Ecological Flora of theCentral Chilterns

Section 37: Asteraceae subfamily Cichorioideae

Bristly ox-tongue

Dandelion Taraxacum agg. 37.1Dandelions are perennials and one of our most familiar flowers, inhabiting every kind of habitat. They have deeptap-roots that occasion hostility from gardeners, although dandelions are nowhere near as persistent as, say,ground elder. They mostly propagate themselves non-sexually and therefore form a swarm of micro-species (250are named in Dudman and Richards, 1997, the main British handbook, although fewer than 70 have been found inthe Chilterns), much like brambles. These are difficult to identify, so that most botanical records are put downsimply as "Taraxacum agg." and we therefore know little about the distribution of the various micro-species.Although the dandelion is a native plant, many of those we find, especially in built-up areas and trampled land, areintroduced alien micro-species, capable via the wind-blown "parachute" seeds of colonising new areas very quickly.Identification All dandelions have hollow stalks that exude a milky juice when broken. The stems are unbranchedand carry a single flower-head of yellow rays, the longer outer ones often stained red beneath. There are severalrows of bracts beneath the flowers, the outer ones of which are often curved back into a ruff. The leaves, whichlie more or less prostrate in a rosette, have a variably large terminal lobe, below which there is a series of lateralsharp-toothed lobes, the "dents-de-lion" (lion's teeth) from which the plants get their name. The seeds, beforedispersal, form a globular head known as a "clock".Notable sites It is needless to name sites - dandelions are to be found everywhere, particularly in grasslands,disturbed areas and roadsides. Native micro-species, however, are best sought in more "natural" habitats such asunimproved grassland, heathland and open woodland.Galls Six gall-causers are known in the south of England, two of them rather rare. None are recorded locally.Mines About ten leaf-miners have been noted on dandelion in England, of which two are common locally: the fliesChromatomyia 'atricornis' and Liriomyza strigata.Other ecological associates The larvae of five moths are known to feed on dandelion locally - Celypha striana, C.rosaceana, Cream wave (in woodlands), Dotted border wave (more open heathy ground), and Mottled rustic. TheNotable B weevil Glocianus punctiger also feeds on dandelion and has been recorded. The tiny pollen beetlesMeligethes aeneus (black) and Epuraea aestiva (brown) often form swarms on the heads as they gorge on theabundant pollen. Although they are not involved in pollination, a wide range of other insects are regularly seen ondandelion flowers, including the bumble-bees Bombus hypnorum and Bombus terrestris, solitary bees, muscid flies,(such as Phaonia errans in the accompanying photograph) and even black ants Lasius niger . Seed-eating birds,especially Goldfinch and Bullfinch, regularly visit fruiting heads for the seeds. The rust Puccinia variabilis is verycommon on the leaves as purple spots.Human associations It is no wonder that such a common plant has found multiple uses. Dandelion "clocks" are usedin many children's games. The juice has commonly been used on warts. The leaves are used in salads (sparingly, asthey are bitter) and, perhaps preferably, in cooking, where the bitterness can be suppressed. The flowers can alsobe added to salads, but are mainly used in making dandelion wine. The plant's enuretic properties are fabled and ithas found a use in medicine for kidney problems, but it is also used to make a general tonic, and in the traditional"dandelion and burdock" cordial. The roots can be ground to make a poor substitute for coffee in times ofeconomic malaise. Some people collect seed-heads for cage-birds and leaves for pet rabbits, tortoises and so on.Derivation See under "Identification".

Fly Phaonia errans on dandelion, Little Hampden (photo Val Marshall) Dandelion "clock"

Taraxacum pseudohamatum 37.2I have found (in the limited surveys I have so far been able to undertake) that Taraxacum pseudohamatum is thecommonest species to be found around gardens, surfaced areas, roadsides and rough land in the Prestwood area.It is native to Britain and a near-endemic, most of its population being confined to this country, but it is not socommon in natural grasslands. As it is one of the species most likely to be found here, it may be worth giving a fulldescription (based on Dudman and Richards 1997), which also gives an idea of the many features that need to beexamined to identify to species level (see also picture below).Identification Leaves, which may lie flat to the ground or become almost erect, dull green with purple midrib,lateral lobes 3-6 with convex upper margin and straight or concave lower margin, the tips fairly blunt. Terminallobe helmet-shaped and also rather blunt. The purple leaf-stalk is winged below the leaf-blade. The flower stemsare as long as the leaves. The outer bracts spread out and curve down in an obvious ruff, each quite broad (over3.5mm) and very pale green, their undersides being dark green and "pruinose" (i.e. with a whitish bloom). Theflower-head is deep yellow, just over 50mm wide, the rays with orange teeth at the tips.

