Problems of forgery in Indian Coinslsquo in
GKuppuram and K Kumudamani (ed) History of Science and Technology in
India (in 12 volumes) Vol VIII New Delhi Pp3-6 DB Spooner strongly
refuted private issue theorylsquo of the punch-marked coins and he came to the
conclusion that the issuing authorities of these coins were not private agencies
rather than the states themselves See Asiatic Society of India Annual Report shy
1905 - 06 Pp 150-155 Quoted by MK Sheran Tribal Coins A Study Mysore
1975 p 25
91
Scholars also give divergent pictures regarding the metal of the original
coinage9
The earliest coins found at Kasi and Kosala in the Gangetic valley
and bent-bar coins of Gandhara region of 6th
Century BC are of silver Silver
was preferred for the manufacture of coins because it served better as the
medium of exchange with other regions Besides it carried value when melted
As indigenous silver was not available in much quantity there was the
possibility of it being imported from the West The coins in copper were most
likely local issues and they were issued mostly in the post-Mauryan period
In early periods the coins were manufactured usually by three
techniques - punching casting and striking To manufacture coins metal pieces
were cut into the required shape with the help of a chisel and marks were
punched on them later This type of coins can be seen in all possible shapes
such as square octagonal oblong oval circular rectangular bar-type and
irregular Probably the weight of each coin decided the shape In the beginning
only one side of these coins was punched with symbols and the other side
remained blank In course of time this blank side also came to be stamped with
punched marks
Indialsquos earliest silver punch-marked coins are almost certainly represented
by the Droplet issues10
However in early historic India various states followed
minting techniques according to their suitability These techniques consisted of
two important processes viz preparing plantchets and striking coins from the
9 Copper came into use earlier than silver in India Silver was mainly imported from
abroad and so its purity stood in the way of its use for the manufacture of coins
See - SK Chakraborthy opcit Pp 40-41 AS Altekar thinks that Karshapana
Silver currency may not be earlier than C 800 BC but the east copper round and
square coins may be earlier JNSI XXII Pp 1 But this view does not appear to
be correct Copper came into use for coins most likely at the time of the Mauryas
To PL Gupta the early coins are all in silver and no coin of gold is known in
India prior to the advent of the Indo-Bactrians in the second-first centuries BC
PL Gupta opcit p8 Upendra Thakur is of the view that the number of gold
coins issued by the early Indian kings is far less compared to silver and copper
coins Upendra Thakur Source of gold for Early gold coins of India opcit p 71
10 For more details about the Droplet technique see JNSI Vol LV Pp 169 ff
92
plantchets and both these techniques embody a dozen techniques for the
fabrication of punch-marked coins in India11
Thousands of punch-marked coins have been discovered virtually from
all parts of the Indian subcontinent often in big hoards consisting of five to
eight thousand pieces They are of numerous denominations and fabric series
earlier ones being local found in restricted areas and later ones universal or
imperial punch-marked coins found almost throughout the country12
The coins
of the local series were chronologically earlier than the coins of the Imperial
series and they mainly represented the coinage of the various Janapadas of the
early Budhist age13
The Imperial series was the coinage of the Magadhan
Empire and it has further been classified into six categories14
The hoards of the
Imperial coins generally do not include the local type of coins But in a few
hoards where local type of coins are known along with the Imperial coins the
former are few in number and are in uquite worn-out condition This shows that
the regional coinage was anterior to the Imperial coinage But some scholars
have criticised this classification15
11 JNSI Vol L VIII - Pp 115-120
12 JNSI XLIX Pp 157-160
13 PL Gupta The Early Coins From KeralaTrivandrum 1965 Pp 3-4
14 Six Categories According to PL Gupta the coins of Period I of the Golakpur
hoardmay be attributed to Ajatasatru (552-520 BC) The coins of period II were
issued by the successors of Ajatasatru in between 520-440 BC the coins of
period III were in all probability issued by Sisunaga and his successors The coins
of period IV may be attributed to the kings of the Nanda dynasty while the coins
of period V may be attributed to Chandnagupta Maurya But it is not certain if all
the coins of this period were issued by him Some of the varieties might belong to
his son Bindusara The coins of period VI should be attributed to Asoka P L
Gupta Ibid
15 Some aspects of this theory have been criticised by SR Goyal According to him
There was no Imperial power in South India in the sixth century BC and coins
of the Imperial series which are recovered from all over India strictly speaking
should be ascribed to the Nandas and Mauryas SR Goyal Indegenous coins of
Early India (Hence forth ICEI) Jodhpur 1994 Pp 90-93 16
93
The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as
Karshapanas Mashas and Panas16
The early punch-marked coins as we have
seen were local with their respective characteristics The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another Literary records speak of Karshapanas
which is derived from Karsha17
of gold silver and copper The gold
Karshapanalsquo was also known as suvarna and niska whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana18
However most of these coins are of silver they
are of 32 rattis19
and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin20
The units of Karshapana are karshapana ardha-karshapana pada
karshapana chatur - mashaka trimashaka dvi-mashaka and kakani21
Among
the coins of the punch-marked class the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22
Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas
16 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p 31
17 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century AD London 1891 p 6
18 DC Sircar Studies in Indian coins Delhi 1968 p 2
19 A Cunnigham opcit
20 Ibid p 42
21 DR Bhadarkar Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics Calcuta 1921 p 77
22 DC Sircar op cit Pp 5-6
94
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
scorpions snakes etc it can be suggested that the punch-marked coins were
issued even earlier than the 6th
century BC when the most primitive Indians
happened to worship sun mountains trees spirits animals snakes and the like
Most scholars consider the punch-marked coins as of indigenous origin We do
not know in which part of India they originated However in the light of recent
evidences we consider that the birth place of punch-marked coins was in some
territories of north India7
There are also differences of opinion about the
issuing authority of the punch-marked coins8
7 CJ Brown The Coins of India New delhi 1988 p 16
8 Some scholars held the view that this coinage was issued by certain private
authorities while others considered it as a government issue According to VA
Smith The punch-marked coinage was a private coinage issued by guilds and
silversmiths with the permission of the rating powers This theory was also
accepted by DC Sircar Durga Prasad strongly refuted the view that the punch-
marked coins were private issues John Allan is of the view that these coins were
issued by a government authority and not by private individuals For further
details see ANLahiri Numismatography of punch-marked Coins JNSI - XLIX shy
Pp 157 -160 Romila Thapar opines that punch-marked coins were issued by a
central authority and probably the imperial mints were situated in the five major
cities of the empire She does not accept the idea that these coins were traders
tokens which gradually acquired the status of a national coinage See Romila
Thapar Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas p 247 Kautilyalsquos Arthasasthra
speaks about the officials like Lakshanadhyaksha or Rupyadhyaksha
Rupadarsika etc connected with coinage For more details See DR
Bhandarkar Lecture on Ancient Indian Numismatics Pp 156-160 See also
Upendra Thakur Minting of coins and Problems of forgery in Indian Coinslsquo in
GKuppuram and K Kumudamani (ed) History of Science and Technology in
India (in 12 volumes) Vol VIII New Delhi Pp3-6 DB Spooner strongly
refuted private issue theorylsquo of the punch-marked coins and he came to the
conclusion that the issuing authorities of these coins were not private agencies
rather than the states themselves See Asiatic Society of India Annual Report shy
1905 - 06 Pp 150-155 Quoted by MK Sheran Tribal Coins A Study Mysore
1975 p 25
91
Scholars also give divergent pictures regarding the metal of the original
coinage9
The earliest coins found at Kasi and Kosala in the Gangetic valley
and bent-bar coins of Gandhara region of 6th
Century BC are of silver Silver
was preferred for the manufacture of coins because it served better as the
medium of exchange with other regions Besides it carried value when melted
As indigenous silver was not available in much quantity there was the
possibility of it being imported from the West The coins in copper were most
likely local issues and they were issued mostly in the post-Mauryan period
In early periods the coins were manufactured usually by three
techniques - punching casting and striking To manufacture coins metal pieces
were cut into the required shape with the help of a chisel and marks were
punched on them later This type of coins can be seen in all possible shapes
such as square octagonal oblong oval circular rectangular bar-type and
irregular Probably the weight of each coin decided the shape In the beginning
only one side of these coins was punched with symbols and the other side
remained blank In course of time this blank side also came to be stamped with
punched marks
Indialsquos earliest silver punch-marked coins are almost certainly represented
by the Droplet issues10
However in early historic India various states followed
minting techniques according to their suitability These techniques consisted of
two important processes viz preparing plantchets and striking coins from the
9 Copper came into use earlier than silver in India Silver was mainly imported from
abroad and so its purity stood in the way of its use for the manufacture of coins
See - SK Chakraborthy opcit Pp 40-41 AS Altekar thinks that Karshapana
Silver currency may not be earlier than C 800 BC but the east copper round and
square coins may be earlier JNSI XXII Pp 1 But this view does not appear to
be correct Copper came into use for coins most likely at the time of the Mauryas
To PL Gupta the early coins are all in silver and no coin of gold is known in
India prior to the advent of the Indo-Bactrians in the second-first centuries BC
PL Gupta opcit p8 Upendra Thakur is of the view that the number of gold
coins issued by the early Indian kings is far less compared to silver and copper
coins Upendra Thakur Source of gold for Early gold coins of India opcit p 71
10 For more details about the Droplet technique see JNSI Vol LV Pp 169 ff
92
plantchets and both these techniques embody a dozen techniques for the
fabrication of punch-marked coins in India11
Thousands of punch-marked coins have been discovered virtually from
all parts of the Indian subcontinent often in big hoards consisting of five to
eight thousand pieces They are of numerous denominations and fabric series
earlier ones being local found in restricted areas and later ones universal or
imperial punch-marked coins found almost throughout the country12
The coins
of the local series were chronologically earlier than the coins of the Imperial
series and they mainly represented the coinage of the various Janapadas of the
early Budhist age13
The Imperial series was the coinage of the Magadhan
Empire and it has further been classified into six categories14
The hoards of the
Imperial coins generally do not include the local type of coins But in a few
hoards where local type of coins are known along with the Imperial coins the
former are few in number and are in uquite worn-out condition This shows that
