Ecological Study Report F6

iNTRODUCTIONO

rganisms are open systems that interact continuously with their environment. Ecology is the study of the interaction between organisms and the environment; the connectedness between living systems and non-living systems on the Earth. The term ecology can also be described as the study habitat of a living thing. These interactions determine both the distribution of organism and their abundance in the community.

Because of it’s great scope, ecology is an enormously complex and exciting area of biology, as well as one of critical importance. Ecology reveals the richness of the biosphere—the entire portion of Earth inhabited by life—and can provide the basic understanding that will help us conserve and sustain that richness, now threatened more than ever by human activity. Humans have always had an interest in the distribution and abundance of other organisms. With the development of agriculture and the domestication of animals, people learned more about how the environment affects the growth , survival and reproduction of plants and animals.

Communities of organisms are composed of two or more populations. At this level, an ecologist could take a closer look at the cohabitation of animals in a certain area, studying how the animals share food and space. The distinction between a community and an ecosystem is slight, but essential to understand. While a community describes interaction between organisms in an area, an ecosystem describes the entirety of the area, including chemical and physical factors. Research at this level would concentrate on things like nutrient cycling (i.e. the phosphorus or carbon cycle) or the distribution of energy in the ecosystem.

As we expand, things become more generalized, for instances, the living and nonliving system. Finally, ecologists can look at biological interaction through the widest scope by analyzing the biosphere, or the entirety of life's systems on the globe. Ecology at this level usually involves major atmospheric phenomena like the long term effects of climate change or El Niño on the Earth's living systems.

At each of these levels of organization, there are near infinite examples of questions to ask about interaction. Those are just a few examples. Additionally, we have not even considered narrowing the focus to the levels of physiological, cellular and molecular interaction.

INTRODUCTION

Ecology is a broad biological science and can thus be divided into many sub-disciplines using various criteria. One such categorization, based on overall complexity (from the least complex to the most), is:

Behavioral ecology, which studies the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior, focusing largely at the level of the individual;

Population ecology (or autecology), which deals with the dynamics of populations within species, and the interactions of these populations with environmental factors

Community ecology (or synecology) which studies the interactions between species within an ecological community;

Ecosystem ecology and Landscape ecology, which studies how flows of energy and matter interact with biotic elements of ecosystems.

OOBJECTIVEBJECTIVE

OBJECTIVEOBJECTIVE

The goals intended to be obtained from this ecological study are :

1. Learning the basic principles of ecology through student’s own effort.

- Elements of ecosystem : biosis and abiosis

- Dynamic relationship of elements and flow of energy through ecosystem

2. Using simple apparatus and instruments in ecological studies

3. Learning the methods of collecting and analyzing ecological data

4. Writing an ecological study report

5. Inculcating nature loving attitude

6. Inculcating good moral values-cooperation, independence and self-confidence.

SSTUDY AREASTUDY AREAS

SSOIL ANALYSISOIL ANALYSIS

SOIL ANALYSISSOIL ANALYSIS

1. SOIL SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Apparatus : Metal cylinder and piston (to dig out soil)

Procedure:

a) The metal cylinder is presses into the soil.

b) The soil sample is removed by using the piston from the cylinder.

Discussion :

1. There are many methods to obtain a sample of soil, however, appropriate technique should be used to retain the original quality and structure of the soil in order to determine the actual characteristic or composition of the soil.

2. Using a “corer”

This is the most commonly used method in soil sampling. This method does not disturb the original structure and quality of the soil. The “corer” consists of a sharp ended metal cylinder and a piston.

Metal cylinder and piston


3. Scoop

Another method to obtain soil sample is using scoops and spades. This method allows obtaining of soil from different depths. However, this method is less urged to be used as it may destroy the soil of area being studied.

Use a garden trowel or shovel to carefully remove the top 10 cm of soil from a small area and set it on the ground. (Depth varies according to depth of soil wishing to be sampled)

4. Soil bore

Using a soil bore maintains the natural condition of the soil under study. Soil samples can be obtained from various depths. Hence, a soil bore is suitable for the study of the characteristics of the different layers of a specific soil profile. A known disadvantage of this method is the migration of contaminants from one layer of the soil to another

Soil bore


Precaution :

1. Appropriate soil sampling method should be used to ensure the nature and the structure of the soil are not destroyed.

Conclusion :

The most suitable soil sampling technique is using metal cylinder and piston as it can retain the natural composition of the soil being studied. Apart from that, this method is convenient and the variation cost effective.


2. DETERMINATION OF THE TEXTURE OF SOIL

Introduction

Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of different grain sizes of mineral particles in a soil. Particles are grouped according to their size into what are called soil separates. These separates are typically named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture classification is based on the fractions of soil separates present in a soil. It is also important to note that soil texture changes slowly with time.

Soil properties related to texture

1. Porosity – an index of the relative pore volume in the soil

2. Infiltration – The downward entry of water into the immediate surface of soil

3. Erodibility – Generally, large particles are less erodible, exceptions being clay

4. Available water holding capacity – The capacity of soil to retain water

5. Soil formation – fine sand to coarse sand ratio for example

6. Permeability – The quality of the soil that enables water to move downward through the profile

Apparatus : 500cm³ measuring cylinder 100cm³soil sample 300cm³ water

Procedure :

a) The soil sample is added to the measuring cylinder and is covered with water. b) The contents is shaked vigorously.c) The mixture is allowed to settle out, according to density and surface area of

particles for 48 hours.d) The volume of the various fraction of soil sample is measured.


Formula :

The percentage of soil component content is calculated using the following formula :

% soil component content =

Results :

Soil Components Volume of Soil Sample (cm3)

Volume of Soil Components(cm3)

Percentage of Soil Components(%)

Stone 100 50 50

Sand 100 20 20

Clay 100 30 30

Percentage of sand component =20

100× 100%

= 20%


Discussion :

1. Soil particles precipitate at the bottom of measuring cylinder according to their density and surface area.

2. Stones are the major component of the soil sample, which made up 50% of the soil component. Whereas clay and sand made up 30% and 20% of the soil component respectively.

3. Stone particles have highest density among the soil particles, and therefore, they accumulate at the bottom of the measuring cylinder, followed by sand particles. Clay particles made up the uppermost layer of the soil sediment because of their very small density and surface area.

Precaution :

1. The mixture of water and soil sample must be allowed to settle for a longer period of time to allow the soil particles to settle completely and accentuate distinctions among types of particles.

Conclusion :

From the experiment conducted, it can be concluded that the texture of the soil sample being studied is sandy loam.


Mechanical A nalysis of T he Texture of Soil

Soil analysis is a process whereby the different soil particles are mechanically separated into 4 different basic types of particles of different sizes.

