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Geological time • Plate tectonics
Biogeography and Evolution of Marine Organisms
Geological time
Earth is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet
•Changes in its surface
• Changes in life
Plate tectonics and continental drift
What drives sea-floor spreading?
1. Convection loops in asthenosphere plates pulled along by current
2. Force of rising magma pushes plates apart
3. Gravity pushes mid-ocean ridges down and forces plates apart
4. Weight of subducted plate pulls ocean plates apart
In fact, all these mechanisms may be operating
Geological time Paleoclimate
Major ice agesSnowball Earth
Paleoclimate
PangeaEocene ‘optimum’
Miocene coolingAntarctic glaciation
Panama + Bering Strait
Beginning of ice ages
Million Years BP Thousand Years BP
Paleoclimate
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
PaleoclimateHallam (1994) afterVail et al. (1977)
Temperature
Paleoclimate
Sea level
Paleoclimate
Sea level
Sea-level
Factors controlling sea level
Miller et al. (2005)
Sea-level
Changes in volume of ocean watercontinental glacier volume
Sea-level
Changes in volume of ocean waterlakes and groundwater
Sea-level
Changes in volume of ocean watertemperature of the ocean
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Late Cretaceous (65 Ma)
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Early History
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Supercontinent Rodinia 1300 – 800 Ma
Grenville orogenic crust of mid-late Mesoproterozoic age (circa 1250-980 Ma)
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
Proto-GondwanaMiddle - Late Proterozoic
Proto-Gondwana consisted of all of Phanerozoic Gondwana except Atlantica and Congo landmasses.
Proto-Gondwana formed when Rodinia rifted into smaller continents.
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
590-500 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
500-435 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
435-410 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
410-330 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
330-290 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
290-240 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
240-205 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
205-138 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
Atlantic Ocean
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Gondwana205-138 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Gondwana205-138 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Gulf of Mexico
Caribbean Sea
South America
Africa
Tethys Trench
Mediterranean
N
Mid
-Atla
ntic
Ridg
e
fault
North America
Pangea Pulls Apart
• 200 MYA • Stretches
continental crust
• Atlantic Ocean Banks
Plate tectonics and continental drift
138-65 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
138-65 MA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Indian Ocean
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental driftHall R (2012) Late Jurassic–Cenozoic reconstructions of the Indonesian region and the Indian Ocean. Tectonophysics 570-571:1–41. doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2012.04.021
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
Plate tectonics and continental drift
175 Mya
Plate tectonics and continental drift
95 Mya
Plate tectonics and continental drift
80 Mya
Plate tectonics and continental drift
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
65MY
Plate tectonics and continental drift
65 Mya
Plate tectonics and continental drift
45 Mya
Plate tectonics and continental drift
18 Mya
Plate tectonics and continental drift
0 Mya
Plate tectonics and continental drift
50 My
Plate tectonics and continental drift
From the Tethys Sea to the Mediterranean
(200-180 Mya)
Historical Biogeography
Tethys
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Eastwards motion of Africa relative to Europe
(130-85 Mya)
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Eastwards and Northwards motion of Africa relative to Europe
(57- 35 Mya)
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Eastwards motion of Africa closes the Connection between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean
(18- 7 Mya)
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Africa moves northwards and westwards
(6-5 Mya)
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Messinian salinity crisis
Plate tectonics and continental drift
http://records.viu.ca/~earles/messinian-crisis-apr03.htm
Evaporites
In August of 1970 the DSDP ship Challenger was positioned in the western Mediterranean, south of the Balearic Islands, in almost 3000 m of water. The geologists on board were looking for the source of a prominent sub-sea-floor seismic feature called the M-reflector, and, to their great surprise, they drilled into a thick layer of anhydrite - the first evidence of a vast deposit of evaporite rocks extending across the Mediterranean.
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
Iberia and North Africa
Three mechanisms have been proposed to explain the isolation of the Mediterranean during the Messinian, including:
1) a 60 m global drop in sea level due to glaciation,
2) horizontal squeezing, and
3) tectonic uplift.
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Mediterranean annual water loss by evaporation 1600 Km3/year. Only 10% replaced by rainfall and the influx of rivers.
The remaining 90% had to come from the Atlantic Ocean.
With the Atlantic connection closed and climatic conditions in the lower Pliocene much warmer than at present, water level dropped approximately 1.4 m/year taking less than 1000 years to dry up.
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Western Mediterranean (8 Myr ago)
Duggen et al. (2003) Nature, 422: 602-606
Betic Strait
Rifian Strait
(Closed 7.2 Mya)
(Closed 5.9 Mya)
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.9 – 5.3 Myr ago)
Hsü et al. (1973) Nature 242: 240-244; Hsü et al. (1977) Nature 267: 399-403.