the regional coinage was anterior to the Imperial coinage But some scholars
have criticised this classification15
11 JNSI Vol L VIII - Pp 115-120
12 JNSI XLIX Pp 157-160
13 PL Gupta The Early Coins From KeralaTrivandrum 1965 Pp 3-4
14 Six Categories According to PL Gupta the coins of Period I of the Golakpur
hoardmay be attributed to Ajatasatru (552-520 BC) The coins of period II were
issued by the successors of Ajatasatru in between 520-440 BC the coins of
period III were in all probability issued by Sisunaga and his successors The coins
of period IV may be attributed to the kings of the Nanda dynasty while the coins
of period V may be attributed to Chandnagupta Maurya But it is not certain if all
the coins of this period were issued by him Some of the varieties might belong to
his son Bindusara The coins of period VI should be attributed to Asoka P L
Gupta Ibid
15 Some aspects of this theory have been criticised by SR Goyal According to him
There was no Imperial power in South India in the sixth century BC and coins
of the Imperial series which are recovered from all over India strictly speaking
should be ascribed to the Nandas and Mauryas SR Goyal Indegenous coins of
Early India (Hence forth ICEI) Jodhpur 1994 Pp 90-93 16
93
The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as
Karshapanas Mashas and Panas16
The early punch-marked coins as we have
seen were local with their respective characteristics The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another Literary records speak of Karshapanas
which is derived from Karsha17
of gold silver and copper The gold
Karshapanalsquo was also known as suvarna and niska whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana18
However most of these coins are of silver they
are of 32 rattis19
and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin20
The units of Karshapana are karshapana ardha-karshapana pada
karshapana chatur - mashaka trimashaka dvi-mashaka and kakani21
Among
the coins of the punch-marked class the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22
Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas
16 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p 31
17 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century AD London 1891 p 6
18 DC Sircar Studies in Indian coins Delhi 1968 p 2
19 A Cunnigham opcit
20 Ibid p 42
21 DR Bhadarkar Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics Calcuta 1921 p 77
22 DC Sircar op cit Pp 5-6
94
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Scholars also give divergent pictures regarding the metal of the original
coinage9
The earliest coins found at Kasi and Kosala in the Gangetic valley
and bent-bar coins of Gandhara region of 6th
Century BC are of silver Silver
was preferred for the manufacture of coins because it served better as the
medium of exchange with other regions Besides it carried value when melted
As indigenous silver was not available in much quantity there was the
possibility of it being imported from the West The coins in copper were most
likely local issues and they were issued mostly in the post-Mauryan period
In early periods the coins were manufactured usually by three
techniques - punching casting and striking To manufacture coins metal pieces
were cut into the required shape with the help of a chisel and marks were
punched on them later This type of coins can be seen in all possible shapes
such as square octagonal oblong oval circular rectangular bar-type and
irregular Probably the weight of each coin decided the shape In the beginning
only one side of these coins was punched with symbols and the other side
remained blank In course of time this blank side also came to be stamped with
punched marks
Indialsquos earliest silver punch-marked coins are almost certainly represented
by the Droplet issues10
However in early historic India various states followed
minting techniques according to their suitability These techniques consisted of
two important processes viz preparing plantchets and striking coins from the
9 Copper came into use earlier than silver in India Silver was mainly imported from
abroad and so its purity stood in the way of its use for the manufacture of coins
See - SK Chakraborthy opcit Pp 40-41 AS Altekar thinks that Karshapana
Silver currency may not be earlier than C 800 BC but the east copper round and
square coins may be earlier JNSI XXII Pp 1 But this view does not appear to
be correct Copper came into use for coins most likely at the time of the Mauryas
To PL Gupta the early coins are all in silver and no coin of gold is known in
India prior to the advent of the Indo-Bactrians in the second-first centuries BC
PL Gupta opcit p8 Upendra Thakur is of the view that the number of gold
coins issued by the early Indian kings is far less compared to silver and copper
coins Upendra Thakur Source of gold for Early gold coins of India opcit p 71
10 For more details about the Droplet technique see JNSI Vol LV Pp 169 ff
92
plantchets and both these techniques embody a dozen techniques for the
fabrication of punch-marked coins in India11
Thousands of punch-marked coins have been discovered virtually from
all parts of the Indian subcontinent often in big hoards consisting of five to
eight thousand pieces They are of numerous denominations and fabric series
earlier ones being local found in restricted areas and later ones universal or
imperial punch-marked coins found almost throughout the country12
The coins
of the local series were chronologically earlier than the coins of the Imperial
series and they mainly represented the coinage of the various Janapadas of the
early Budhist age13
The Imperial series was the coinage of the Magadhan
Empire and it has further been classified into six categories14
The hoards of the
Imperial coins generally do not include the local type of coins But in a few
hoards where local type of coins are known along with the Imperial coins the
former are few in number and are in uquite worn-out condition This shows that
the regional coinage was anterior to the Imperial coinage But some scholars
have criticised this classification15
11 JNSI Vol L VIII - Pp 115-120
12 JNSI XLIX Pp 157-160
13 PL Gupta The Early Coins From KeralaTrivandrum 1965 Pp 3-4
14 Six Categories According to PL Gupta the coins of Period I of the Golakpur
hoardmay be attributed to Ajatasatru (552-520 BC) The coins of period II were
issued by the successors of Ajatasatru in between 520-440 BC the coins of
period III were in all probability issued by Sisunaga and his successors The coins
of period IV may be attributed to the kings of the Nanda dynasty while the coins
of period V may be attributed to Chandnagupta Maurya But it is not certain if all
the coins of this period were issued by him Some of the varieties might belong to
his son Bindusara The coins of period VI should be attributed to Asoka P L
Gupta Ibid
15 Some aspects of this theory have been criticised by SR Goyal According to him
There was no Imperial power in South India in the sixth century BC and coins
of the Imperial series which are recovered from all over India strictly speaking
should be ascribed to the Nandas and Mauryas SR Goyal Indegenous coins of
Early India (Hence forth ICEI) Jodhpur 1994 Pp 90-93 16
93
The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as
Karshapanas Mashas and Panas16
The early punch-marked coins as we have
seen were local with their respective characteristics The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another Literary records speak of Karshapanas
which is derived from Karsha17
of gold silver and copper The gold
Karshapanalsquo was also known as suvarna and niska whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana18
However most of these coins are of silver they
are of 32 rattis19
and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin20
The units of Karshapana are karshapana ardha-karshapana pada
karshapana chatur - mashaka trimashaka dvi-mashaka and kakani21
Among
the coins of the punch-marked class the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22
Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas
16 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p 31
17 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century AD London 1891 p 6
18 DC Sircar Studies in Indian coins Delhi 1968 p 2
19 A Cunnigham opcit
20 Ibid p 42
21 DR Bhadarkar Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics Calcuta 1921 p 77
22 DC Sircar op cit Pp 5-6
94
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
plantchets and both these techniques embody a dozen techniques for the
fabrication of punch-marked coins in India11
Thousands of punch-marked coins have been discovered virtually from
all parts of the Indian subcontinent often in big hoards consisting of five to
eight thousand pieces They are of numerous denominations and fabric series
earlier ones being local found in restricted areas and later ones universal or
imperial punch-marked coins found almost throughout the country12
The coins
of the local series were chronologically earlier than the coins of the Imperial
series and they mainly represented the coinage of the various Janapadas of the
early Budhist age13
The Imperial series was the coinage of the Magadhan
Empire and it has further been classified into six categories14
The hoards of the
Imperial coins generally do not include the local type of coins But in a few
hoards where local type of coins are known along with the Imperial coins the
former are few in number and are in uquite worn-out condition This shows that
the regional coinage was anterior to the Imperial coinage But some scholars
have criticised this classification15
11 JNSI Vol L VIII - Pp 115-120
12 JNSI XLIX Pp 157-160
13 PL Gupta The Early Coins From KeralaTrivandrum 1965 Pp 3-4
14 Six Categories According to PL Gupta the coins of Period I of the Golakpur
hoardmay be attributed to Ajatasatru (552-520 BC) The coins of period II were
issued by the successors of Ajatasatru in between 520-440 BC the coins of
period III were in all probability issued by Sisunaga and his successors The coins
of period IV may be attributed to the kings of the Nanda dynasty while the coins
of period V may be attributed to Chandnagupta Maurya But it is not certain if all
the coins of this period were issued by him Some of the varieties might belong to
his son Bindusara The coins of period VI should be attributed to Asoka P L
Gupta Ibid
15 Some aspects of this theory have been criticised by SR Goyal According to him
There was no Imperial power in South India in the sixth century BC and coins
of the Imperial series which are recovered from all over India strictly speaking
should be ascribed to the Nandas and Mauryas SR Goyal Indegenous coins of
Early India (Hence forth ICEI) Jodhpur 1994 Pp 90-93 16
93
The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as
Karshapanas Mashas and Panas16
The early punch-marked coins as we have
seen were local with their respective characteristics The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another Literary records speak of Karshapanas
which is derived from Karsha17
of gold silver and copper The gold
Karshapanalsquo was also known as suvarna and niska whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana18
However most of these coins are of silver they
are of 32 rattis19
and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin20
The units of Karshapana are karshapana ardha-karshapana pada
karshapana chatur - mashaka trimashaka dvi-mashaka and kakani21
Among
the coins of the punch-marked class the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22
Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas
16 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p 31
17 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century AD London 1891 p 6
18 DC Sircar Studies in Indian coins Delhi 1968 p 2
19 A Cunnigham opcit
20 Ibid p 42
21 DR Bhadarkar Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics Calcuta 1921 p 77
22 DC Sircar op cit Pp 5-6
94
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as
Karshapanas Mashas and Panas16
The early punch-marked coins as we have
seen were local with their respective characteristics The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another Literary records speak of Karshapanas
which is derived from Karsha17