Taraxacum pseudohamatum, Prestwood (photo Val Marshall)

Other species I have recorded locally in similar situations are:Taraxacum ancistrolobum (Kiln Common Orchard; terminal lobes large, wide, overlapping lobes below, midrib green)Taraxacum atactum (Greenlands Lane allotments; terminal lobes large with one or two teeth, midrib only faintly purple, narrowbracts)Taraxacum cophrocentrum (Lodge Lane; terminal lobes large, bracts narrow, flowers smallish 45cm)Taraxacum lamprophyllum (Sheepwash Pond surrounds; large plant like pseudohamatum but lateral lobes distinctly toothed andpurple-blotched, bracts wide but purplish)Taraxacum piceatum (Greenlands Lane allotments; small flowers 35cm, spreading bracts dull violet, outer leaves with whitestalk, midrib green but reddish near leaf-tip)Taraxacum rhamphodes (Lodge Lane; flowers 40cm, leaf lobes narrow, bracts grey-green).

37.3In addition, I have found Taraxacum fulviforme in natural chalk grassland on Shirburn Hill elsewhere in theChilterns and T. hamatum is recorded by Tim Harrison in the Wycombe area.

From other records there are at least another 50 ruderal species (roadsides, wastelands, residentialareas) that are not uncommon in the Chilterns, many of them introduced plants. Only about 15 species, however,regularly appear in more natural habitats such as chalk grassland or pasture (T. argutum, brachyglossum,cophrocentrum, duplidentifrons, falcatum, fulviforme, fulvum, glauciniforme, insigne, lacistopohyllum, latisectum,longisquamatum, oblongatum, oxoniense, and rubicundum). In addition, special mention should be made ofTaraxacum acutum, a rare endemic confined to a few sites, one of which is Therfield Heath, Hertfordshire, at theeast end of the Chilterns.

Prickly sow-thistle Sonchus asperLike dandelion, our sow-thistles have amilky juice. Common native annual ofrough land, roadsides etc.Identification Flower-heads aredandelion-like in loose clusters onbranched stems; rather stiff leaves haveprickly spines and their auricles (thebasal part of the leaf clasping the stem)rounded.Notable sites Almost ubiquitous in opendisturbed places.Galls Five galls are known in S England.Two of these have been noted locally -caused by the flies Cystiphora sonchiandTephritis formosa. The latter is aconspicuous picture-wing fly whose wingsare largely covered with a grey cloud withtranslucent spots.Mines Nine leaf-miners are known forour region of England. Two recordedlocally are the same as those noted forDandelion - Chromatomyia 'atricornis' andLiriomyza strigata. A third is anotheragromyzid fly Ophiomyza beckeri.Other ecological associates Two mothsare known to feed on sow-thistles locally,Celypha rosaceana and The Shark.Pollinators include a range of bees andhover-flies. The rust Coleosporiumtussilaginis and the mildew Golovinomycescichoracearum are both common.Human associations The milky juice hasbeen applied to warts, like that ofdandelion, but sow-thistles haveotherwise hardly featured in traditionalmedicine. Mabey records that the leaveswere used as salad vegetables (afterstripping off the thorns), as they werenot bitter like dandelion.Derivation The name combines the twomajor features of these plants -prickliness (like a thistle) and lactation(like a sow).

Prickly sow-thistle with mildew Golovinomyces cichoracearum

Galls of Cystiphora sonchi

37.4Smooth sow-thistle Sonchus oleraceusSimilarly common native to Sonchus asper and in thesame habitats.Identification Usually to be told from asper by the lessstiff leaves and prickles, but the only certaindifference is that the auricles are pointed, not rounded.Notable sites Ubiquitous in open disturbed land.Ecological associates As for asper.Human associations As for asper.

Perennial sow-thistle Sonchus arvensisNot as abundant as our two other Sonchus species, thisnative differs in being perennial, with a stout rootstock,but is to be found in similar places.Identification Often taller, this plant has flowerstwice the size of asper and oleraceus, 4-5cm across. Ithas sticky yellow glandular hairs around the flower-heads and at the top of the stems. The leaf-auriclesare rounded.Notable sites Although well-distributed and to befound in built-up areas like the other Sonchus, thisspecies tends to be more associated with cultivatedland, farmland and allotments (eg around DirtywoodFarm, Hampden Bottom).Ecological associates As for asper and oleraceus but,unlike them, is also the principal food-plant of theuncommon moth Eucosma obumbratana. Smooth sow-thistle with mines of Chromatomyia 'atricornis'

Fine display of perennial sow-thistle beside Hatches Lane (photo Val Marshall)

37.5

Leaf of perennial sow-thistle with mines of Chromatomyia 'atricornis'

