Early History of Aviation Lecture3

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• Greek mythology: Daedalus and Icarus

– Escape from Crete

• 863 BC: Bladud (King Lear!s father)

– 9th king of England

– First tower-jumper

– Wings of feathers

– Died of a broken neck

Early History of AviationRobert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics,

MAE 331, 2008

Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For education al use only.http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html

http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

The Natural Philosophers

• 350 BC: Aristotle

– Continuum model

– Suggests that a bodymoving through continuum

would encounter resistance

• 250 BC: Archimedes

– Fluid set in motion bypressure differential

• 1490: Da Vinci

– Cross-sectional area timesVelocity = constant(continuity)

– Sketches of flow patterns

– Ornithopter and helicopterconcepts

Experimentalists and Theorists

• 1732: Pitot tube (Henri Pitot)

• 1669-87: Newton

– Newton's Laws

– Newtonian flow, sin2 force

dependency

• 1738: Bernoulli

– Pressure-velocity relationship

• 1752: Euler

– Equations for fluid flow

• 1788: Lagrange

– Velocity potential and stream function

• 1742: Whirling arm "wind tunnel"(Benjamin Robins)

Sir George Cayley

• Sketches "modern"airplane configuration(1799)

• Hand-launched glider(1804)

• Papers on appliedaerodynamics (1809-1810)

• Triplane glider carrying 10-yr-old boy (1849)

• Monoplane glider carryingcoachman (1853) – Cayley's coachman had a

steering oar with cruciformblades



Visionaries

• 1831: Thomas Walker

– Various glider concepts

– Tandem-wing design influenced

Langley

•

1843: William Henson & JohnStringfellow

– Aerial steam carriage concept

– Vision of commercial airtransportation (with Marriott and

Columbine, The Aerial Transit

Company )

Late 19th Century Developments

• 1860-1900: Theoreticalaerodynamic contributions byHelmholtz, Kirchhoff, LordRayleigh, Reynolds,

Lanchester, and others• 1866: Aeronautical Society of

Great Britain founded (LordBaden-Powell secretary andlater president)

• 1874: Felix du Temple's hot-airengine manned monoplaneflies down a ramp

• 1884: Alexander Mozhaisky'ssteam-powered mannedairplane makes a brief hop offthe ground; flat-plate wings

19th Century Flyers• 1868: Jean Marie Le Bris!s

Artificial Albatross glides a shortdistance

• 1890: Clement Ader's steam-

powered Eole hops off ground• 1891-96: Otto Lilienthal's hang-

glider flights, plus others(Chanute, Pilcher, ...)

• 1894: Sir Hiram Maxim's steam-powered biplane hops offground; vertical gyroscope/servocontrol of the elevator

Stability vs. Control OR Stability and Control?

• Prior to 1903, it was thought that an airplane should hold its course alone

– Pilot could steer by deflecting the rudder

• This suggested:

– Aft-mounted tail

– Wing dihedral or high wing

– Proper center-of-mass location



Early Aircraft Control• Lillienthal shifted center of mass in

hang gliders• Langley's plane had movable

cruciform tail

• Wright brothers used wing warpingand movable rudder and elevatorsurfaces

• Glenn Curtiss invented aileronsurfaces

Stability and Control Analysts

• Frederick Lanchester (1868-1946)

– Model gliders

– Two books, Aerial Flight and Aerodynetics , 1907

– Identified the phugoid mode – Mechanical engineer, built innovative

motor cars

• George H. Bryan (1864-1928)

– Longitudinal equations of motion (withW.E. Williams, 1903)

– Full equations of motion and linearized equations (1911)

• Problems

– No computers

– Difficulty in determining forces andmoments of real aircraft

Samuel Pierpoint Langley

• Astronomer supported bySmithsonian Institution

• Whirling-arm experiments

• 1896: Langley's steam-powered Aerodrome modelflies 3/4 mile

• 1903: Manned aircraft flightends in failure

The Wright Brothers

•

Wilbur and Orville were bicyclemechanics from Dayton, OH

• Careful self-taught, empirical

approach to flight

• Wind-tunnel, kite, and glider

experiments

• 1903: Powered, manned aircraft

flight ends in success – http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstflights.html



Wright Brothers’

Technical Contributions• Wrights recognized

importance of balance andsteering

– Bank to turn was preferable to

a “skid turn” – Roll control induced yaw

– Too much stability hinderscontrol and increasesresponse to gusts

– Wings can stall

• Two experimental gliders

– Wing warp controlled roll andforeplanes controlled pitch

– 2nd glider had moving verticaltail coupled to the wing warpto suppress adverse yaw

The Early Wright Flyers

• 1903 Wright Flyer wasvery unstable, almost

unmanageable• In 1904-5:

– Removed wing anhedral(negative dihedral)

– Increased rudder andelevator area

– Rudder controlled byseparate lever

– Center of mass movedforward

After Kitty Hawk• 1906: 2nd successful aviator: Alberto Santos-

Dumont, standing!

– High dihedral, forward control surface

• Wrights secretive about results until 1908; few

further technical contributions• 1908: Glenn Curtiss et al incorporate ailerons

– Wright brothers sue for infringement of 1906 US

patent (and win)

• 1909: Louis Bleriot's flight across the EnglishChannel

Glenn Curtiss• 1908: Glenn Curtiss becomes dominant US aviation inventor

• 1914: Langley!s Aerodrome finally flies

– Curtiss et al modify and fly Langley Aerodrome in unsuccessful effort to discreditWright patent, with Alexander Graham Bell!s support.