of gold silver and copper The gold
Karshapanalsquo was also known as suvarna and niska whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana18
However most of these coins are of silver they
are of 32 rattis19
and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin20
The units of Karshapana are karshapana ardha-karshapana pada
karshapana chatur - mashaka trimashaka dvi-mashaka and kakani21
Among
the coins of the punch-marked class the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22
Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas
16 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p 31
17 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century AD London 1891 p 6
18 DC Sircar Studies in Indian coins Delhi 1968 p 2
19 A Cunnigham opcit
20 Ibid p 42
21 DR Bhadarkar Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics Calcuta 1921 p 77
22 DC Sircar op cit Pp 5-6
94
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
BC In this system instead of punching several symbols by separate dies a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era These coins were made only of copper The
Yandheyas23
were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time
Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous
methods) gradually became extinct This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on
inscriptions were also added into it At first the device was only on one side
but gradually the double-die system came into practice The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique On a design
engraved on the anvil the coin blank was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design The anvil-die bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin In the
next stage a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse24
The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly Among the most well-produced die-struck
23 The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins For more details see SK Chakkraborthy A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973) Pp 219-225 24
RVanaja Indian Coinage New Delhi 1983 p 4
95
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks Scytho- Parthians Kushanas the Imperial Guptas etc 25
Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest
coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26
or Kavati in
Malayalam was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India including south India The cowrie that was
peoples money even before the actual coins made its appearance could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described as this shell is known to all27
The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28
and were used for minor transactions They were linked up with
copper We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29
and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to
25 BN Mukherjee Technology of Indian coinage Ancient and Medieval Period in
History of Science and Technology of India Calcutta 1988 p39
26 Archaeology Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times but on a careful check the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites For more details
about cowrie money see Primitive Archaic and modern economics Essays of
Karl Polanyi Edited by George Dalton PP 280 ff See also DC Sircar opcit
Pp 279 ff
27 KAN Sasthri Foreign Notices Madras 1939 1953 p 122
28 Watt Sir G The Commercial Products of India London 1908 (Delhi 1966) p
989
29 HHDodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India Vol I London 1922 p 218
96
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
determine30
There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a
particular coin differed in various parts of the country
On the Malabar coast gold and silver were the money of commerce
when Ibn Batuta visited but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
31 32in use as the money of the poor The palunku Kasu of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries Kanam is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like kasu it also denoted gold in general33
However the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land were known as copper globules These globules were
in use as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India34
Because of the
influence of the north the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins
The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins ever known in India
was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra35 It was an exclusive
30 In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries in 1840 for 6500 See
Walter Elliot The Coins of Southern India London 1986 p 59 Foot Note No 2
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice a copper
coin So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee the silver standard coin See
SK Chakraborthi A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics Varanasi 1973 p
103 Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis For
details See A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 189 Pp 46-47
31 George Dalton (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi opcit p298 Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century For details see
KP Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala Pp 26shy
27
32 Agam 31512
33 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1975 p 245
34 See JNSI Vol LVIII p 1
35 PL Gupta Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins in Oriental Numismatic
Studies Vol I (ed) Devendra Handa New Delhi 1996p2 37
97
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
south Indian issue In the peninsular region of the south punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas 36
But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late more or less at the same time as Roman
coins the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities37
But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative38
It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins which have five symbols of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres
36 IK Sarma - South Indian Coinage A Review of the Recent Discoveries p 11
(Madras 1992)
37 IK Sarma opcit p 11
38 TV Mahalingam (ed) Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins No 1 Varanasi 1966 Pp 20-23
98
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings39
But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region40
However
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India41
After the
disintegration of the Mauryas many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully declared a sudden
independence So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42
established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan They began to issue die-struck coins Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper In course of time they started to issue
inscribed coins Among the inscribed coins lead coins were found in large
numbers
The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these
Marathis After the Marathis Anandas43
ruled the country and their coins are
also available The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily
39 JNSI Vol LVIII p 2
40 IK Sarma Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations A review of the finds
from South India in PL Gupta and AK Jha (Ed) Numismatics and
Archaeology Nasik 1987 Pp 93-101
41 The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins For
details see - PL Gupta coins New Delhi 1969 p43
42 Ibid p 44
43 Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch Over the symbol is the inscription
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins Ibid p45
99
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
sometimes in the first century BC and ruled over a wide territory Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44
and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India
During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable
set back because of the attacks of the Hunas the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire So both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages Because of
the paucity of coins lands were granted not only to priests scholars temples
and monasteries but also to the officers of the state45
During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country The most striking feature of the south Indian coins during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46
round and cup-shaped
44 Shastri AM Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations p 4
Nagpur 1972 45
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism p 11 (Delhi Second Edn 1980)
46 The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka) They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre in addition to
various symbols punched on sides Because of the punches the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup These coins weigh 58 grains On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks See PL Gupta opcit Pp 60-64
100
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
small and thin coins were very popular for many centuries Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India47
rd rdDuring the Sangam period (from the 3 c BC to the 3 century AD)
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas the
Pandyas and the Cheras They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders48
The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie the southshy
eastern parts of Tamil country) the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam) ie the north-eastern part of Tamil country and the Cheras
the kingdom in its developed form extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types
Scholars believe that tiger fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains influx of coins
of Satavahanas Kushanas Romans Seleucids Phoenicians besides coins from
the Greek Island Rhodes and Crete Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny
the Roman historian of the first century calls it Caelabothras In contemporary
47 It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami
Ibid p 67
48 See KKrishnamurthy Sangam period Chera coins JNSI XL p 36
101
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Tamil country it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49
In early Tamil
literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships
It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka ie
3rd century BC The famous Ashoka-edicts founded in the south mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman50
He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south ie the Pandyas
the Cholas and the Cheras as independent neighbours Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira51
It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras their kingdom society etc in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times Among
the Sangam works Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52
their kingdoms and the society of that time The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral
49 Sarkar H An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala Madras 1978 p 11
50 Ibid p 10
51 See KNJ Vol 1 Nol
52 For details see Sreedharamenon AKeralacharithram (Mal) Kottayam 1967
Pp 66-71 Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram
1991 Appendix No 1 Pp 231-233 Nagaswamy Tamil coins A Study Madras
1981 Pp3-6
102
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 AD or 130 AD53
Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages54
The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins like arched hill elephant trees umbrella river with fishes swastikalsquo
sunlsquo srivatsalsquo wheel (chakra) garland bull etc on the obverse and bow and
arrow the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse55
In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow These coins are die-struck
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun square tank caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol bow and arrowlsquo on both sides Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur56
The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu57
All such coins carried the
legend