This analysis can determine the ratio or percentage of each type of particle in the soil sample. Soil texture can influence various aspects and properties of the soil analyzed such as:

1. Drainage2. Capillarity3. Aeration4. Adsorption of water5. Condition of soil of water

Classification typically uses the primary constituent particle size or a combination of the most abundant particles size. The types of soil particles are classified according to their sizes.

Size classification of soil separates

Type of soil separate Diameter limits (mm)

Gravel >2

Coarse sand 2 – 0.2

Fine Sand 0.2 – 0.02

Silt 0.02 – 0.002

Clay < 0.002


The soil texture triangle is a diagram often used to figure out soil texture.

Soil Texture Triangle


Apparatus : Soil sievesBeakerBalance

Materials : Soil samples

Procedure :

1. An empty beaker is weighted and the mass (a) is recorded.

2. A dried soil sample is sifted using a soil sieve with a 2 mm mesh size to separate stone and gravel from the soil.

3.3. The sifted soil is sifted again using soil sieves with 0.425 mm and 0.212 mm mesh size subsequently to separate course and fine sands from the soil sample. The separated sand particles are collected in a beaker and weighted. The mass are recorded.

4.4. The sifted soil is sifted again using soil sieve with 0.040 mm mesh size to separate silt particles from the soil. The silt particles are collected in the beaker and weighted. The mass is recorded.

5.5. The remained clay particles are collected in the beaker and weighted. The mass is recorded.


Results :

Soil Sample Cameron Highlands

House Area School Area

Mass of empty beaker, a (g)

252.63 252.63 252.63

Mass of beaker and course sand, b (g)

319.99 322.78 331.45

Mass of beaker and fine sand, c (g)

325.56 324.30 338.96

Mass of beaker and silt, d (g)

266.07 268.35 260.51

Mass of beaker and clay, e (g)

254.98 255.73 253.64

Mass of course sand, b-a (g)

67.36 70.15 78.82

Mass of fine sand, c-a (g)

72.93 71.67 86.33

Mass of silt, d-a (g) 13.44 15.72 7.88

Mass of clay, e-a (g) 2.35 3.10 1.01

Mass of sand, silt and clay (g)

156.08 160.64 174.04

Table 1


Soil sample Cameron Highlands House Area School Area

Percentage of sand component (%)

89.88 88.28 94.89

Percentage of silt component (%)

8.61 9.79 4.53

Percentage of Clay component (%)

1.51 1.93 0.58

Percentage of sand component (Cameron Highlands)

67.36 + 72.93

156.08

=

× 100%

140.29

=

156.08

× 100%

89.88%

Percentage of silt component (Cameron Highlands)

=

=

13.44

156.08

× 100%

=

8.61%

2.35156.08 × 100%Percentage of clay component

(Cameron Highlands) == 1.51%

Table 2


Discussion :

1. The texture of the soil can be determined mechanically using soil sieves with different mesh size to separate the soil particles of different size.

2. A soil texture triangle diagram is used to figure out the texture of the soil based on the percentage composition of soil components in the soil samples.

3. The soil samples from Cameron Highlands and school areas both are classified as sand whereas the soil sample from house areas is loamy sand.

Precautions :

1. The soil samples must be dried before sifted using soil sieve to enable the soil particles to be separated distinctly according to their size.

Conclusion :

According to the percentage composition of the soil components in the soil, the soil samples from Cameron Highlands and school areas both are classified as sand while the soil sample from house areas is loamy sand.


C. DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT OF SOIL

Introduction

　　The state of water in soil is described in terms of the amount of water and the energy associated with the forces which hold the water in the soil. The amount of water is defined by water content and the energy state of the water is the water potential. Plant growth, soil temperature, chemical transport, and ground water recharge are all dependent on the state of water in the soil. While there is a unique relationship between water content and water potential for a particular soil, these physical properties describe the state of the water in soil in distinctly different manners.

Soil water is held in the pore spaces between particles of soil. Within the soil system, the storage of water is influenced by several different forces. Soil water can be further sub-divided into three categories:

1. Hygroscopic water - found as a microscopic film of water surrounding soil particles

2. Capillary water - held by cohesive forces between the films of hygroscopic water

3. Gravity water - water moved through the soil by the force of gravity

Apparatus : Aluminum foil pie dish Electronic balance Oven　 Desiccator Tongs Thermometer

Materials : 80 gm soil


Procedure :

a) An empty aluminum foil pie dish is weighted. The mass (a) is recorded.b) The broken-up soil sample is added to the pie dish and is weighed. The mass (b) is

recorded.c) The pie dish containing the soil sample is placed in the oven at 110 oC for 24 hours.d) The sample is removed from the oven and is cooled in a desiccators.e) The sample is then weighted and the mass is recorded.f) The sample is returned to the oven at 110 oC for a further 24 hours.g) Steps (d) and (e) are repeated until consistent weighing are recorded (constant mass) .

The mass (c) is recorded.h) The percentage of water content is calculated as follows:

i) The soil sample is retained in the desiccator for experiment 4.

Formula :

The percentage of water content of soil is calculated using the following formula :

% water content of soil =


Results :



Mass of aluminum foil pie dish, a (g)

13.89 14.15 15.14

Mass of foil pie dish containing soil sample

before dried, b (g)

93.89 94.15 95.14

Mass of foil pie dish containing soil sample

after dried, c (g)

73.19 70.69 82.20

Mass of soil, b-a (g) 80.0 80.0 80.0

Mass of water , b-c (g)

20.7 23.46 12.94

Percentage of Water Content ( % )

25.88 29.33 16.18

Percentage of water content soil sample (Cameron Highlands)

20.7

80.0= × 100%

= 25.88%


Discussion :

1. The soil samples are heated in the oven at 110 oC to eliminate all the water content in the soil.

2. The soil sample from house areas contains the highest percentage of water content, that is 29.33%. The soil sample from Cameron Highlands contains 25.88% of water content while the soil sample from the school areas contains the least water content which is 16.18%.

3. The amount of water content in the soil depends on the texture and the properties of the soil.

Precaution :

1. During the experiment, the soil samples must be reheated, re-cooled, and re-weighed until constant masses were obtained to ensure that the water content in the soil samples were totally removed.

2. The soil samples must be retained well before conducting the experiment to prevent the loss of water from the soil samples to the surrounding due to evaporation.

3. The soil samples must be placed in the dessicator for cooling to prevent condensation which may affect the results of the experiment.

Conclusion :

The percentage of water content of soil samples from Cameron Highlands, house areas and school areas are 25.88%, 29.33% and 16.18% respectively.


D. DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT

Introduction

Organic matter in soil consists of plant and animal material that is in the process of decomposing. Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of soil. It can be divided into three general pools: living biomass of microorganisms, fresh and partially decomposed residues, and humus. Soil organic matter is frequently said to consist of humic substances and non-humic substances. Non-living components in soil are a heterogeneous mixture composed largely of products resulting from microbal and chemical transformations of organic debris. Humus is the well-decomposed organic matter and highly stable organic material which feeds the soil population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus maintaining high and healthy levels of soil life.

Humification of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to break down into simpler forms which are then made available to growing plants for uptake through their root systems. During the humification process, microbes secrete sticky gums; these contribute to the crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together, allowing greater aeration of the soil. Toxic substances such as heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can be chelated (that is, bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from entering the wider ecosystem

Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown color, which is due to an abundance of organic carbon.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Soil_profile.jpg


Apparatus : Desiccators Crucible and lid Tripod Bunsen burner Asbestos mat

Fireclay triangle tongs

Material : Dried soil sample

Procedure:

1. The crucible and lid is heated strongly in the Bunsen Flame to remove all traces of moisture.

2. The crucible and lid placed in the desiccator to cool. The mass (a) is weighted and recorded.

3. The dried soil sample (kept from the previous experiment) is added from the desiccator and weighted. The mass (b) is recorded.

4. The soil sample in the crucible is heated, covered with the lid, to red-heat for 1 hour to burn off all the organic matter. The soil sample is allowed to cool for 10 min and is removed to the desiccator.

5. The crucible and soil sample is weighted when cooled.6. Steps (c) and (d) are repeated until constant mass is recorded.7. The percentage of organic content is calculated as follow:

8. The experiment on soil samples taken from different areas is repeated to demonstrate variation of organic content.


Formula :

The percentage of organic matter content in soil sample is calculated using the following formula :

% of organic component =

Results :



Mass of crucible and lid, a (g) 59.08 58.02 60.63

Mass of crucible and lid containing dried soil sample

before heating, b (g)99.08 98.02 100.63

Mass of crucible and lid containing dried soil sample

after heating, c (g)97.12 96.66 99.58

Mass of soil sample, b-a (g)50.0 50.0 50.0

Mass of organic matter, b-c (g) 1.96 1.36 1.05

Percentage of OrganicComponent ( % ) 3.92 2.72 2.10

Percentage of organic matter content (Cameron Highlands)

1.96

50.0= × 100%

= 3.92%


Discussion :

1. Soil samples are heated strongly to burn off all the organic matters present in the soil.

2. The soil sample from Cameron Highlands contains the highest composition of organic matters, that is 3.92%, whereas the soil sample from house areas and school areas contains 2.72% and 2.10% of organic matters respectively.

3. The organic constituents in the soil composed of undecayed plant and animal tissues, partial decomposition products, and the soil biomass.

4. Humus is important soil organic matter which supply nutrients for plants grow and microbes in terrestrial ecosystems.

Precaution :

1. The soil samples used are retained from Experiment 3 to ensure that the water content in the soil samples is totally removed.

2. The soil samples must be burnt, cooled, weighed until a constant mass is obtained to ensure the complete decomposition of organic matter.

3. The lid of the crucible should be opened occasionally to ventilate the air inside the crucible to allow the entry of oxygen for the decomposition of organic matter in the soil.

Conclusion :

The percentage of soil organic content for the soil samples from Cameron Highlands, house areas and school areas are 3.92%, 2.72%, and 2.10% respectively.


E. DETERMINATION OF AIR CONTENT OF SOIL

Introduction

Soil air is the part of ground air in the soil and is similar to the air of the atmosphere but depleted in oxygen content and enriched in carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the gaseous phase of soil is called soil air. As the soil water content increases the amount of air in the soil decreases. The composition of air in an well-aerated soil is close to the composition of atmospheric air, as the oxygen consumed in the soil by plants and micro-organisms is readily replaced from the atmosphere.

Two important gases in soil air are carbon dioxide and oxygen. Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product of plant root respiration and biological activity. Oxygen is consumed in the soil by the same processes, and plant roots require oxygen to function normally. Hence, the oxygen in the soil is consumed by plants and micro-organism and is replenished by oxygen from the atmosphere above the soil surface. Under reducing conditions soil air may contain methane, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia.

Apparatus : Tin can

500 cm³ beaker

Metal seeker

Material : Water


Procedure

1. The empty can is placed with open end uppermost into a 500cm³ beaker and the beaker is filled with water above the level of the can. The water level in the beaker is marked.

2. The can that containing the water is removed carefully and the volume of water in the can is measured in a measuring cylinder. The volume (a) is recorded. The water level in the beaker will fall by an amount corresponding to the volume of water in the can.

3. The base of the can is perforated by using a drill, making about eight small holes.4. The open end of the can is pushed into the soil from which the surface vegetation has

been removed until soil begins to come through the perforations. The can is gently dig out, turned over and the soil is removed from the surface until it is level with the top of can.

5. The can containing the soil is placed with open end uppermost, gently back into the beaker of water and the soil in the can is loosen with seeker to allow air to escape.

6. The water level in the beaker will be lower than the original level because water will be used to replace the air which was present in the soil.

7. Water is added to the beaker from a full 100cm³ measuring cylinder until the original level is restored. The volume of water added (b) is recorded.

8. The percentage air content of soil sample can be determinate as follows:

9. The experiment on soil samples is repeated from different areas.


Formula :

The percentage of air content in soil sample is calculated using the following formula :

% volume of air in soil sample

Results :

Soil sample Initial volumes of soil sample, a

(ml)

Final volumes of soil sample, b

(ml)

Volumes of air in soil sample,

a-b (ml)

Percentages of volume of air in soil sample (%)

Cameron Highlands

420 330 90 21.43

House Area 420 320 100 23.81

School Area 420 370 50 11.90

Percentage of air content in soil sample (Cameron Highlands)

= 90

420× 100%

= 21.43%


Discussion :

1. Soil air contains oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia.

2. The soil sample from the house areas contains the highest percentage of air content which is 23.81% . The soil sample from Cameron Highlands contains 21.43% of air content while the soil sample from the school areas contains the lowest percentage of air content which is 11.90%.

3. The can containing soil sample is immersed into the beaker of water and the water flows into the can through the perforation at the base of the can to allow the air in the soil dissolves in it.

Precaution :

1. The surface vegetation of the soil must be removed before pushing the perforated can into the soil to obtain the soil sample.

2. The soil sample in the can needs to be loosen by using a seeker to allow the air in the soil sample to escape.

Conclusion :

The percentage of air content in the soil samples from Cameron Highlands, house areas and school areas are 21.43%, 23.81% and 11.90%.