Smooth hawk's-beard Crepis capillarisNative annual of shortish grassland of all kinds, common acrossour area.Identification Dandelion-like flowers 10-15 mm across, in widely-branched sprays, each flower-head with tightly appressedbracts, below which is a small ruff of outstanding lower bracts.The leaves, which are not spiny, are narrow and lobed, mostly atthe base of the stem, but one or two higher up with claspingauricles. Unlike Taraxacum and Sonchus the plants do not have amilky juice*. Easily overlooked when not flowering, as the stemsare thin and wiry (capillaris = "hair-like").Notable sites Meadows, field margins and mown road vergesthroughout.Galls Two galls are known in south England (a third recentlydiscovered in Kent might also spread to our area). No galls havebeen recorded locally.Mines Only four leaf-miners are certainly known on Crepis in ourregion, and the only one recorded is the common generalistChromatomyia 'atricornis'.Other ecological associates It is the food-plant of the Broad-barred White moth. Although the flowers attract small flies andbees (eg Bombus lapidarius), their small size seems to make themless popular than other "dandelions".Human associations None.Derivation "Hawk" is applied to many of the "dandelion" groupand appears to connote no more than "wild". The "beard" is theruff at the base of the flower-head. "Smooth" denotes hairless.Variation Variety glandulosa has glandular hairs, whereas thetypical plant is hairless. I recorded it in the field on the eastside of Lodge Wood in 2006, but the field has since beenploughed up. It may well occur elsewhere, as it seems to beseldom searched for.*a key to all yellow dandelion-like flowers without milk in theChilterns is provided at the end of this section.

Erect form in tall grass

37.6

Smooth hawk's-beard in sprawling form in more open ground

Beaked hawk's-beard Crepis vesicariaThis is a European perennial which wasintroduced and has now become widespread.Druce (1926) comments that it had recently"increased rapidly", so one may presume that ittook off in the latter half of the C19th,although it first appeared in the country in1713. It grows in all sorts of grassy places.Identification Hairy and much larger thanSmooth Hawksbeard, with flowers about an inchwide, it is much more readily noticeable. Thestems are slightly rough and the flower-bractsoften have glandular hairs.Notable sites Longer grass areas that are notmown too frequently, from chalk and acidgrasslands (Prestwood Picnic Site, WidmereField) to residential areas (Lovell Estate,Prestwood).Galls None are noted in Redfern & Shirley(2011).Mines See Crepis capillaris.Human associations None.Derivation The "beak" is a long narrowextension comprising the whole upper half ofeach individual seed, important fordistinguishing this species from the next.Variation Our plant is subspecies taraxacifolia.

Rough hawk's-beard Crepis biennis 37.7This native biennial, which grows in rough grassland, isdistinctly uncommon in our area and was not recordedthere at all by Druce (1926).Identification Very like Beaked Hawk's-beard andbest distinguished in fruit, when the lack of a beak onthe seeds makes it clear.Notable sites Recorded in Grubbins field, HampdenBottom, in 2005 and persisting; also Angling SpringWood 2004.Ecological associates As for Crepis capillaris, butlarger flowers, up to 3.5cm, tend to attract morehover-flies and bees. Seed of Crepis biennis Seed of Crep[ios vesicaria

Nipplewort Lapsana communisWidespread and common native annual, in natural and disturbed areas.Identification Tall, to 1m, hairy leafy plant with small yellow flowers in large sprays. Lower leaves are pinnate witha very large pointed terminal lobe, the upper ones just coarsely toothed.Notable sites Common in field-edges and road-sides (eg Hampden and Bryants Bottom Roads) and rough grasslandat Sheepwash, Boug's Meadow and on the Lovell Estate.Galls Two are known in this country but have not been noted in our area.Mines Five leaf-miners are recorded for Britain. The two noted locally are ones we have already noted frequently,as they feed on most of the Asteraceae: Liriomyza strigata and Chromatomyia 'atricornis'.Human associations It has been mentioned as being used to make an ointment for sore nipples, but this may havebeen nothing more than "sympathetic magic" on the basis of the blunt cylindrical buds' similarity to nipples -indeed the tradition may have arisen mistakenly on the basis of the plant being named after the appearance of thebuds. Unlike many of its close relatives, nipplewort does not exude a milky juice. On the other hand there aresome vague Irish references to its use for sores and cuts (Allen & Hatfield 2004).Variation Our plant is subspecies communis. An introduced perennial subspecies from S Europe, intermedia(Perennial Nipplewort), however, is known from one place in the Bedfordshire Chilterns, and is commonly found inLondon on railway banks and wasteland, from which it might easily spread to our area. It is told by its largerflowers (to 3cm rather than 2cm) and upper leaves narrow and hardly toothed (as against oval and well-toothed).

Nipplewort Small plant in arable land Perennial nipplewort in seed, London

Cat's-ear Hypochaeris radicataNative perennial of meadows, common across our area.Identification The large "dandelion"-like flowers (to 4cm) are solitaryand showy on erect stems that are little branched - often just one widelyspread main branch from low down on the main stem. The stem isleafless but has a few small scales. The basal leaves are simply lobed,blunt and quite roughly hairy.Notable sites It grows in long grass on all sorts of soils, from chalk(Prestwood Picnic Site and Stonygreen Bank) to clay (Sheepwash,Prestwood allotments) to acid (Widmere Field, Sandwich Wood).Galls Two galls are known in Britain, but both are quite rare. Thepicture-wing fly Tephritis vespertina (similar to T. formosa above, 37.3)lays its eggs in the developing flower-buds and the grubs eat out theflower-head and this is often referred to as a gall, although it does notnoticeably cause any unusual growth and Redfern & Shirley (2011) doesnot regard it as a true gall. I have had T. vespertina feeding on cat's-earin my own garden meadow in Prestwood for over ten years.Mines Three leaf-miners areconfirmed on cat's-ear in thiscountry, but none have been notedin our area.Other ecological associates Beesare common on cat's-ear, alongwith other insects. The fungusPuccinia hieracii var hypochaeridiscauses leaf spotting and slightblistering.Human associations Surprisinglyfor such a striking flower, it getsno mention in Mabey (1996).Derivation From the hairy leaves.