Pilot Inputs to Control: the

Wright Approach

• 1903 Wright Flyer – Prone pilot

– Stick for pitch control

– Hip cradle for wing-warpingroll control

– Aileron-rudder interconnect(ARI)

• 1905 Wright Flyer

– Upright pilot

– Left lever for pitch

– Right lever for roll and yawwith ARI

– Right lever modified toseparate roll (left-right) andyaw (fore-aft) control) w/o ARI

– Feet not used for control

Control Linkages

• Louis Bleriot introduced:

– Rudder bar controlled by feet

– Center stick for pitch and roll control

Bleriot XI

Those Magnificent Men

in Their Flying Machines

• Aircraft Design

– Biplanes and monoplanes

– Thin, cambered wings

– Fore and aft horizontal tails

–

Aft vertical tails

– Wooden frames and struts,wire bracing, canvas covering

– Gasoline engines, improvedefficiency

– Invention of rotary engine

Aviation in The Great War

• 1914-18: World War I changes thecomplexion of flying:reconnaissance, air superiority(dog fights), bombing, andpersonal transport

• Wrights! US monopoly broken bylicensing for war effort

• Aircraft Design

– Biplanes, a few mono- andtriplanes

– Design to serve practicalfunctions

– Multiple engines for largeraircraft

– Aft tails

– Increased maneuverability,speed, g-loads, altitude

– Improved piston engines, tractorpropellers

SPAD S.VII



Maneuvering World War I Aircraft

• Maneuverable aircraft withidiosyncrasies

– Rotary engine

– Small tail surfaces – Reliability issues

• Maneuvering to stalls and spins

• Snap roll : rudder and elevator

• Barrel roll : aileron

• Cross-control (e.g., right rudder, leftstick)

– glide path control during landing

– good view of landing point

• Unintended snap rolls led to spins andaccidents during takeoff or landing

Barrel Roll

Snap Roll

Sopwith Camel

• Rotary engine induced gyroscopic coupling

• Highly maneuverable

• Aft fuel tank; when full, center of mass was too far aft

for stability

• Vertical tail too small, spin recovery not automatic

with centering of controls

Fokker Dr. 1 Triplane:a response to the Sopwith Triplane

• Red Baron!s airplane

• Rotary engine

• Good rate of climb

• Poor high-altitude performance

• Superseded by Fokker D.VII after one year of service

S.E.-5 Comparison

to Fokker D.VII

• RAF S.E.-5 : theoretical approach to design

–

“Best WWI design from the Royal Aircraft Factory” – Stationary engine

– High dihedral

– Stable spiral mode

– High control forces

– Poor maneuverability

– Aircraft was relatively safe and effective

• Fokker D.VII : empirical approach to design

– Horn balances to reduce control forces

– Stationary engine

– Neutral-to-negative stability

– Good maneuverability

– Aircraft was relatively dangerous

The stationary motor and the marked dihedral

robbed the S.E. of much of t he Camel's power of

rapid manoeuvre, and it was, in fact, disliked by

pilots skilled in the handling of rotary types. On

the other hand, supporters claimed that the

stability provided a steady gun-platform and that

the extra speed, combined with the remarkable

diving and zooming qualities, more than

compensated for the inferior agility.



The Correct Answer:

Stability AND Control

• Need for better understanding of Flying (orHandling) Qualities (Stability and controllabilitycharacteristics as perceived by the pilot)

• Desired attributes: Stability of the S.E.-5 andcontrollability of the D.VII

Aviation Between the Wars• 1918-38:

– Birth of airlines

– Trophy races

– Aviation firsts(Lindbergh crossesthe Atlantic, 1927)

– Flying boats

– Sport aviation

– Paved runways

– Many small builders

Curtiss R3C-2 Gee-Bee R-1

Ryan NYP

Barnstorming• Surplus WWI aircraft

• Curtiss JN-4 Jenny

• Wing-walkersAir Commerce Act of 1926• Airlines formed to carry mail and passengers:

– Northwest (1926)

– Eastern (1927)

– Pan Am (1927)

– Boeing Air Transport (1927), became United (1931) – Delta (1928)

– American (1930)

– TWA (1930)

Boeing 40

Ford Tri-Motor

Lockheed Vega Air Express

Douglas Dolphin 1



Air Racers Presage Fighters of

World War II

• Aircraft Design

– Transition to monoplanes

– Metal skins and structure

– Semi-monocoque design – Systematic airfoil design

– Streamlining and improvedaerodynamic efficiency

– Improved in-line, V, andradial engines

– Radiators vs. finnedcylinders

– Increased maneuverability,speed, altitude

– Seaplane faster thanlandplanes (why?)

Supermarine S.6B

Hughes H-1 (replica)

Macchi MC72

V = 566 km/hr

V = 709 km/hr

V = 547 km/hr

Technology of World

War II Aviation• 1938-45: Analytical and experimental

approach to design

– Many configurations designed and

flight-tested

– Increased specialization; radar,

navigation, and communication

– Approaching the "sonic barrier”

• Aircraft Design

– Large, powerful, high-flying aircraft

– Turbocharged engines

– Oxygen and Pressurization

Spitfire

P-51D

B-17

Documents

Early History of Aviation Lecture3