Plate tectonics and continental drifthttp://www.geo.uu.nl/Research/Paleomagnetism/people/Wout/res_wout.htm
Biogeography
Southern Ocean
Biogeography
Biogeography Biogeography+
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
55MY
34MY
Biogeography
Isthmus of Panama
Plate tectonics and continental drift
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
ISTHMUS OF PANAMA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
ISTHMUS OF PANAMAPlate tectonics and continental drift
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
ISTHMUS OF PANAMA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
ISTHMUS OF PANAMAPlate tectonics and continental drift
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
ISTHMUS OF PANAMA
Plate tectonics and continental drift
SEA LEVELS AND CONTINENTAL POSITIONS INFLUENCE OCEAN SHAPES
ISTHMUS OF PANAMAPlate tectonics and continental drift
Biogeography
Review16-15 Ma
Coates & Obinda (1996)+ Biogeography
Review16-15 Ma
6-5 Ma
Coates & Obinda (1996)
subduction
compression
+
Biogeography
Review16-15 Ma
6-5 Ma
3 MaCoates & Obinda (1996)
subduction
compression
+ Biogeography
Anderson et al. 2010 Curr Res Pleistocene
Biogeography
Stone R 2013. Battle for the Americas. Science.
Biogeography
Biogeography
Spatial distribution of cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) haplotype clades for the EP1-2/WA3 transisthmian lineage of Barbatia (Acar). Numbers and the relative sizes of circles refer to sample sizes.
Biogeography
Spatial distributions of cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) haplotype clades for the EP3/WA4 and EP9/WA11 transisthmian lineages of Barbatia (Acar). Numbers and the relative sizes of circles refer to sample sizes.
Biogeography Biogeography
Bernardi G, Alva-Campbell YR, Gasparini JL, Floeter SR (2008) Molecular ecology, speciation, and evolution of the reef fish genus Anisotremus. MPE 48:929–935. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.011
TEP Tropical Eastern Pacific
WA Western Atlantic
Biogeography
Alva-Campbell Y, Floeter SR, Robertson DR, et al. (2010) Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of Holacanthus angelfishes (Pomacanthidae). MPE 56:456–461. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.02.014
TEP Tropical Eastern Pacific
TWA Tropical Western Atlantic
Biogeography
Biogeography
Pacific
Caribbean
Knowlton et al.(1993) created a phylogeny of Pacific (P) and Caribean (C) species pairs of AlpheusIn 6 out of 7 cases, the closest relative of a species was on the other side of the Isthmus
exception
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Bering Strait
Paleoclimate
Bering Strait
Paleoclimate
Bering Strait
Anderson et al. 2010 Curr Res Pleistocene
Minimum age range for the strait's first opening: between 4.8 and 7.3–7.4 Myr ago.
Marincovich and Gladenkov (1999) suggested an age of 3.1–4.1 Myr for the initial opening of the Bering Strait.
Paleoclimate Marincovich, L., and A. Y. Gladenkov. 1999. Nature 397:149-151. Paleoclimate
Closed Bering Strait and global climate
Scientists are unraveling a chain of events that led to large-scale warmings and coolings across the Northern Hemisphere during past ice ages.
As ice sheets expanded, water levels dropped in the narrow Bering Strait and cut off the flow of relatively fresh water from the northern Pacific through the Arctic into the saltier Atlantic.
This altered ocean currents, increasing the flow of Atlantic water northward from the tropics and producing warming in the north Atlantic (right, shown in dark red) that melted ice sheets and affected climate patterns and sea levels across much of the world.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100110151325.htm
Plate tectonics and continental drift Plate tectonics and continental drift
Amphi-Atlantic distribution patterns - continental break-up and spreading of the Atlantic Ocean.
Teske PR, Hamilton H, Matthee CA, Barker NP (2007) Signatures of seaway closures and founder dispersal in the phylogeny of a circumglobally distributed seahorse lineage. BMC Evol Biol 7:138. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-138
Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway
Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway
Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway
Plate tectonics and continental drift
E and F: amphi-Atlantic distribution patterns - continental break-up and spreading of the Atlantic Ocean.