37.8

Cat's-ear leaf showing hairs. Brown spots along midrib are swollen bases of special bent bristly hairs (cystolithic trichomes)

37.9Autumn hawkbit Scorzoneroides (formerly, andstill in many texts, Leontodon) autumnalisFrequent native perennial of all kinds of grassland.Identification Low sprawling plant with weaker stemsthan cat's-ear, stem scales confined to the top, andsharp-tipped leaves, at the base only, that are virtuallyhairless with narrow acute lobes. Flowers 12-35mmacross. Does not flower before about mid- or late-July,when cat's-ear may have been out for a couple of months,although both can be found in flower well into theautumn.Notable sites Well distributed across open grasslands inthe area, including road verges.Galls Four galls are known in Britain. Locally the onerecorded so far causes swollen distorted flower-headscontaining the larvae of the fly Tephritis leontodontis.(see picture below)Mines Six leaf-miners have been recorded in Britain, theonly one of which noted in our area is the commongeneralist Chromatomyia 'atricornis'.Other ecological associates Two very similar rare leaf-beetles (Notable B) are found on hawkbits in chalkgrasslands in our area (though they appear to becommoner on Rough Hawkbit, below). Both are a strikingshiny green or blue, Cryptocephalus aureolus beingslightly longer and with coarser punctures on thepronotum (thorax) than C. hypochaeridis. Many otherinsects visit the flowers, although they are, in any case,self-pollinating.Human associations None.Derivation For the relevance of "hawk" see 37.5(hawksbeard). "Bit" (also found e.g. in devil's-bitscabious) refers to a short, abruptly terminated,rootstock, as though bitten off. Gall caused by Tephritis leontodontis

Rough hawkbit Leontodon hispidusNative perennial, common in our area, but mostly confined tochalk grasslands where the turf is not too short.Identification Distinctive erect plant with large solitaryflowers (to 4cm) on shaggy leafless stalks. Both the basalrosette leaves and the flower-head bracts are covered in longhairs. The leaves are not as deeply lobed as those of autumnhawkbit.Notable sites Virtually every meadow on chalk - eg PrestwoodPicnic Site, Hampden Bottom Farm, Hatches and StonygreenBanks, Little Stocking Meadow, Speen Access Land.Ecological associates The remarks under Autumn Hawkbitabove mostly apply, but it may not be self-pollinating.Human associations None.Derivation "Rough" referring to the covering of long hairs.

Lesser hawkbit Leontodon saxatilis 37.10Native perennial of chalk grasslands with shorter turf, much less common than Autumn and Rough Hawkbits.Identification Low plant with smaller flowers than Rough Hawkbit (to 2cm) and much less hairy on the stems,although the leaves have long white hairs.Notable sites Recorded since 2000 only at Hatches Bank, Coombe's Orchards and Acrehill Field (and nowapparently gone from the last of those). It was never common at Prestwood Picnic Site and was last recordedthere in 2000. The decrease in local populations is probably due to a combination of habitat neglect (or loss) andsoil nutrification from chemical pollution.Ecological associates As for the last two species.Human associations None.

Lesser hawkbit

Goat's-beard Tragopogon pratensis ssp minorFrequent and widespread native biennial of grassy places, though rarely in large numbers.Identification Tall erect stems of solitary flowers look rather like large dandelions, and also have a milky juice,but they are distinct in being sometimes branched once or twice, having grey stems and leaves that are narrowwith a long point, rather grass-like. The flowers also have conspicuous narrow bracts that obtrude beyond thepetals. In seed it forms 'clocks' like dandelion but even larger.Notable sites Rather inconstant in its appearance, but it has been seen over a long period in Middle Way field(Great Missenden), Speen Access Land and by Bryants Bottom Road.Galls Five galls are known in Britain. The only one recorded in our area is the White Blister caused by the fungusPustula obtusata.Mines The narrow leaves provide little scope for miners, and only one species is known for certain in Britain. Nomines have been noted locally.Other ecological associates Although visited by insects, it appears to be generally self-pollinated.Human associations None.Derivation The "beard" is presumably the fringe of protruding bracts around each flower, although the Englishname is probably just a straight translation of the scientific one, where tragos and pogon mean "goat" and "beard"in Greek. The bracts turn down in fruit and then look slightly more beard-like. An alternative folk name is Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon, from the habit of opening its flowers only in the morning.Variation Subspecies pratensis is a European taxon sometimes naturalised in this country, but not recorded in ourarea. The bracts do not protrude beyond the petals.