53 Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 AD while KA Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D See Sesha Aiyer KG Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period SSIC p 517 Neelakanta Sastri KA A Comprehensive History
of India New Delhi 1963 p 123
54 Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar See UV Swaminatha Iyer (ed) Padirrupattu Madras 1957 p 36
55 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
56 See SSIC Vol X - Pp 28-31PVijayaraghavan A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur
57 Krishnamurthy R Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri Pi 2-aam nootandu)
TinamaniTamil news paper Madras 16-3-1991 Quoted from KNJ Vol 1 No 2
103
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Makkotai and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 BC to the end of 100 AD a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59
has been reported Anyhow the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins
A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60
with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script
is also available There is a reference about one circular copper coin at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61
which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse62
No doubt it is clear from the prominent bow and arrow symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the
58 The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them ie
the bow and arrow It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script The reverse is blank R Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name For
details see Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai First oriented Numismatic
conferences (Nagpur 1990) Also see SS1C Vol 11 Pp 89-93 R
Krishnamurthy Makkotai Coins Ibid Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai 1997)
Pp 97-103 KNJ Vol 1 No2
59 SSIC Vol VIII Pp 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai For details
See JNSI Vol LVIII p 7
60 Krishnamurthy R Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered The Hindu Madras 24shy
5-1994
61 th The Tamil-Brahmi legend on the obverse side of the coin starting at 8 and
ending at 1st
has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami See Nagaswamy The
Sangam Age Coin found The Hindu Madras 6-9-1987 P 3 See also SSIC Vol
II Pp10-11
62 See KNJ Vol I No 1
104
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
major powers Cheras Pandyas and Cholas63
because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively The prominent bow and arrow symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend Kollipurai signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral Irumporai and Makotai
In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella But the bow and arrow is prominent This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known64
63 The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem the bow in Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin that of Rajendra I whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari Sri Rajendra See the Tamil Antiquary edited by
Pandit D Savarioroyan Coins and Currency Systems in South India CAD 225-1300 Pp
241251 256 The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish blow and arrow symbol For
details see Nagaswamy R Tamil Coins A Study Madras 1981 p99
64 Vidvan T Ramaswamy Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule) JNSI Vo LIII
1991-Pp 64-65 The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 12 x 13 x 13 x 12
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish tiger and bow and arrow The author concludes
that Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger it must have been issued by Cheras But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty with the available data at the
moment
105
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period
belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy65
Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam Kerala66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow the top string of the latter being very visible
It has been pointed out that the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin67
It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants68
However the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra Yadava
Kongu Ganga and Vijayanagara69
But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin The bow is a Chera symbol but it could
65 See JNSI Vol XLIX Pp 36-38
66 TAS Vol V Part II No 49 Pp 162
67 Ibid p 163
68 Padirupattu Verse No 11 Line 19
69 See Elliot W Coins of Southern India London 1866 Plate I - Nos 4 and 6
Plate II - No 43 Plate III Nos - 92118 and 119 The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution
106
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras70
and
probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras71
No doubt the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 AD72
The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts
During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with
foreign countries especially with the Roman Empire and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange73
One copper coin with the figure of an
elephant ankusa and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam near Paravur in Ernakulam district It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris74
Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period Thus probably they carried
their native coins not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur which was near Muziris It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their
70 Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers
For details see P Sankunni Menon Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam)
Tvm 1878 Pp 26-28 For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras See KNJ Vol I
No 2
71 MGS Narayanan Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 163
72 TAS Vol V opcit p 163
73 See Akam 149 Puram 343 Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern who translated the above work into
English wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks See KP
Padmanabha Menon Kochi Rajya Charithram Calicut 1989 p 49
74 For more details see Sree The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily 30th
May 2004 Pp 14-15
107
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
own75
If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of Sangamlsquo period76
Among the Sangam rulers Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan They
maintained close connections with foreign traders especially with the Romans
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77
The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire
Periplus says Muziri a city at the height of prosperity was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras78
Pliny in his
Natural History states that Muziris was the first emporium of India79
and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy of bags of pepper and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore
75 MGS Narayanan The Perumals of Kerala Calicut 1996 p 164
76 Krishnamurthy opcit JNSI Vol L VIII p 7
77 See PK Gopalakrishnan Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal) Tvm
1974 (6th edn) p 123
78 Sesha Aiyar KG Chera Kings of the Sangham period SSIC p 91
79 Ibid
108
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
80 81Erythrean Sea and also by Ptolemy From this site a large number of
Roman coins of gold silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras Cholas Pandyas and Satavahanas
The discovery of a punch-marked82
die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially Several hoards of Roman coins
which include aurei and denari of Augustus Tiberius Claudius Marcus
Aurelis etc have come from south India
Several coins which belong to the Greeks Phoenicians Syrians and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes Crete etc have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age83
All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes Crete Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas84
Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia which is on the
80 WH Schoff (ed) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Newyork 1912 Pp 205shy
208
81 JW Mc Crindle (ed) Ancient India as Described in Classical literature Delhi
1979 Pp 50 65
82 For details see PV Radhakrishnan A Punch marked Die from Karur SS1C shy
Vol IV-Pp 51 ff
83 RKrishnamurthy Coins from Greek Islands Rhodes and Crete found at Karur
Tamil Nadu SSIC - Vol V - p 29 ff
84 The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 BC gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity See Narain AK
The Indo-Greeks Oxford 1957 p 165
109
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean have been reported from the
Amaravati river bed85
Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks86
After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 BC
Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids By 64 BC
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers may be the Cheras during the early 2nd century
BC Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century BC After the death of
Alexander Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur87
Besides all
these coins an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur88
Like all the foreign coins found at this place we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period
85 R Krishnamurthy Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur Tamilnadu SSIC Vol
IV Pp 19 ff
86 They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west By the 6th century BC the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius For details see ACunningham Coins of
Ancient India London 1891 p12
87 R Krishnamurthy Seleucid Coins from Karur SSIC - Vol Ill p 19 ff
88 See R Krishnamurthy An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur Tamilnadu JNSI
Vol L IX pp 46-47
110
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered
from different parts of Kerala Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89
and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district90
Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin but of pan Indian91
nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha92
Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz Kottayam and Iyyal in the year 1946 AD of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
93 94classified and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal
The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins
while a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India95
Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties96
The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties which
89 Firstly two hoards were reported viz Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
AD See Department of Archaeology Administrative Reports 1971-72 Pp 75shy
76
90 The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house For details see T Satyamurthy Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins SSIC Vol IV Pp 45 ff
91 See A Sreedhara Menon Survey of Kerala HistoryKottayam 1967 p 40 Also
see Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier Kerala Charithram Sukapuram 1991
p 66
92 See A Sreedhara Menon Social and Cultural History of Kerala New Delhi
1979 p 247
93 PL Gupta Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
94 Ibid Plates II III IV V VI VII
95 Unnithan NG EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins JNSI
Vol XXV Pp 22-28
96 PL Gupta The Early Coins from Kerala Tvm 1965 p 5
111
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
belong to different periods All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin But the symbol number 61 viz Elephant to right is seen on a
large number of coins It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97
or post-Mauryan periods which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of PL Gupta and TRHardakar98
However 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
bankers mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India
The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi99