F. DETERMINATION OF SOIL PH

Introduction

The pH of soil or more precisely the pH of the soil solution is very important because soil solution carries nutrients in it such as Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P) that plants need in specific amounts to grow, thrive and fight off diseases. Many crops, vegetables, flowers and shrubs, trees, weeds and fruit are pH dependent and rely on the soil solution to obtain nutrients.

The pH value of a soil is influenced by the kinds of parent materials from which the soil was formed. Human distractions like pollution can alter the pH of soil. Application of fertilizers containing ammonium or urea speeds up the rate at which acidity develops. The decomposition of organic matter also adds to soil acidity.

If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize the nutrients they need. In acidic soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants eventually die of toxicity. Knowing whether the soil pH is acidic or basic is important because if the soil is too acidic the applied pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides will not be absorbed and they will end up in garden water and rain water runoff, where they eventually become pollutants in our streams, rivers, lakes, and ground water.

Apparatus : Long test-tube Test-tube rack Spatula

10 cm3 pipete

Material : BDH universal indicator solution Barium sulphate Distilled water


Procedure :

a) 1 cm3 of soil is put in a test-tube. 1 cm3 of barium sulphate is added to the test-tube to ensure flocculation of colloidal clay.

b) 10 cm3 of distilled water and 5 cm3 of BDH universal indicator solution. The test-tube is sealed with the bung. The test-tube is shaken vigorously and the contents are allowed to settle for 5 minutes.

c) The colour of liquid in the test-tube is compared with the colours on the BDH references colour chart and corresponding pH is read off.

d) The experiment is repeated on soil samples from different areas.

Results :

Soil Sample Colour of LiquidIn The Test-tube

pH value of soil sample

Cameron Highlands Dark Green 9

House Area Dark Green 9

School Area Blue 10


Discussion :

1. The pH of the soil is important to provide suitable medium for the growth of plants.

2. Barium sulphate is added to the soil sample in the test-tube to ensure flocculation of colloidal clay in the soil.

3. The pH value of the soil samples from Cameron Highlands and house areas are the same that is pH 9 while the soil sample from school areas are pH 10.

Precaution :

1. The test tube containing the soil solution must be shaken vigorously and the contents are allowed to settle for 5 minutes to ensure the complete flocculation of colloidal clay in the soil.

Conclusion :

The soil samples from Cameron Highlands and house areas both have a pH value of 9 while the soil sample from school areas have a pH value of 10.

DDETERMETERMIINANATITIONON

OOF TYF TYPES OPES OF F SOSOIILL ORGANORGANIISMSSMS

DETERMINATION OF TYPES OF SOIL ORGANISMSDETERMINATION OF TYPES OF SOIL ORGANISMS

Introduction

Soil organisms are part of soil population. The types of soil organisms commonly found include Nematoda, Annelida, Myriapoda, Insecta, Mollusca and Amoeba.

The Tullgren funnel is a device used to separate insects and mites from leaf mold and similar materials to study the types of organisms presented. A soil or leaf litter sample is placed in the removable upper part of the funnel. Heat and light from the lamp creates a temperature gradient of approximately 14°C in the soil sample. This stimulates the downward movement of soil arthropods, and similar organisms, through the gauze to a the collecting tube attached to the base of the funnel. The position of the lamp is adjustable to enable the temperature of the soil to be raised gradually.

Tullgren funnel


Baermann funnel is a device used to extract nematodes from a soil sample or plant material. A muslin bag containing the sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the lower end by a rubber tube and clip. Being heavier than water, the nematodes pass through the muslin and sink to the bottom. This device relies on the phenomenon of the migration of the nematodes downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature. After permitting sufficient time to permit migration, the warm water is drained off, centrifuged, and examined microscopically for the presence of the nematodes.

Bearmann funnel


Apparatus: Tullgren Funnel, Retort stand, Beakers, Magnifying glass, Microscope, glass slide, Bearmann funnel

Material : 4% formalin solution

Procedure :

A. Using Tullgren funnel

1) A beaker containing 4% of formalin solution is prepared.2) A soil sample is placed on the screen near the top of the funnel. Light bulb is placed above

the sample to produce heat and light to drive the insects downward into the funnel.3) The soil arthropods are collected in the beaker containing formalin solution placed below the

funnel after 48 hours.4) The solution in the beaker is drained off, centrifuged, and examined by using microscope.5) The appearance of the soil organisms is drawn and the name of the types of the animals is

stated.

B. Using Baermann funnel

1) A beaker containing 4% of formalin solution is prepared.2) A muslin bag containing the soil sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the lower

end by a rubber tube and clip.3) The nematodes sank to the lower end of the rubber tube and are collected in the beaker

containing formalin solution by drawing off the clip at the lower end of the rubber tube after 48 hours.

4) The solution in the beaker is drained off, centrifuged, and examined by using microscope.5) The appearance of the soil organisms is drawn and the name of the types of the animals is

stated.


Results :

Types of soil organism Appearance of organism

Nematoda

Annelida

Myriapoda


Types of soil organism Appearance of organism

Insecta

Mollusca

Amoeba


Discussion :

1. Tullgren funnel applies the phenomena of the response of organisms towards light and temperatures to extract the soil arthropods from the soil sample or the leaf litter.

2. The application of Baermann funnel relies on the characteristic of nematodes which migrate downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature.

3. The soil organisms found in the soil sample being studied are Myriapoda, Nematode, Amoeba, Insecta, and Annelida.

Precaution :

1. The temperature of the soil in the Tullgren funnel is raised gradually by adjusting the position of the lamp to prevent the slower moving soil organism from being trapped in hard dry cakes of soil.

2. The Tullgren funnel and Baerman funnel are set up for 48 hours to provide sufficient time for the migration of the soil organisms in the soil sample.

Conclusion :

1. The soil organisms can be isolated by using Tullgren funnel and Baermann funnel devices.

2. The soil organisms found in the soil sample being studied are

3.

DDETERMETERMIINANATITIONON OOF TF THE DENSHE DENSITITYY

OOFF PLAN PLANTT SPEC SPECIIESES IIN A HABN A HABITITAATT

DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES SPECIES

A.A. QUADRAT SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Introduction

Quadrats are generally used for the quantitative assessment of biodiversity occurring within an area. The objective generally relates to the quality of a particular feature, where species richness may be an important or valued attribute of that feature. Quantitative counts using quadrats provide a structured way to estimate the abundance of species to estimate their population size or to assess species richness and diversity of a biotope. There are three factors need to be considered in relation to the use of quadrats. Distribution of plants Shape and size of the quadrat Number of observations needed to obtain an adequate estimate of density

Systematic quadrat sampling is applied when samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually along a line. Random quadrat sampling is usually carried out when the area under study is fairly uniform, very large and when there is limited time available. When using random sampling techniques, large numbers of samples are taken from different positions within the habitat. A quadrat frame is most often used for this type of sampling.