37.11

Goat's-beard flower Bud and seed-head after rain

Salsify Tragopogon porrifoliusBiennial garden vegetable brought from theMediterranean, sometimes escaping but probably notnaturalising in our area.Identification Much like goat's-beard except for thepale mauve and larger flowers. The "clock" in seed isalso larger and a dirtier white in colour.Notable sites Recorded twice, in Hughenden Valley2000 and beside Great Kingshill allotments 2010.Ecological associates Probably as for goatsbeard.Human associations Grown for its long cylindrical tap-root, which is boiled or used in stews. It has a tastereminiscent of oysters and is full of nutrients.Derivation From old Italian salsifica, whose origin isdisputed but probably derives in some way from theLatin sal "salt", in the same way as "salsa" and "sauce",perhaps because it was used for its piquant flavour toenliven food.Variation It readily hybridises with goat's-beard whenthe two grow near each other. The hybrid T. x mirabilisis more attractive than either parent, having yellowpetals with purple tips, but it has not been seen in theChilterns.

Salsify seed-heads or "clocks" Tragopogon x mirabilis

37.12Wall lettuce Mycelis muralisNative perennial, not uncommon in our area in scatteredplaces, in two main distinct habitats: walls andwoodlands on chalk.Identification Can be confused with Nipplewort(above) with its large sprays of small yellow flowers andpinnately-lobed leaves with a large terminal lobe, butunlike that plant it has a milky juice, the buds arelonger and narrower, and the leaf-lobes are angularlycut in a distinctive way. The plant tends to becomequite purplish.Notable sites Walls of Prestwood and GreatMissenden parish churches and along Lodge Lane,Prestwood; Hampdenleaf, Longfield, Hatches, Stockingsand Angling Spring Woods; old orchards at IdahoCottage, Prestwood, and Coombe's Orchards,Hughenden; hedgerow along Greenlands Lane.Galls One rust is known to cause galls, but there are nolocal records.Mines Two have been recorded from Mycelis in thiscountry, but just the common Chromatomyia'atricornis' is known in this area.Other ecological associates None seem to have beennoted.Human associations None.Derivation Although not one of the true lettuces(Lactuca), Mycelis does share their characteristic milkyjuice. I have never heard of it being eaten like lettuce.

Wall lettuce on Holy Trinity Church, Prestwood

Prickly lettuce Lactuca serriolaA prehistoric introduction, this biennial only occurs scatteredacross our area along waysides, although it has been with us for along time (Druce, 1926, has a record for 1640).Identification Tall plant (2m) with milky juice, spiny stems and abranched spike of narrow yellow flowers. The greyish leaves haveweakly spiny edges but stout prickles along the under-midrib. Theleaves are usually turned from a horizontal plane to a vertical one, tocatch the sun, a distinctive character.Notable sites A sign of disturbed ground, it was plentiful atSheepwash Pond just after it was restored, and occurs regularly bythe car-parks at the Prestwood Sports Centre and Great Missendenrailway station. It has also been recorded by allotments, on theLovell Estate in Prestwood, at Cryer's Hill cemetery, and by BryantsBottom Road.Galls None.Mines Only three have been definitely recorded in Britain, includingthe common polyphagous species Chromatomyia 'atricornis' andLiriomyza strigata.Other ecological associates The caterpillars of the SmallRanunculus and The Shark moths probably feed on this plant. It isself-fertile and does not attract many insects.Human associations Man has found no uses for this plant, exceptthat its vertically-held leaves are said to point north-south and thusact as a compass. I would not rely on it.

Derivation "Lettuce" is a corruption of the Latin lactuca, whichrefers to its juice (lac "milk", from the Greek galaktos "milky", asyllable also seen in our word "galaxy", Milky Way).

Prickly lettuce: leaves in vertical plane

37.13

Prickly lettuce: underside of leaf with spines

Great lettuce Lactuca virosaNative plant of wasteland, but much less common thanPrickly Lettuce.Identification The stems and leaf-midribs are stronglypurple, whereas those of Prickly Lettuce are at mostpurple-tinged. The leaves are held more or lesshorizontally. Most crucially, the seeds are dark purpleto black, while those of serriola are greyish. It tendsto grow larger as well, but this cannot be used todistinguish it reliably.Notable sites Only two local records - Little Kingshill in1997 and Hughenden Valley in 2010.Ecological associates As for Prickly Lettuce.Human associations The milk is poisonous and has asedative effect.