It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as bankers mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Neros period
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district
Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact
that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards provide no
97 Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India see the Gazeteer of India Vol II
(1988) (ed) PN Chopra p XXXVII
98 See PL Gupta and TR Hardakar Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins
Nasik
1995 p 31
99 Ibid p 31
112
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
clear information about Kerala However it sometimes speaks about the
economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India
Part II
Roman Coins
Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins which were found in different parts of India India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social political economic and cultural conditions of that
period Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st
century BC and grew
st ndto sizeable proportions by the 1 and 2 centuries AD A commercial network
involving Rome Egypt and Arabia which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era A major part of India contributed to this trade activity Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west west and south India in return for luxury items
Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100
of the
large number of Roman coins found in India majority of which were
discovered in south India101
particularly Andhra region Tamil Nadu
Karnataka and Kerala Roman coins were rarely found in north India because
100 SSIC VolII Pp27-28
101 AV Narasimhamurthy The coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56 Also See
the opinion of RK Mukherjee cited by VV Krishna Sasthri Roman Gold
Coins Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1992 pii
113
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
114
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers102
But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper103
The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
denarilsquo and 2nd
century AD aurie in Budhist stupas It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south104
Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus
Tiberius and Nero Republican coins also have been reported from south India
but they are rarer than the imperial coins Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary
Roman coins proper fall into two classes corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history The first class includes the money of the Republic
often called the Consularlsquo or Family serieslsquo the second those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in AD 1453105
The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol106
No coin of this remote period has however
102 Ibid
103 They used few silver pieces which are not considered to be genuine Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins ie auries However if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans ie denari why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian findsSee PL Gupta Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Govt Museum 1965 opcit p51
104 See Paula J Turner Roman Coins from India London 1989 p17
105 Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals Delhi 1982 p22
106 Ibid
115
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
been preserved and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage107
During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins108
The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in BC
84-82109
However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared They consisted of heavy cast pieces the Liberal As aes-grave and its
various parts110
In 268 BC the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4
seuples with the quinarius and sesterius its half and quarter111
The silver
denari so diverse in appearance so neat in execution so rich in imagination
and history were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic112
Between 241
107 Ibid
108 GB Rawlings Ancient Medieval Modern Coins and How to Know them
Chicago 1966 p132
109 Stanley Lane Pooleopcitp26
110 GB Rawlings opcit Pp126-127
AES This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper but alloys were more common
Modern writers sometimes use the term bdquoaes‟ abbreviated to AE to describe all
Roman coins in copper bronze and orichalcum just as the older once used
brasslsquo and copper indiscriminately See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins London 1990 p28 111
Stanley Lane Poole-opcit p24
112 JN Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p48
116
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
and 217 BC the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data and their
arrangements in chronological order though highly desirable is not always
easy
The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 BC when Caius
Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114
It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of aurielsquo though there are some rare half-aurie
and rarer still some quarternioneslsquo or pieces of four aurielsquo The aureuslsquo was
equal to twenty five silver denarilsquo and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained116
The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla
The quinariuslsquo or half-denarius also continued in use but the Sestertiuslsquo
113 GB Rawlings opcit p130
114 A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor the abbreviated title AVGlsquo is given a plural form following the
Roman practice by repeating the first letter so we find AVGGlsquo when there are
two Augusti or AVGGGlsquo when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank See John Melville Jones A Dictionary of Roman
Coins London 1990 p29
115 GBRawlings Op-cit p133
116 Ibid pp133-134
117
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
which under the Republic was struck in silver become a copper coin though
still employed as the unit of account The imperial copper money is generally
divided according to its size into large middle or small brass otherwise first
second or third brass but the classification is mainly for convenience The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper (2) of orichalcum or yellow copper ie
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117
which was more valuable The
dupondiuslsquo and Aslsquo were of similar size and weight and both came under the
head of middle or second brass but the yellow copper or brass dupondiuslsquo was
worth double the red copper Aslsquo118
An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate but occasionally convenient since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red The term
small or third brass is also elastic as it includes any subdivisions of the Aslsquo119
The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins Legionary coins Posthumous coins Restitution coins
Votive coins Medallions etc Apart from this provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire especially in the reign of
Augustus120
Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family The type also varied
with period121
The reverse designs are numberless and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people Religious subjects
personifications of virtues architecture arts amusements all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc were represented122
Gold and silver under the direct
control of the Emperors naturally showed their portraits Brass and copper
117 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p30
118 GB Rawlings opcitp-134
119 Ibid
120 Ibid Pp 144-146
121 In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate ie wearing a radiated crown
sometimes bare but rarely helmeted in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a diademlsquo or an erected helmet For details see Stanley
Lanepoole opcit Pp31-33 122
Ibid See also GB Rawlings opcitp135
118
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
were coined theoretically by direction of the senate and until Gallienuslsquo reign
they bore the letters Slsquo (senate) Clsquo (consulato) on the reverse But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted almost from the
very beginning in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the SC
coinage as well123
Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the
artistic style of the Greeks Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture With the Augustan age there
came a visible change and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods but also to embellish the villas of the
rich into many of which numerous original works from Greece Asia and
Egypt had already found their way The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas Caligula and Claudius124
The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival and when
in the later times the artists of the west poured into Constantinople carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church both in
Europe and Asia
The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west during the last few decades They generally
123 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Oxford 1974 opcitp55
124 Stanely Lane Poole opcit p36
125 The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent
Spes tripping likely forward holding a flower and gently raising her dress and
Diana rushing onward in the chase her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals ndash are all representations of Greek subjects
119
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century BC while the others place it at the earliest in the middle of the first
century BC But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th
century AD They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended more or less throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka We often get
th threferences in the records of 18 and 19 centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures ―a dozen quart
126 127measures From the typology of these coins Sewell estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology
The first Roman coins Republican denari might have reached India in
st 128the 1 century BC but they are less frequently found in India As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period129
Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius130
It is
126 PL Gupta opcit p40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127 Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance For details see JRAS (1904) p 591
128 Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland Curator Roman coins in British
Museum to Rev Fr TC Joseph Priests Home Kummannoor Kottayam 6th
July 1992 Also see Paula Turner opcit pp6-7 129
PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 p40
130 See R Sewell Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) p200 Also see RG
Rawlinson Intercourse Between India and the Western World Pp120-121 EH
Warmington Commerce between Roman Empire and India Delhi (1928)
1974Pp 286-295
120
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India131
The period after the death of Caracalla in AD 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome not only in political and military but also in economic and
other spheres The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians However there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors A few gold coins of this period are known in India but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars
Roman merchants had trading settlements in India especially in the south
132 133Of these Arikamedu two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris were
131 PLGuptaRoman Coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965opcit Pp48-50
132 Arikamedu same as Podoukelsquo mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries
gems lamps glasswares etc have been found The excavation conducted by
Mortimer Wheeler at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India For details see Ancient India No2 p17 See also
PL Gupta opcit (Roman coins from AP) p5 PJ Turner opcit p13