Systematic distribution of quadrat Random distribution of quadrat

DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIESSPECIES

Apparatus : Quadrats measuring 1m2

Procedure :

1. A quadrat frame is placed on the field being investigated.

2. The frequency and the coverage of the plants inside the quadrat is counted, measured and recorded.

3. 10 quadrats are sampled systematically at uniform distance all over the investigated field.

4. The percentage of relative species cover, relative density and relative frequency of the plant species found in the investigated field are determined

Formula :

1. Frequency = Number of quadrats containing the species

Total number of quadrats× 100%

2. Relative frequency = × 100%Frequency of the species

Total frequency of all species

5. Density =Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrat

Total number of quadrats × Area of each quadrat

× 100%

6. Relative density =Density of a species

3. Species coverage =Total base area or aerial coverage (cm2) of all quadrats

Total number of quadrats sampled × Quadrat area

4. Relative species coverage =Coverage of a species

Total coverage of all species

× 100%

× 100%

Total density of all species

DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES

Results :

Table of data for the measurement of relative frequency of each species in quadrat sampling

Student’s name : Habitat : Tropical plainLocation/Place : Open grass field in school area

Type of plants : Tropical plantsQuadrat size : 1 m2

Date

No. Names of plant species Number of quadrats Number of quadrat

containing the species

Frequency%

Relative frequency

(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Axoropus Compressus / / / / / / / / / / 10 100 16.67

2 Mimosa Pudica / / / / / / / / 8 80 13.33

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus / / / / / / 6 60 10.0

4 Cyperus Iria / / / / 4 40 6.67

5 Cyperus Acromaticus / / / / / 5 50 8.33

6 Imperata Cylinderica / / / / / / / 7 70 11.67

7 Cyperus Rotundus / / / / 4 40 6.67

8 Echinochloa Colona / / / / / / 6 60 10.0

9 Isachne Globosa / / / / / / / 7 70 11.67

10 Taraxacum Officinate / / / 3 30 5.0

Total 600 100

DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIESDETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES

Table of data for the measurement of each species cover in quadrat sampling



Date :

No. Names of plant species Species coverage (m2) Total species

coverage (m2)

Species coverage

%

Relative species

coverage (%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Axoropus Compressus 0.41 0.52 0.59 0.65 0.42 0.54 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.57 5.09 50.90 50.80

2 Mimosa Pudica 0.16 0.15 - 0.20 - 0.13 0.22 0.17 0.20 0.19 1.42 14.20 14.17

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.12 0.09 0.14 - - 0.10 0.09 0.09 - - 0.63 6.30 6.29

4 Cyperus Iria - - - 0.08 - 0.09 0.04 - - 0.04 0.25 2.50 2.50

5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.14 - 0.08 - 0.15 - - 0.08 0.06 - 0.51 5.10 5.09

6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.05 0.04 - 0.02 0.07 0.07 - 0.03 0.09 0.37 3.70 3.69

7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.09 - - - 0.12 - - - 0.09 0.06 0.36 3.60 3.59

8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.09 0.07 - 0.07 0.06 - 0.07 - 0.06 0.42 4.20 4.19

9 Isachne Globosa 0.08 0.10 - 0.08 0.10 - 0.09 0.14 0.08 - 0.67 6.70 6.69

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - 0.07 - 0.11 - 0.12 - - - 0.30 3.0 2.99

Total 100.2 100.0


Table of data for the measurement of relative density of each species in quadrat sampling



Date :

No. Names of plant species Number of individuals of the species Total number of individuals

Species density (m-2)

Relative density (%)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Axoropus Compressus 88 98 121 132 81 105 77 83 98 95 978 97.8 60.26

2 Mimosa Pudica 5 4 - 6 - 3 6 4 6 5 39 3.9 2.40

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 22 15 23 - - 19 16 17 - - 112 11.2 6.90

4 Cyperus Iria - - - 10 - 12 7 - - 8 37 3.7 2.28

5 Cyperus Acromaticus 21 - 17 - 23 - - 16 10 - 87 8.7 5.36

6 Imperata Cylinderica - 8 6 - 4 9 8 - 5 12 52 5.2 3.20

7 Cyperus Rotundus 13 - - - 18 - - - 15 8 54 5.4 3.33

8 Echinochloa Colona - 20 14 - 18 12 - 15 - 13 92 9.2 5.67

9 Isachne Globosa 17 18 - 16 22 - 21 36 20 - 150 15.0 9.24

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - 4 - 8 - 10 - - - 22 2.2 1.36

Total 162.3 100.0

DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES SPECIES

Summary of the measurements obtained by the quadrat sampling techniqueSummary of the measurements obtained by the quadrat sampling technique

No.No. Name of speciesName of species FrequencyFrequency (%)(%)

RelativeRelative frequencyfrequency

(%)(%)

SpeciesSpecies coveragecoverage

(%)(%)

RelativeRelative speciesspecies

coveragecoverage (%)(%)

DensityDensity (m(m-2-2))

RelativeRelative densitydensity

(%)(%)

11 Axoropus Compressus

100 16.67 50.90 50.80 97.8 60.26

22 Mimosa Pudica 80 13.33 14.20 14.17 3.9 2.40

33 Chrysopogon Aciculatus

60 10.0 6.30 6.29 11.2 6.90

44 Cyperus Iria 40 6.67 2.50 2.50 3.7 2.28

55 Cyperus Acromaticus

50 8.33 5.10 5.09 8.7 5.36

66 Imperata Cylinderica

70 11.67 3.70 3.69 5.2 3.20

77 Cyperus Rotundus

40 6.67 3.60 3.59 5.4 3.33

88 Echinochloa Colona

60 10.0 4.20 4.19 9.2 5.67

99 Isachne Globosa 70 11.67 6.70 6.69 15.0 9.24

1010 Taraxacum Officinate

30 5.0 3.0 2.99 2.2 1.36

DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANTDETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIESSPECIES

Calculation :Calculation :

Frequency of Axoropus Compressus =10

10× 100%

= 100%

Relative frequency of Axoropus Compressus

= 100

600× 100%

= 16.67%

Species coverage of Axoropus Compressus = 5.09

10.0× 100%

= 50.90%

Relative species coverage of Axoropus Compressus =

50.90

100.2× 100%

= 50.80%

Density of Axoropus Compressus =978

10 × 1 m2

= 97.8 m-2

Relative density of Axoropus Compressus =

=97.8

162.3× 100%

= 60.26%


DiscussionDiscussion : :

1.1. Quadrat sampling technique can be used to investigate the plants communities in a defined Quadrat sampling technique can be used to investigate the plants communities in a defined area.area.