Chromatomyia 'atricornis' mine in bristly ox-tongue leaf (see below) Great lettuce

Bristly ox-tongue Helminthotheca echioidesPrehistoric introduction, this annual is scattered across our areain field margins and wasteland.Identification Very distinctive because of being bristly all over;the spines on the leaves arise from white blisters. It hasprominent swollen bracts around each flower-head.Notable sites As an annual it can crop up at various places, but Isee it most regularly in Grubbins Field at Hampden Bottom, andthe Sports centre car-park and Brickfields in Prestwood. Itbecame abundant in Milton Keynes just after its construction, butdeclined since the green spaces became stabilised. It is abundantin most parts of London and other urban areas with plenty ofdisturbance.Galls Of two known on this plant nationally, neither is knownlocally.Mines Of the three British miners, just the commonChromatomyia 'atricornis' occurs locally.Other ecological associates Visited by honey-bees, but probablyalmost always self-fertilising.Human associations None, except that, like all waste-groundannuals, it is dependent on man to create the succession of sites itneeds.Derivation A cow's tongue is as rough as sand-paper, as it is usedfor gripping food-items, grooming calves, and so on. So if you haveever been licked by a cow you will know why this plant is namedafter it. The leaves are also oblong in shape like a tongue.

37.14

Hawkweed ox-tongue Picris hieracioidesNative perennial of grassland on chalk, only occasional inour area; less often in wasteland than the last species.Identification Although roughly hairy this species isnowhere near as bristly as the last (which used to beuntil recently similarly placed in the genus Picris), nordoes it have pimply leaves or the large bracts enclosingthe flower-heads, just a small ruff of recurved scales.It tends to be a taller, much slimmer, and darker greenplant. The leaves are narrow with distant shallow teeth.Notable sites Most of the better chalk grasslands inour area have this plant - Prestwood Picnic Site,Hatches Bank, Meadsgarden Field, Coombe's Orchards,Speen Access Land, Little Stocking Meadow - as long asthere is some longer grass.Galls Those occurring on bristly ox-tongue belong here,plus another rust fungus that causes yellowish patches,but none are recorded locally.Mines Five recorded nationally, but only Chromatomyia'atricornis' and Liriomyza strigata have been noted inour area.Other ecological associates The caterpillars of themicro-moth Scoparia subfusca feed on this plant. Likethe last it is self-fertile, despite attracting bees andflies.Human associations None.Derivation The general look of this plant is somewhatlike a hawkweed (Hieracium species, see below).

Hawkweed ox-tongue, detail

37.15

Hawkweeds Hieracium agg.Hawkweeds comprise one of those groups (like the dandelions) that form a multitude of micro-species, but theyare concentrated in the north and west of Britain, and we seldom encounter them in the Chilterns. They are hairyerect perennials with usually narrow toothed elliptical leaves and multiple rows of sepals (properly "bracts")beneath the typical "dandelion-type" yellow flower heads. (A simple key for separating those dandelion-likeflowers that lack milk - the hawkbits, hawksbeards, hawkweeds, ox-tongues and cat's-ears (often referred to asthe "hawkish complex") is given at the end of this section. Although relatively easy to separate, they oftenconfuse beginners.)

I deal here with the aggregate as a whole before discussing individual micro-species.Notable sites With two exceptions, all local records of Hieracium agg. are no later than the mid-1980s andunlikely to refer to taxa that are still present, as all the relevant sites have been revisited since, in the case ofPrestwood Picnic Site quite intensively. But it may still be worth looking at Little Stocking Meadow, around SpringCoppice, Highwood Bottom (Speen), and Monkton Wood. There are vague references to plants in "Prestwood" in1996 and "Hughenden Valley" in 2011 that are impossible to follow up. Otherwise see under the micro-speciesbelow.Galls Ten British galls are recorded, but half of them are rare and not to be expected in the Chilterns wherehawkweeds generally are so uncommon. Two of the species have been noted locally - the Hawkweed rust Pucciniahieracii, and the rolled leaves caused by the Hawkweed aphid Nasovonia nigra.Mines Six miners are known for certain from hawkweed in South England. Two of these are the polyphagousChromatomyia 'atricornis' and Liriomyza strigata, mentioned under many other plants in this section. The thirdrecorded in our area only on hawkweeds is the fly Phytomyza marginella.Other ecological associates The larvae of two local moths are known to feed on hawkweeds: Broad-barred whiteand Scoparia subfusca. Leaf-spots are caused by the fungus Septoria mougeotii. Hawkweeds reproduce withoutfertilisation. I have no information on whether the flowers are visited by nectar-feeding insects.Human associations None.Derivation Concerning "hawk" see 37.5, under hawksbeard.

37.16Autumn hawkweed Hieracium sabaudumThis is the only native species of hawkweed that cancertainly be said to be present today in our area (atleast up until 2015). It has been known from a singlesite (covering two distinct neighbouring locations) since2010, when recorded by Aaron Woods, but is alsorecorded in Druce (1926) as 'perpropinquum' and said tobe very local in the Kingshill area, which may well referto the same site.Identification Stem leaves more than 15, often morethan 20; flower-bracts with both simple and glandularhairs; stem distinctly hairy; leaves not deeply toothed;flowering late (mid-August onwards).Notable sites Railway bridge across Nags Head Lane(on the brick balustrade) and nearby roadside kerb.