133 Even in the recent period also certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr KP Shajan Dr V Selvakumar and Dr PJ Cherian at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris Remains of large number of Roman
potteries coins gems etc were found at pattanam Besides these one copper
coin with the figure of an elephant ankusa and bow and arrow which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam For
more details see Sreelsquo (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7 14-15 Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period See JNSI VolXLIX p36 (R
Krishnamurthy Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
the most important trading stations between the 1st
century BC and second
century AD Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period According to one of
them the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia As a result of the commercial transactions with India
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here Whatever may be the trade
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities134
Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as bullionlsquo135
Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here136
At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency137
PLGupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency138
However most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians139
These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India
134 See Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers Bell 1954 p173
135 See Sunil C Ray A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade 3rd
international Colloquium 1991 p142
136 Warmington EH The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India
CambridgeLondon 1974 p274
137 AV Narasimhamurthy The Coins of Karnataka Mysore 1975 p56
138 rdPL Gupta Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade 93 International Colloquium
(1991) p122 ff 139
See Paula J Turner opcit p16 David W Mc Dowall Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
122
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period which
proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places No
doubt they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India
especially of south India and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity140
During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing
barter deal with Tamilakom exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins along with luxury goods such as lamps wine glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones ivory muslin and so
on141
If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency but as bullion142
ie for the
value of their metals But PLGupta has a divergent opinion about this It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion only to be
140 See PL Gupta opcit p77 (Roman Coins from AP) Also see AV
Narasimhamurthy opcitp56
See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier (ed) Cultural History of Kerala VolI
Tvm 1999 Department of culture Publication Govt of Kerala Trivandrum
p182
142 Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be The governments mark
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govtlsquos territories Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains calculated in terms of weight
and purity For details see David W Mac Dowall Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin 3rd
International Colloquium 1991 p145
123
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
melted Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the punch-marked coinslsquo and the Roman coins are
found together143
Again some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with
minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins144
It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins They weigh about
50 to 54 grains145
Besides these certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style For instance the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head which is identified with Augustus on his issues146
Like that some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura147
They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck
143 For eg the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman the rest (34) were silver
punch marked coinslsquo For more details see PL Gupta The Early Coins from
Kerala Tvm 1965 plates Nos VI VII VIII IX X XI Also see PJ Turner
opcitp55
144 PL Gupta Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date For
eg the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters PMlsquo and used them in their colony in Mozambique For details see
JNSI XX Plate II p231 Again the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins the Indo-Portuguese Tankas the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram VOClsquo and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade See PL Gupta Coinslsquo p147
145 PLGupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1965 opcit p69
146 Ibid Pp 27-28
147 Ibid p49
124
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
in this country for their own use Through these evidences Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country But it is true in the case of gold silver and
copper in Rome that in order to control the output of coinage the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper silver and gold were
obtained ie mines148
It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East Thus the Roman gold silver and copper coins
spread in India not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods system of exchange149
It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins150
Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins151
These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed152
On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous
148 JG Milne CHV Sutherland and JDA Thompson Coin Collecting Oxford
1972 p53
149 See Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier opcit P183
150 A Cunningham Coins of Ancient India London 1891 p50
151 JNSI Vol VIII p10
152 PL Gupta opcitp ii
125
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods (1) Early Julio-Claudian period ie up to the time of Nero (AD 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period ie Vespasian to Nerva (AD 69-98) and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period ie AD 98 onwards Likewise they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas viz (a)
southern peninsular region ie the land of the Chera Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu) (b) south Deccan ie
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra and
(c) north Deccan and above ie northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat Madhyapradesh and to their north153
As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few compared to those found in the south The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius154
Among the Roman coin-finds Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155
is the
earliest recorded find on Indian soil156
However most of the finds came from
153 The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India For
clear details see PL Gupta Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh p9 PJ Turner
Roman Coins Pp511 Sewell R Lists of Roman coins found in India JRSS
(1904) 591-637 154 th
KV Raman Presidential Address Numismatic society of India 77 session
(Shantiniketan February 11-13 1970) 155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India see Paula J Turner Roman Coins
in India 1989opcit Appendix I Pp45 ff
156 Ibid p71
126
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
PMC
(Kizhoor)
Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu Similarly Roman coins of
Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers
the former is fewer than the latter Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places but the Roman copper coin ie aes are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157
in Kerala through the table given below
Table ndash 21
Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala
SlNo Site District No of
Coins
Metal Associated
finds
1 Alleppey Alleppey
(3rd
in colloquium
P113 FN60)
1 AR
2 Idamaruka 1 AV or AR()
3 Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV amp AR 3 4 silver
4 Kilalur Kannur AV
5 Kottayam Kannur 1000lsquos AV(+AR)
6 Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7 Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8 Nedumkandam Idukki 50 AR
9 Niranam Pathanamthitta
10 Poonjar Kottayam 6 AV(+AR)
11 Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12 Kottayam Kottayam
13 Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14 Kadakavur Trivandrum AR
(Note- The Exact number of the coin is not available )
AV-Gold (Latin aurum)
AR ndashSilver (Latin argentum)
Sources PJ Turner Roman Coins in India London 1989 R Champakalakshmi Trade
Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300 Studies in South Indian Coins
Vol VI New Delhi 1996 TSatyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins SSIC
157 Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans
See PJ Turner opcit p19 Also see SSIC III Pp 43 ff
127
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it No doubt the table is
incomplete because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala through the available evidence Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala includes either gold aurie or
silver denari but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur Ernakulam District of Kerala about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar158
Apart from other finds the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins
Secondly the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas Thirdly most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area which contained no less than five coolie
loadslsquo159
Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper
cinnamon etc and the Roman merchants established trade contacts in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins
158 A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable
For details See SSIC Vol III Pp 43 ff
159 See A Sreedharamenon Keralacharithram Kottayam 1979 p41 For details
see Paula J Turner opcit p62
128
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160
port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country ―The thriving
town of Muchiri where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise161
―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market the gold received from the
ships in exchange for articles sold is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and
mountains162
These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins vizaurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold pure and simple Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis Naura Bekare Nelkinda etc163
160 Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period For details see Ravi Varma
opcitp10 See also Santhakumar ldquoMaritime contacts between Ancient Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidencerdquo (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol I Issue I Sept 2003
edited by V Kunjali Pp57-62
161 Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149
162 Paranar Puram 343 Also see Gurukal and Varrier opcitp67
163 According to William Logan Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy See Malabar
Vol I p76 But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany
SeeKANeelakanda Sasthri A History of South India Madras 1976 p139 For
further details about the port town in ancient period see KPPadmanabhamenon
Kochirajya Charithram Trissur 1912 Pp48-49 See Also A Sreedharamenon
Survey of Kerala History Kottayam 2012 Pp64-67
129
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world164
The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories The
evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th
century onwards The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard located in
Kannur district in Malabar Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu at Kottayam165
The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold amounting
to no less than five cooie loadslsquo
Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15000 coins but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities The coins seem to have been in fine condition that is not worn
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast166
164 Gurukal and Varrier Cultural History Tvm 1999 p182
165 Edgar Thurston Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt Museum 1894) p12 Quoted by T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p4
166 About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen the then Resident of
Travancore See JASB XX (1851) 371-87 Caldwell A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut (TVM 1851) Madras Museum Annual
Report 1882 p5 Also See (Drury Capt H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal XX (1852) Pp371-287
130
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
We get some references about the number of coins by which from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus 28 of Tiberius two of Caligula and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero167
This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus Tiberius
Claudius Nero and a few of Gaius169
Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala Thus in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala
After this another most important find came from Iyyal171
which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district The Iyyal hoard though small in
size is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris172
From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (BC 123-117 AD) of
which 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173
This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two
167 W Logan Malabar I Madras 1887
168 Paula J Turner opcit P9
169 For more details see Ibid Pp 62-63 Also see Champakalakshmi Trade Ideology
and Urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Delhi 1996 p164
170 Ibid p173
171 See JNSI XXV Pp 22-28
172 PLGupta opcit p47
173 See PL Gupta opcit Pt VI VII VIII IX X XI
131
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 AD) Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition often only fragments remaining From the available 71
denari 4 belong to Republican period they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified
Among the aurei 8 of Tiberius 1 of Claudius 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan
have been reported from Iyyal174
The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius Claudius and Nerolsquos
headthat probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero Above all
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175
Besides these two hoards another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176
North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally but the original number is unknown177
According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands The published report
174 For further details see PL Gupta opcit p48
175 PJ Turner opcit p8
176 See MG Sasibhooshan Coins from Kerala Malayalam Literary Survey Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy Trichur 1987 January-June Pp75-80 Also see
JNSI Vol XLIX Pp39-40
177 T Sathyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Tvm 1992 p5
132
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (BC31-AD 14) Nero (AD54-68) Vespasian (AD
69-79) Domitian (AD 81-96) Trajan (AD 98-117) Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (AD161-180)178
The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin the official language of the
Roman Empire The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time Later about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins) 180
Apart from these large hoards several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome181
Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992 but the reported coins are few in number and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period182
Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to BC 123-91 But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50 of the silver coins from the
Republican period and it is datable to C190 BC Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported ie Laccadives
178 MG Sasibhooshan A Treasure of Roman Gold Indian Express (Daily) Cochin
2-12-1983
179 JNSI XLIX p40
180 SSIC Vol IV Pp33 ff
181 SSIC Vol VI Pp31 ff
182 Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus Ibid
133
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Kalkkinar (1909) Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830) Pakli (1898)
in North till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard No doubt the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast
Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district and
it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period183
The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds184
Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius it represents the post Julio-Claudian period The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus Claudius and Nero belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues
Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at
Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district186
All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period The exact number of coins is not available However all
issues were post-date Theodosius I187
Though relevant excavations were
183 PJ Turner opcit p7 Also see Satyamurthy opcit p4
184 PL Gupta Coins in Romes Indian Trade Coinage Trade and Economy New
Delhi 1970 p133
185 See MG Shashibhooshan opcitp79
186 Shasibhooshan MG opcit p79 Also see PJ Turner opcit p74
187 Champakalakshmi opcit p265
134
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
absent the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area
The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie
which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period One aureus of Hadrian (117shy
138 AD) four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 AD) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) were reported from this hoard188
The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types legends style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 692 to 738 grains It is generally accepted that the Kumbalam hoardlsquo
from the South ndashWest Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd
century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India
Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189
but not published in detail Similarly a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported190
One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted but further details are absent191
Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district192
Besides these
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193
and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194
but more information is not available In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala but they lack proper analysis
188 SSIC Pp 29 ff
189 See JASB XX pp371-387 Also see Champakalakshmi opcit p172
190 rdPeter Berghaus Roman Coins from India and their Imitations 3 International
Colloquium 1991 PIII FN 60
191 See Champakalakshmi opcit p163
192 See Satyamurthy Gold Coins of Travancore state SSIC Vol II p117
193 ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1963-64)p161
194 See T Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Coins Tvm 1992 p5
135
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
and interpretation The most important facts derived at are (a) the nonshy
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India
However the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities
Roman trade with India
The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is
often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another
Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign
countries Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom now known as Kerala From very early times extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia Syria and
Egypt The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India195
The Greeks had considerable role in the
195 For details see SSIC Vol VIII Pp 58-64 Also see Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History Tvm 1970 p394
136
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
commercial field of south India from about the 3rd
century BC which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes So also the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms196
On the basis of the
Chinese annals their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era197
The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks sugar etc
to India198
But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India
Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India199
and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire During the time of the consulate or Republican period most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200
These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west201
It
196 PT Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai 2001 Pp193-94 Also
See KP Padmanabhamenon Kochirajyacharitram Calicut 1989 p47
197 Schoff WH Periplus of Erythrean Sea (1912) Delhi 1974 p246
198 PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcit p102
199 KS Mathew Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans in Kerala Economy and European trade Moovattupuzha 2003
p1 200
JRAS (1904) Pp 593-594
201 RS Kennedy King in Early South India as chieftain and emperor IHR (1976)
Vol III Pp1-15 Also see KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils Madras
1975University of Madras 1969 p249
137
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange and gradually
became a fruitful commerce in which spices pearls gems cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries202
There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD) During the 3rd
century AD with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency the trade with the east vanquished
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors203
The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium though rare in south India indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero204
Indialsquos trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan Turkmania Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205
that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries
202 Scoff WH (ed) Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61 Also See Akananurulsquo
149 Purananuru- 343
203 Sewell Lists of Roman Coins found in India JRAS (1904) Pp591-637 Also see
PL Gupta opcit p50
204 IK Sarma South Indian Coinage A review of recent discoveriesChennai 2003
p24
205 These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 BC and 200 BC For more details See Nayanjot Lahiri The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 BC) New Delhi 1968 Map-5 p62 Map
12 p126 Map 46 p392 The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar For details see Rev H Heras SJ Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture Vol I Pp 98-110
138
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India before the early Christian centuries We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds206
It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down
The most important routes in the third century BC was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries207
During the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade208
The caravan route from Coptos halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea 209
The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century BC and came to be known as the ―great explorer210
But it
was during the first century BC the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea Both land and sea routes
206 PLGupta opcit p2
207 Ibid- p122
208 Ibid
209 Lionel Casson Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India in Rome and
India the Ancient Sea trade (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma
Madison 1866 p8
210 PL Gupta opcit p3
139
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade
However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country211