Teske PR, Hamilton H, Matthee CA, Barker NP (2007) Signatures of seaway closures and founder dispersal in the phylogeny of a circumglobally distributed seahorse lineage. BMC Evol Biol 7:138. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-138
A: Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway
C: Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway
B: Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway
D: Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway
C
A
B
D
E
F
Plate tectonics and continental drift
A
B
D
A: Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway
D: Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway
Teske PR, Hamilton H, Matthee CA, Barker NP (2007) Signatures of seaway closures and founder dispersal in the phylogeny of a circumglobally distributed seahorse lineage. BMC Evol Biol 7:138. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-138
B: Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Suggested dates of vicariance events: Central American Seaway closure: 3.1 – 3.5 MY (assuming that the divergence of the trans-isthmian seahorse lineages took place when a land bridge formed in Central America [1]); 3.1 – 4.6 MY (taking into consideration that seahorse divergence may have been affected by the reorganisation of ocean currents associated with the closure of the seaway [2]); 3.1 – 8.5 MY (the upper bound being the time when the earliest recorded evolution associated with the closure of the seaway took place in marine corals and foraminiferans [3]);
Indonesian Seaway closure: 0.01 – 1.8 MY [12,13]; 3 – 4 MY [11]; 7 – 10 MY [9,10]; 15 – 17 MY [8];
Tethyan Seaway closure: 11.2 – 14.8 MY [5,6]; 18.4 – 20.5 MY [7]; 23.8 – 28.5 MY [4];
Complete separation of the land masses on either side of the Atlantic Ocean: 84 mya [14].
Teske PR, Hamilton H, Matthee CA, Barker NP (2007) Signatures of seaway closures and founder dispersal in the phylogeny of a circumglobally distributed seahorse lineage. BMC Evol Biol 7:138. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-138
Plate tectonics and continental drift
[1] Keigwin LD: Pliocene closing of the isthmus of Panama based on biostratigraphic evidence from nearby Pacific and Caribbean sea cores. Geology 1978, 6:630-634.
[2] Marko PB: Fossil calibration of molecular clocks and the diver-gence times of geminate species pairs separated by the Isthmus of Panama. Mol Biol Evol 2002, 19:2005-2021.
[3] Haug HH, Tiedemann R: Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation. Nature 1998, 393:673-676.
[4] Barber PH, Bellwood DR: Biodiversity hotspots: evolutionary origins of biodiversity in wrasses (Halichoeres : Labridae) in the Indo-Pacific and New World tropics. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2005, 35:235-253.
[5] Adams CG, Lee DE, Rosen BR: Conflicting isotopic and biotic evidence for tropical sea-surface temperatures during the Tertiary. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 1990, 77:289-313.
[6] Rögl F, Steininger FF: Vom Zerfall der Tethys zu Mediterran und Paratethys. Ann Naturhist Mus Wien 1983, 85:135-163.
[7] Rögl F, Steininger FF: Neogene Paratethys, Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific Seaways. In Fossils and Climate Edited by: Brenchley P. John Wiley, New York; 1984:171-200.
[8] Lourie SA, Green DM, Vincent ACJ: Dispersal, habitat differ- ences, and comparative phylogeography of Southeast Asian seahorses (Syngnathidae: Hippocampus). Mol Ecol 2005, 14:1073-1094.
[9] Nishimura S, Suparka S: Tectonic approach to the Neogene evo- lution of Pacific-Indian Ocean seaways. Tectonophysics 1997, 281:1-16.
[10] Gasperi JT, Kennett JP: Vertical thermal structure evolution of Miocene surface waters: western equatorial Pacific DSDP Site 289. Mar Micropaleont 1993, 22:235-254.
[11] Linthout K, Helmers H, Sopaheluwakan J: Late Miocene obduction and microplate migration around the southern Banda Sea and the closure of the Indonesian Seaway. Tectonophysics 1997, 281:17-30.
[12] Cane MA, Molnar P: Closing of the Indonesian seaway as a pre- cursor to east African aridification around 3–4 million years ago. Nature 2001, 411:157-162.
[13] McManus JW: Marine speciation, tectonics and sea-level changes in southeast Asia. Proc 5th Intl Coral Reef Congr 1985, 4:133-138.
[14] Rosen DM: A vicariance model of Caribbean biogeography. Syst Zool 1975, 24:431-464.
References
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Take home message:
The distribution of organisms and their genetic make-up is a mix between past
geological events and present-day oceanographic/environmental conditions.
Present-day currents
Thermo and salinity soft barriers
Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Central American Seaway
Indian Ocean vs. West Pacific - Closure of the Indonesian Seaway
Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway
Indo-Pacific vs. Atlantic Ocean - Closure of the Tethyan Seaway
Opening of Bering strait
Continental break-up and spreading of the Atlantic Ocean.
Plate tectonics and continental drift
Take home message:
To explain a biogeographic pattern be prepared to explore different
alternatives.
Be parsimonious.
Be parsimonious.