Leaves and stem

Hieracium sabaudum on railway bridge Nags Head Lane

Flower heads

Mines of Phytomyza marginella on Hieracium sabaudum

Spotted hawkweed Hieracium scotostictum 37.17Mediterranean species recently introduced to Britain and now established in a few areas. It is capable ofspreading by underground runners and by seed.Identification Leaves all basal or one on stem, strongly blotched dark purplish; no sticky glandular hairs.Notable sites Occurs in gardens in Hughenden Valley and Prestwood from which it has spread into neighbouringpavement edges. Its dark-splotched leaves are readily noticeable.Ecological associates See remarks under the aggregate - Septoria mougeotii, Phytomyza marginella, and Nasovonianigra have all been recorded on H. scotostictum in Prestwood.

Hieracium scotostictum Prestwood

Umbellate hawkweed Hieracium umbellatumNative, recorded once in our area from either Monktonor Keepershill Wood, Great Hampden, by Jean Buchananin 1981. More recent surveys of both woods have notre-found it. It usually occurs on heaths and the originalhabitat may have become overgrown. Open areas inthese woods would be worth checking for it.Identification Many leaves on the stem (8 or more);flower bracts hairless or with very few hairs; leaveslinear, parallel-sided; flower-heads relatively large andshowy in umbel-like sprays.Hieracium exotericumNative, recorded once in our area from either Monktonor Keepershill Wood, Great Hampden, by HumphreyBowen in 1987. Although one might speculate that thiswas the same as the above species, the two are verydifferent and unlikely to have been confused. Yet again,there would be strong doubt about this record, were itnot made by a very experienced botanist, as the plant isnot otherwise known from south and east England. If itdoes still occur it is most likely to be alongside theroads bordering the two woods, as its chief habitat iswaysides, particularly railway banks. Hieracium umbellatum

Southern hawkweed Hieracium argillaceumThis plant, under its former name of H.'lachenalii', was said by Druce (1926) to be "very local" in the Kingshill area.It was not recorded since then until 2019, when several plants along Hare Lane, Little Kingshill were recorded byTim Harrison. Few leaves on stem (3-8), basal leaves unspotted; no sticky glandular hairs except the flowerbracts, where they are long, dark, robust, and often stellate.

37.18The following species also appear to have well-established records elsewhere in the Chilterns: H. calcaricola,cheriense, diaphanum, grandidens, maculatum, salticola, and vagum. These and the above may be keyed out asfollows:

Stem leaves <8: Leaves spotted or marbledStem leaves 0-1 H. scotostictumStem leaves 2+ H. maculatum

Leaves neither spotted nor marbledStem leaves 0-1 H. grandidensStem leaves >2

Glandular hairs on flower bracts short, ± equal, usually yellowish H. cherienseGlandular hairs on flower bracts longer & darker

These hairs robust, often stellate H. argillaceumThese hairs slender, seldom stellate H. diaphanum

Stem leaves >8: Flower bracts ± hairlessLeaves linear, parallel-sided H. umbellatumLeaves lanceolate with long teeth H. salticolaLeaves more ovate, usually with short teeth H. vagum

Flower bracts hairyLeaves not deeply dentate, usually >15 on stem, not flowering before mid-August

H. sabaudumLeaves often deeply dentate, usually <15 on stem, flowering June-July H. calcaricola

Mouse-ear hawkweed Pilosella officinarumAlthough it shares the "hawkweed" name and was formerly includedin the genus Hieracium, this plant is easily distinguished fromHieracium proper. It is a native perennial scattered in our area inshort, often dry, grassland, where it can become abundant byspreading by runners in large patches.Identification Readily identified in flower by its distinct lemon-yellow colour, even the simple oval leaves alone are easy to identifyfrom the very long white hairs that stand more or less erect, andthe white under-surface. The leaves occur in a basal rosette andrunners are conspicuous. The flower-stem is also long-hairy.Notable sites It occurs in short grass on both chalky and heathysoils. It is a prominent component of Prestwood parish churchyard,Prestwood Picnic Site, Hatches Bank and Speen Access Land. Italso occurs in Great Missenden cemetery, Hengrove and Warrenfields at Hampden Bottom, and even in verges on the Lovell Estatein Prestwood.Galls Eleven galls might occur in our region, although several arevery rare. Just one is recorded locally, a variety of the Hawkweedrust Puccinia hieracii var. piloselloidarum.Mines Three mines are recorded from Pilosella in our region, ofwhich one is known locally, the fly Phytomyza marginella.Other ecological associates There are no records, but I have seenflies visit the flowers and small beetles on the leaves; furtherobservation would clearly be warranted.Human associations In folk medicine its main use has been as a teamade from the leaves for coughs (Allen & Hatfield 2004) and otherrespiratory problems. It relaxes the muscles of the bronchialtubes and, as an astringent, reduces the production of mucus.Derivation As in the unrelated "common mouse-ear", the referenceis to the very hairy oval grey leaves. Red undersides to outer rays are common in many