2.2. Quadrat sampling technique involves the counting of the number of the plants and the aerial Quadrat sampling technique involves the counting of the number of the plants and the aerial coverage of each plant species in a defined area.coverage of each plant species in a defined area.

3.3. Systematically Systematically distributiondistribution of quadrats is selected as the plant characteristics are close to the of quadrats is selected as the plant characteristics are close to the actual natural condition.actual natural condition.


B. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USING LINE TRANSECT

Introduction :

A transect refers to a line that cut across a community to investigate the progressive invasion of plants into the community without causing any obvious change in that habitat. Transect is very useful especially when existing plants are zoned. This means the transect forms uniform sequential zones representing different communities. The division into zones is usually related to the uniform variation in physical factors in that habitat along lines that are perpendicular to the zones. An advantage of transect charts is that they can show a range of specific plants. By charting these transects at suitable time intervals, any progression change in the plants along the transect line can be detected and measured. Other information can be obtained from a series of transects through a specific plants area include composition, extrapolation, individual occurrence frequency and width of occurrence of different species. Line transect are the simplest and easiest sampling method to used. A line transect can be prepared by placing a measuring tape (15-30m) along desired line and marking the locations of individual plant that touch one or both sides of the tape.

Apparatus : Rope (15.3 meters)

Procedure :

1. A base line along the border of the area is determined under investigation.2. A series of points along this base line is chosen either randomly or systematically. These

points are used as the starting points for the transects to run across the area being investigated .The plants which touch the line as seen vertically above or below the transect line is recorded.

3. 10-20 lines are placed randomly in the area to provide enough samples to investigate the community


Formula :

a) The frequency of a species is calculated by using the following formula :

Frequency =

b) The percentage of surface cover of each species is calculated as follow:

% species cover =

c) The relative species cover is calculated as follow :

Relative species cover =


Results :Results :

Line Transect 1Student’s name : Habitat : Tropical plainLocation : Open grass field in school areaType of plant : Tropical plant

Distance of each interval : 1.5mTotal number of intervals : 10Total length of transect : 15mDate :

No. Names of plant species Cross sectional length of the species in each interval (m) Total cross sectional

length of the species (m)

Number of intervals where the

species found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Axoropus Compressus 0.39 0.44 0.45 0.48 0.37 0.39 0.37 0.52 0.42 0.47 4.30 10

2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.35 0.32 - 0.35 0.40 - 0.34 0.33 0.37 2.46 7

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - 0.23 0.33 0.30 - 0.35 0.29 - - 1.50 5

4 Cyperus Iria - - - 0.26 - 0.24 - - - - 0.50 2

5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.24 - - - 0.27 0.25 - - 0.27 - 1.03 4

6 Imperata Cylinderica 0.22 0.24 - - - - 0.47 0.35 0.25 - 1.53 5

7 Cyperus Rotundus - - 0.24 0.22 - - 0.32 - - - 0.78 3

8 Echinochloa Colona 0.35 0.23 - 0.23 - - - - - 0.38 1.19 4

9 Isachne Globosa 0.32 0.24 - - - 0.24 - - - - 0.80 3

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - 0.28 - 0.23 - - - 0.26 0.31 1.08 4

Total 15.17 47




No. Names of plant species Cross sectional length of the species in each interval (m) Total cross sectional length of the species

(m)

Number of intervals where

the species found1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10


2 Mimosa Pudica 0.31 - 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 - - 0.32 - 1.95 6

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.25 0.24 0.24 - - - - 0.25 - - 0.98 4

4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.32 - - 0.26 0.29 0.24 - 0.28 1.39 5

5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.31 - - 0.31 0.22 0.32 - - 0.24 1.40 5

6 Imperata Cylinderica - - 0.22 - 0.34 0.22 - 0.32 - - 1.10 4

7 Cyperus Rotundus - - - 0.25 - - 0.24 - - 0.23 0.72 3

8 Echinochloa Colona 0.24 0.22 - 0.32 - - - 0.23 - - 1.01 4

9 Isachne Globosa - 0.21 - - - - 0.28 - 0.30 0.26 1.05 4

10 Taraxacum Officinate 0.24 - - 0.23 - - - - 0.34 - 0.81 3

Total 15.17 48





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.33 0.36 - 0.35 0.43 - 0.33 0.42 0.47 2.69 7

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.25 0.25 - 0.24 - 0.33 - - - - 1.07 4

4 Cyperus Iria - 0.24 - 0.23 - 0.22 - - 0.35 - 1.04 4

5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.28 - 0.28 - 0.26 - 0.28 - - 0.24 1.34 5

6 Imperata Cylinderica - - 0.31 - 0.24 - - - 0.34 - 0.89 3

7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.36 - - - 0.30 - - 0.23 - 0.26 1.15 4

8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.24 - 0.20 - - 0.26 0.27 - 0.22 1.19 5

9 Isachne Globosa - - - 0.25 - - 0.31 - - - 0.56 2

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - 0.22 - - - 0.24 - - 0.46 2

Total 15.22 46





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica 0.33 0.41 - 0.31 - 0.29 - 0.40 0.34 0.28 2.36 7

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - 0.26 - 0.33 - - 0.23 - - 0.82 3

4 Cyperus Iria - 0.32 - 0.23 0.31 - 0.39 0.25 0.29 - 1.79 6

5 Cyperus Acromaticus - - 0.31 - 0.34 0.32 0.34 - - - 1.31 4

6 Imperata Cylinderica 0.35 - - 0.26 - 0.24 0.33 0.23 - - 1.41 5

7 Cyperus Rotundus - - 0.21 0.27 - - - - 0.31 0.30 1.10 4

8 Echinochloa Colona 0.24 - 0.24 - - - - - - 0.29 0.77 3

9 Isachne Globosa - 0.26 - - - - - - - 0.24 0.50 2

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - - - 0.24 - - - - 0.24 1

Total 15.16 45





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica 0.38 0.28 0.31 0.34 - - - 0.42 0.35 0.38 2.36 7

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - 0.41 - 0.24 - 0.32 - - - 0.28 1.25 4

4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.27 - - 0.34 - - 0.32 0.23 1.16 4

5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.24 - 0.34 - 0.23 - - 0.34 - 0.23 1.38 5

6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.23 - - - 0.4 0.28 - 0.31 - 1.22 4