Because of the disturbances from the robbers the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries Thus by about the middle of the First century AD Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India212
Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui213
Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt214
With the help of these trade routes foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India according to Strabo from the port of
Myos Hormos215
The south Indian rulers at that time mainly Cheras Cholas
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the
211 Ibid p-3
212 See Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed) Ancient Rome and India Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India New Delhi 1996 p26
213 JI Miller The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 BC to 641 AD Plate- 5
Oxford 1969
214 For details see RKrishnamurthy Hellenistic period coins from Karur a review
SSIC Vol10 Pp-1213
215 Strabo VolVIII P119 in KS Mathew opcit p4
140
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Roman world It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris Nelcynda etc in South India which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India
At the same time there existed highways called peruvazhilsquo which
connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads216
Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217
There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period The
puramlsquo songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi)218
A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures219
He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century AD220
The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean221
However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast222
While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick
216 KK Pillai A Social History of the Tamils University of Madras 1969 p241
217 KS Mathew opcitl p5
218 Puram 182
219 Ibid 66
220 Subramanyan N Sangam Polity Bombay 1966 p241
221 Manimekalai IV 29-34
222 Maduraikkanci 77-83
141
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached223
The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ambilsquo pahrilsquo and odailsquo224
and
larger boats as kalamlsquo vangamlsquo and navaylsquo225
The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels226
Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar the light that beckons the ship are referred to227
The most significant commercial settlements of south India like Puhar Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade228
The Peutingerian
table a collection of ancient maps composed in third centuryAD mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast229
But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus
223 Ibid 378
224 Akam 2918 10112 18723 Puram 2614 34 32 38124
225 Akam 135 262 3012-13 56 321
226 Puram 30
227 Subramanyan N opcit p242
228 William Logan Malabar Manual Vol I Trivandrum 1887 p199 Also See PL
Gupta opcit p5
229 For details see VA Smith The Early History of India from 600 BC to
Muhamedan Conquest p463 See also Subramanyan N opcit p240 V Nagam
Aiya Travancore State Manual Vol I p242 CA Innes Malabar Gazetteer
Vol I PT Sreenivasa Iyangar opcitp312 Ibrahim Kunju Studies in Medieval
Kerala History p4 Adoor KK Ramachandran Nair Kerala State Gazetteer vol
II Part I Pp 138-140 KM Panikar Studies in Indian History p13 KK Pillai
A Social History of the Tamils p270
142
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA
143
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
himself says that Indian embassies came frequently230
The Chera the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies231
This led to the increase in the volume of Indialsquos trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus
During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds Western India and its long coast line opened
to Arabian sea became a haven for Roman maritime traders With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians232
South India especially Kerala is famous for spices which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians Egyptians Arabians Phoenicians
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards233
The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like Vaniganlsquo
Chetti234
etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products plant products
minerals etc 235
at the same time according to Periplus a few male and female
230 Warmington The Commerce between Roman empire and India Cambridge
1928 p35
231 Ibid p37
232 REM Wheeler Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p164
233 A Sreedharamenon opcit Pp59-62 The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd
century AD from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West for
more details see KS Mathew opcit Appendix Pp 25-26
234 KK Pillai opcit Pp247-248
235 WH Scoff Periplus Pp44-45
144
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were pepper
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236
indigo cinnamon and cardamom all
grown in Malabar Among the spices pepper which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy237
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name Yavanapriyalsquo was
given to it by Sanskrit writers238
According to Pliny pepper had come very
239 thmuch in Roman fashion Pepper sometimes made up 34 of the total bulk of
240 241the average Rome bound cargolsquo or any way it would be more than half
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century AD were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it242
Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries especially from Rome
236 The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely those
made of the largest leaves those of smaller and the smallest For details see Ibid
p49
237 Warmington opcitp182 See also Elamkulam Studies in Kerala History Tvm
1970 Pp394-396
238 A Sreedharamenon opcitp62
239 Pliny Natural History XII 14 Coins in Romes Indian Trade PL Gupta p128
FN 46
240 WH Scoff opcitp214
241 Warmington opcit p181
242 For details see Akam-149 7-11 Also See Puram- 343 1-10
145
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Cardamom yet another important spice exported to the west is found in
interior southern Kerala Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai Thirunelveli and Dindigal243
Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume244
Another
important export item was cinnamon which is the bark of a tree an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume incense condiment and medicine245
Malabathrumlsquo identified as betel leaflsquo (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast246
Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes247
A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome They were generally divided into two classes viz 1) ornamental timber
wood 2) and fragrant wood sometimes used as medicines The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood teak
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu Karnataka and Malabar regions248
Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods mainly through gift to the poets and bards249
243 Warmington opcit p185
244 PL Gupta opcit p-7
245 Ibid p6
246 Warmington opcit Pp188-190
247 Puram 122 502
248 G Watt The Commercial Products of India Today and Tomorrowlsquos Delhi
1966 p976
249 Akam 8621 13620 Puram 39828
146
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished
in the Deccan area250
It was basically from Gujarat The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west251
In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas
however it was exported from the Malabar Coast
There was a great demand for the mineral products particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes252
The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports where
they were exported to Rome They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards253
In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption
Other items of south Indian trade with the west were beryllsquo The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown254
The Tamil
country particularly Kodumanam near Noyyallsquo river was famous for its jewel
250 PL Gupta opcit p7
251 Ibidopcit p18
252 Ibid p-6
253 Puram 37611-17 Akam 2612
254 G Watt opcit p-556
147
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
craft and goldsmiths255
Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to
light six-sided beryl prisms that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins256
Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district Diamonds sapphires rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions
However most of them came from Sreelanka which was famous for the best
quality gems Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports257
Besides the valuable precious stones large quantities of Indian iron and
steel different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India
Animals like elephants lions tigers rhinoceroses buffalos monkeys etc and
birds like parrots peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
258 259West Coast Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza Muziris and Nelcynda260
In short a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards
In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their
native goods to India The imported items consisted of coins Topaz thin
255 Patirruppattu- 671 745
256 Warmington opcitp251
257 PL Gupta opcitp7
258 Ibid
259 Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins For
more details see Warmington opcit p163 References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire Ibid Pp166-167
260 PL Gupta opcitp6
148
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
clothings uline copper tin lead crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors261
The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites262
The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders263
Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries However the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries As discussed earlier their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins The yavanalsquo literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system
The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west264
The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion265
This drain and wasteful
261 WH Scoff opcit Pp44-45
262 Puram 56
263 PL Gupta opcit
264 Ibid p-8
265 Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India Varanasi 1968Pp5 21-23
149
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny266
He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces267
This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins268
Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India269
We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods system of exchange existed among them
The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories It differed from place to place and from time to time270
An
266 See JNSI Vol XXV PtI p 22
267 Mommsen Provinces of Roman Empire Vol I Pp199-300 In Indian Shipping
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times RK Mukherjee P122 Also see V Kanakasabhai The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago Pp32-38
268 Mortimer Wheeler Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers Beil 1954 p167
269 Rajan Gurukal Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala Historical Antecedents
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed) PJ Cherian Vol II Part II Unit- I
Chapter I Tvm 1999 p 33
270 Sunil C Ray A revised study into the numismatic evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade Delhi 1984 p138
150
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14
important question is what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders No doubt without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth of India
Probably the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security Fortunately most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards
271 See MGS Narayanan Re-interpretations in South Indian History Tvm 1977
151
p14