dandelion-like flowers

Fox-and-cubs Pilosella aurantiaca 37.19Garden perennial introduced from Europe and increasingly encountered as an escape.Identification The flowers are a distinct orange-brown, matched by no other member of our flora, and producedin dense umbels, unlike the single flower of mouse-ear hawkweed. Shaggy like P. officinarum, although the hairsare blackish and not so long. Also spreads efficiently by means of runners (it can become a nuisance in gardens).Notable sites Banks along Perks Lane, Prestwood parish churchyard, Whitefield Lane (Great Missenden), ClareRoad, Sixty Acres Road and east end of Church Path (Prestwood). It sometimes appears for a few years and thenvanishes (as on top of Denner Hill 2006-2015 or in Home Field 2009-2011).Galls One known, recorded also in our area - the rust fungus Puccinia hieracii var. piloselloidarum.Other ecological associates As for mouse-ear hawkweed; solitary- and bumble-bees, and the hoverfly Episyrphusbalteatus, have been seen on the flowers.Human associations Traditional cottage-garden plant, long established.Derivation The poetic name refers to its propensity to spread by radiating runners as well as the rusty flowers.Variation Two subspecies are known in Britain, spreading respectively by underground stolons (ssp carpathicola) orby over-ground rhizomes (ssp. aurantiaca). Few records differentiate the two, but as far as I know the only oneseen locally is ssp. carpathicola.

Fox-and-cubs

Chicory Cichorium intybusPerennial introduced from Europe millennia ago as a vegetable and now occurring regularly in all kinds of disturbedland, especially on chalk.Identification Large sky-blue flowers occur without stalks in spikes on tall branched stiff bristly stems, theleaves long-pointed with deep lobes like dandelion. Like goat's-beard, the flowers tend to close about noon.Notable sites Although perennial, it does not always last long at particular sites, often acting more like an annual.It seems to occur regularly, however, in Home Field (at least since 2012), in the set-aside of Common Platt field(from about the same time), and along Perks Lane.Galls The only gall is caused by the rust fungus Puccinia hieracii, which also occurs on hawkweeds (above).Mines Four leaf-miners are known in Britain, two of which are common polyphagous Chromatomyia 'atricornis' andLiriomyza strigata, that we have already had occasion to mention for many species. These are the only tworecorded in our area.Otehr ecological associates Bees and hover-flies visit the flowers.Human associations The roots are dried and pulverized to make a powder used to flavour coffee (or even as apoor substitute). They can also be boiled as a vegetable. The leaves can be used sparingly in salads (they are

37.20bitter like dandelion), but are enjoyed more by cattle, for which they were often planted in the past. To avoid thebitter taste garden chicory is raised by keeping the shoots from light (blanching), yielding white leaves.Derivation As a vegetable of long use in Europe, the name goes back directly to ancient Greece, where kichoreiawas used to refer to both chicory and its relative, endive. Succory, an alternative name for chicory, has the samederivation, with a similar softening of the initial consonant influenced by French.Variation Our wild plants are subspecies silvestre. The garden plant is subspecies intybus, which has less deeplylobed leaves, has shaggy stems and leaf midribs, and has been found as a crop relic in Wardes Field.

Chicory

Ssp. intybus lower leaves

Common blue sow-thistle Cicerbita macrophyllaEuropean perennial imported as a garden plant and occasionally seen as a garden escape. It has a milky juice andleaves like sow-thistle, but is very tall with large flowers, which are lilac, not "blue". I recorded it once atHighwood Bottom in 2007.

Common blue sow-thistle

37.21Key to the "Hawkish Complex" (Chilterns only)

Comprising all yellow dandelion-like flowers with no milk (ie omitting Taraxacum & Sonchus)

Stem leafless:Stem very hairy

Leaves lobed Leontodon hispidus ROUGH HAWKBITLeaves simple with long white hairs; flower lemon-yellow

Pilosella officinarum MOUSE-EAR HAWKWEEDStem not very hairy

Leaves deeply & sharply lobed Scorzoneroides autumnalis AUTUMN HAWKBITLeaves with shallow lobes:

Flower 25-40mm Hypochaeris radicata CATSEARFlower 12-20mm Leonotodon saxatilis LESSER HAWKBIT

Stem leafy:±bristly:

Leaves pimply Helminthotheca echioides BRISTLY OXTONGUELeaves deeply lobed Crepis biennis ROUGH HAWKSBEARDLeaves sinuate-toothed Picris hieracioides HAWKWEED OXTONGUE

not bristly:Bracts not in 2 distinct rows Hieracium spp (HAWKWEEDS)Bracts in 2 rows, small outer ones in a ruff

Flower 10-15mm; plant subglabrous Crepis capillaris SMOOTH HAWKSBEARDPlant hairy; flower sometimes larger

Outer bracts patent; seed beaked Crepis vesicaria BEAKED HAWKSBEARDNot as above Crepis capillaris var glandulosa