7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.23 - - 0.31 - - - 0.36 - - 0.90 3

8 Echinochloa Colona 0.33 - - - 0.22 - - - - - 0.55 2

9 Isachne Globosa - - - - 0.25 - 0.42 - - - 0.67 2

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - - 0.27 - 0.34 - - - 0.61 2

Total 15.06 43





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica 0.48 0.30 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.38 - - 0.28 0.36 2.91 8

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - - 0.24 - - 0.28 0.31 0.30 0.24 1.37 5

4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.31 0.25 - - 0.24 0.24 - 0.32 1.36 5

5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.33 - - 0.25 - - 0.27 0.21 - 1.06 4

6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.37 - 0.25 0.26 - 0.46 - - 0.22 1.56 5

7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.31 - - - - 0.25 - - 0.23 - 0.79 3

8 Echinochloa Colona - - - - - 0.21 - 0.23 - - 0.44 2

9 Isachne Globosa - - 0.34 - - - - - - - 0.34 1

10 Taraxacum Officinate 0.27 - - - - 0.22 - - - - 0.47 2

Total 15.17 45





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.50 0.42 0.43 - - 0.38 0.32 0.40 0.38 2.83 7

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.24 - - - 0.25 - 0.24 - - - 0.73 3

4 Cyperus Iria 0.27 - 0.23 - 0.26 - 0.26 0.28 - - 1.30 5

5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.24 0.25 - - 0.45 - 0.22 0.24 - 1.40 5

6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.31 - 0.40 - - 0.22 - - - 0.93 3

7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.38 - - - - 0.27 - 0.22 0.25 0.25 1.37 5

8 Echinochloa Colona - - 0.22 - - 0.23 - - - 0.21 0.66 3

9 Isachne Globosa - - - - 0.38 - - - - - 0.38 1

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - 0.29 - - - - - 0.22 0.51 2

Total 15.21 44





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica 0.33 0.32 0.34 0.41 0.31 0.38 0.40 - - - 2.49 7

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.24 - - 0.31 - - - 0.38 0.32 - 1.25 4

4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.38 - - 0.31 - 0.32 - - 1.01 3

5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.24 - 0.25 - - - - 0.31 - 0.80 3

6 Imperata Cylinderica 0.38 - - - - 0.33 0.23 - 0.40 0.28 1.62 5

7 Cyperus Rotundus - 0.30 - - - - 0.21 0.34 - - 0.85 3

8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.23 - - 0.28 - - - - - 0.51 2

9 Isachne Globosa - - 0.32 - 0.24 - - - - 0.42 0.98 3

10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - - 0.28 - 0.28 - - 0.34 0.90 3

Total 15.16 43





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.32 - - 0.47 0.30 0.26 0.40 0.33 0.30 2.38 7

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.31 - - - 0.33 - 0.21 0.30 - - 1.15 4

4 Cyperus Iria 0.32 - - - - 0.31 0.26 - 0.32 - 1.21 4

5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.30 - 0.24 0.31 - - 0.24 0.25 0.33 1.67 6

6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.25 0.35 - - 0.22 - - - 0.37 1.19 4

7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.35 - - 0.27 - 0.21 - - - - 0.83 3

8 Echinochloa Colona - - 0.26 0.24 - - 0.22 - - - 0.72 3

9 Isachne Globosa - - 0.27 0.32 - - - - - - 0.59 2

10 Taraxacum Officinate - 0.22 - - - - - - - - 0.22 1

Total 15.09 44





(m)




2 Mimosa Pudica 0.50 0.36 0.34 0.40 0.36 - 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.43 3.51 9

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - 0.26 - 0.33 0.32 - - - - 0.91 3

4 Cyperus Iria - 0.28 - 0.32 0.22 - 0.24 - 0.26 - 1.32 5

5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.30 - - 0.26 - 0.23 - 0.38 0.22 - 1.39 5

6 Imperata Cylinderica - - 0.37 - - - - 0.31 - 0.40 1.08 3

7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.26 - - - - 0.27 - - 0.22 - 0.75 3

8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.23 - - - 0.24 - - - - 0.47 2

9 Isachne Globosa - - - - 0.22 - 0.35 - - - 0.57 2

10 Taraxacum Officinate - 0.20 - - - - - - - 0.29 0.49 2

Total 15.13 44


Summary of the measurements obtained by the line transect technique

No. Name of species Number of intervals

where species are recorded

Total cross sectional length of

the species (m)

Percentage coverage

(%)

Relative coverage

(%)

Frequency (%)

1 Axoropus Compressus 100 48.20 32.13 31.81 100.0

2 Mimosa Pudica 72 25.94 17.29 17.12 72.0

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus

39 11.03 7.30 7.28 39.0

4 Cyperus Iria 43 12.08 8.05 7.97 43.0

5 Cyperus Acromaticus 46 12.78 8.52 8.43 46.0

6 Imperata Cylinderica 41 12.53 8.35 8.27 41.0

7 Cyperus Rotundus 34 9.24 6.16 6.10 34.0

8 Echinochloa Colona 30 7.51 5.01 4.96 30.0

9 Isachne Globosa 22 6.44 4.29 4.25 22.0

10 Taraxacum Officinate 22 5.79 3.86 3.82 22.0

Total 449 151.54 100.96 100.0 449.0


Calculation :

Frequency of Axoropus Compressus = 100

100× 100%

= 100%

Percentage coverage of Axoropus Compressus

= × 100%150 m

48.20 m

= 32.13%

Relative coverage of Axoropus Compressus

=151.54 m

48.20 m× 100%

= 31.81%


Discussion :

OOVERRALLVERRALL

DISCUSSIONDISCUSSION

OVERRALL DISCUSSION

An appropriate soil sampling techniques must be used so that the natural composition of the soil can be retained. The soil samples obtained from the study areas composed of different soil components - sand (both coarse and fine sand), silt and clay. In order to determinate the texture of the soil, these soil components are mechanically separated using sedimentation method. The soil particles precipitated in the measuring cylinder according to their density and surface area. Hence, the composition of the soil components can be determined by calculating the percentage of different soil components of the soil sample. An alternative method used to determine the texture of the soil is by mechanical analysis using soil sieve. The soil particles are separated according to their size by using soil sieves with different mesh size. The separated soil particles are weighted and the percentages of the soil components are determined. A soil texture triangle diagram is used to figure out the texture of the soil sample according to the composition of the soil components.

The water content of soil is the amount of water retained in the soil. The percentage of the water content can be determined by heating the soil sample in the oven to remove the water from the soil. The soil sample is allowed to cool and weighted. The drop in the mass of the soil sample due to the loss of water is calculated. The soil sample is reheated, re-cooled, and re-weighed until constant masses were obtained to ensure that the water content in the soil samples are totally removed. The percentage of water content in the soil depends on the texture and the properties of the soil.

Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of soil. In the determination of organic matter content of soil, the dried soil sample is heated strongly using Bunsen burner in the crucible covered with lid. The lid of the crucible is opened occasionally to ventilate the air inside the crucible to allow the entry of oxygen for the decomposition of organic matter in the soil. The soil sample is allowed to cool and weighted. The soil sample is burnt, cooled, and weighed until a constant mass is obtained to ensure the complete decomposition of organic matter. Hence, the percentage of the soil organic matter content can be determined.

Soil air contains oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia. In the determination of the air content of soil, a perforated can is pushed into the soil where the surface vegetation of the soil is removed to obtain the soil sample. The can containing soil sample is immersed into the beaker of water and the soil sample is loosen by using a seeker to allow the air in the soil sample to escape. The water flows into the can through the perforation at the base of the can to replace the space occupied by the air in the soil sample. The percentage of the air content of soil is determined by measuring the volume of the water required to replace the air content in the soil sample.

OVERRALL DISCUSSION

The pH value of soil is the measure of the acidity of the soil. The pH value of a soil is influenced by the kinds of parent materials from which the soil was formed. In the determination of soil pH, barium sulphate is added to the soil sample in the test tube to ensure flocculation of colloidal clay. The soil sample in the test tube is then added with distilled water and BDH universal indicator solution. The test-tube is sealed with the bung and shaken vigorously. The colour of liquid in the test-tube is compared with the colours on the BDH references colour chart and corresponding pH is read off. The pH of the soil is important to provide suitable medium for the growth of plants.

The techniques used to isolate soil organism depend on the size and responses of the organisms. The Tullgren funnel is used to extract soil arthropods from the soil sample or leaf litter to study the types of organisms presented. The Tullgren funnel technique is based on the negative response of organisms towards bright, high temperature and low moisture. The Baermann funnel is a device used to extract nematodes from a soil sample or plant material. The application of Baermann funnel relies on the characteristic of nematodes which migrate downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature.

Quadrat sampling technique is used for quantitative analysis of plant communities within an area. The quadrat size used depends on the size and density of the plants sampled. The distribution of the quadrats must cover all over the area under study so that the composition of the plants community can be determined qualitatively. Line transect is another method used to obtain qualitative information on the distribution and abundance of plants population. Line transect techniques is usually used to investigate the distribution and abundance of plants species which forms uniform sequential zone representing different communities.

OOVERALLVERALL

SUMMARYSUMMARY

RREFERENCESEFERENCES

REFERENCE

http://www.donnan.com/soilph.htmhttp://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/soil_pH/plant_pH.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_pHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrathttp://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/howto.htmhttp://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/3howto.htm#SYSTEMATIC%20SAMPLINGhttp://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/wetland_survey/line.htmhttp://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/hmv1/watrsoil/theta.htmhttp://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-30_web.pdfhttp://www.usyd.edu.au/su/agric/ACSS/sphysic/water.htmlhttp://campbellsci.com/documents/apnotes/soilh20c.pdfhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htmhttp://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/hmv1/watrsoil/frontp.htmhttp://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-30_web.pdfhttp://www.usyd.edu.au/su/agric/ACSS/sphysic/water.htmlhttp://campbellsci.com/documents/apnotes/soilh20c.pdfhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htmhttp://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Water_contenthttp://web1.msue.msu.edu/imp/modzz/00001813.htmlhttp://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0452.htmhttp://www.ar.wroc.pl/~weber/def2.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_materialhttp://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard/orgmtrsl.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factorhttp://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/SCI_ED/grade10/ecology/biotic/biot.htm#Cons_2http://www.bcgrasslands.org/grasslands/bioticcomponents.htmhttp://www.burkardscientific.co.uk/agronomics/pdf/TullgrenFunnelUnit.pdfhttp://www.saburchill.com/lab/experiments/expt01.htmlhttp://www.burkardscientific.co.uk/agronomics/tullgren_funnels.htm

Success in Biology for STPM Volume 2Penerbitan Fajar Bakti SDN. BHD.Lee soon ChingLiew Shee LeongChoong Ngok Mang

CCONFONFIIDENDENTITIALAL

RREPORTEPORT

CONFIDENTIAL REPORTCONFIDENTIAL REPORT

Undeniably, this ecological study project offers us an opportunity to learn of theUndeniably, this ecological study project offers us an opportunity to learn of the application of science of ecology to natural resources management, research and conservation.application of science of ecology to natural resources management, research and conservation. The purpose of this project work is to develop a well understanding of the basic principles ofThe purpose of this project work is to develop a well understanding of the basic principles of qualitative ecological study among the students.qualitative ecological study among the students.

We had planned a rough working scheme of the ecological study and constructed aWe had planned a rough working scheme of the ecological study and constructed a working schedule to distribute our tasks thoroughly. In the working schedule to distribute our tasks thoroughly. In the progressionprogression of the ecological study, of the ecological study, we had gathered related information through different sources to help us we had gathered related information through different sources to help us

GGROUP ROUP RREPORTEPORT

The purpose of this project work is to enhance the studentsThe purpose of this project work is to enhance the students’’ acknowledgement and skills acknowledgement and skills applied in environmental and resources management. Through this ecological study project, weapplied in environmental and resources management. Through this ecological study project, we could comprehend the application of statistics, mathematics and science to solve a broad ofcould comprehend the application of statistics, mathematics and science to solve a broad of problems in terrestrial and marine ecology, natural resource management, biometrics, andproblems in terrestrial and marine ecology, natural resource management, biometrics, and mathematical biology.mathematical biology.

Through comprehensive project planning, we had outlined the assignment of theThrough comprehensive project planning, we had outlined the assignment of the ecological study and ecological study and constructedconstructed a a thoughtfulthoughtful working schedule to smooth the progression of this working schedule to smooth the progression of this project work. In accordance with the requirement of this project work, we had selected suitableproject work. In accordance with the requirement of this project work, we had selected suitable study field to conduct soil analysis and qualitative ecology study. Therefore, we had study field to conduct soil analysis and qualitative ecology study. Therefore, we had organizedorganized a a trip to Cameron Highlands to obtain soil samples for soil analysis.trip to Cameron Highlands to obtain soil samples for soil analysis.

In the analysis of soil, we have conducted diversified experiments to investigate theIn the analysis of soil, we have conducted diversified experiments to investigate the natural composition and properties of soil.natural composition and properties of soil.

MMARKING SCHEMAARKING SCHEMA

Documents

Ecological Study Report F6