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Economic Advance and Social Unrest(1830-1850)
Chapter 22
Key Topics
• The development of industrialism and its effects on the organization of labor and the family
• The changing role of women in industrial society• The establishment of police forces and reform
of prisons• Early developments in European socialism• The revolutions of 1848
Industrialization of Europe• Industrial Revolution began
in Britain c.1780
• Continental Europe did not really experience industrialization till the C19th, but by mid-C19th, in many parts of western & central Europe, the impact of industrialization was being felt & contributing to significant social changes.
Impacts ofIndustrialization in Europe
• Migration from rural to urban areas• Human misery in urban areas (overpopulated, lack of services,
illnesses etc)• Spread of railways (+improved canal & road networks) after
1830’s/1840’s. (Assisted migration, & industrialization as it required more iron & steel).
• Proletarianization of labor force (factory workers & urban artisans enter ‘wage economy’ with no control over ‘means of production’ or goods they produced
• Few rights for workers in factories & poor conditions for urban artisans
Toward an Industrial Society
• Conversion of Europe’s economy to industrial manufacturing during the first half of the 19th century reorganized society.
• People migrated to cities to find work in the new factories.
• Conditions of life radically changed for them.
Britain’s Industrial Leadership(I)
• The Industrial Revolution, led by textile manufacturing, began in Great Britain in the 18th century. Why in Britain?
Because Britain had more productive capacities in terms of natural resources, capital, technology, food supply, relative social mobility, strong foreign and domestic markets.
French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars distrupted economic activity on the Continent and weakened France as a competitor for Atlantic trade. Britain had US, Canada, South America and southern Asia to sell its goods.
Britain’s Industrial Leadership(II)
• Britain acquired wealth through various industries; textile weaving, ironmaking, shipbuilding, china production, etc.
• Britain dominated the world scene in the 19th century by investing its wealth in the development of global networks.
Example; British textile mills bought cotton produced by slaves on the plantations of the southern US and turned it into finished cloth that was shipped to India where British navy protected the sea lanes.
• By the 1830s, Belgium, France and Germany were headed down the same path as Britain with a growing number of steam engines in use.
Population and Migration(I)
• In the 18th century, population explosion continued with the increase of industrialization.
Between 1831-1851,France grew from 32 million to 35 millionGermany; 26 million to 33 millionBritain; 16 million to 20 million
Population and Migration(II)
• Europeans increasingly lived in cities • Rural/Urban divide; England and Wales, half of the population was urban in the mid
19th century.France and Germany, quarter of the population was urban. Eastern Europe, remained rural and little industrialized.
Life in the cities • Exhausted physical
resources; housing, water, sewers, food supplies, and lighting not enough to deal with migration.
• Diseases, especially cholera, ravaged the population.
• Crime became a way of life
Life in the countryside• Hardly better than the life in the
cities. • Liberal reformers had hoped that
peasents will turn into progressive, industrious farmers( as a result of French Revolution, emanciaption of serfs in Prussia, Austria and Russia)
• However, possesion of land made most of them conservative because they had little land to support themsleves in a commercialized economy, they had no capital to invest to make their lands more productive.
Railways
• Industrial development in the 1830s and 1840s was driven by the construction of Europe’s railway system.
• The construction of railways speeded industrialization in several ways;
1. Trains were the most dramatic application of the steam engine, and the construction of railroads increased the demand for iron and steel and for skilled laborers.
2. Increased manufacturing capacity at forges meant that more iron and steel became available to construct other things such as ships and machines.
The Labor Force(I)
• Labor force was quite diverse at that moment: factory workers, urban artisans, cottage industry craftspeople, household servants, miners, rural peddlers, farm workers and railroad navvies.
• Some workers enjoyed steady employment and decent wages but others constituted a class of “laboring poor”.
The Labor Force(II)
• In the first half of the 19th century only the textile manufacturing industry became mechanized and concentrated in factories.
• Skilled artisans who lived in cities or small towns were still greater in numbers compared to the industrial factory workers.
• Industrialization threatened to make the skills of many artisans useless and to deprive them of control over their trades.
Proletarianization of Factory Workers and Urban Artisans• During the 19th century, both of them went under
the process of proletarianization. • They lost the ownership of the means of
production( tools and equipment) and lost control of their trades. They simply became wage earners.
• It occurred because people with capital constructed factories and purchased what was needed to run them: labor as well as machinery and raw materials.
Mechanization
• Factory workers, unlike self employed artisans, had to submit to a kind of discipline that was unpopular and difficult to maintain.
• It was the needs of macnhines which determines what was expected of their human operators.
• Laborers should match the pace and consistent performance of the cables, wheels, and pistons of the mechanisms with which they worked.
A Guild System(I)
• In the 18th century, as earlier, a guild system had organized production in Europe’s urban workplaces.
• A master( guild member) owned a workshop and the larger pieces of equipment trained the apprentices who when they became journeymen, acquired their own tools.
• Journeymen expected to be admitted to the guild as masters and be permitted to set up shops of their own.
A Guild System(II)
• The advantage of the guild system: gave workers control over labor recruitment, training, pace of production, quality of product, and price.
• Guilds in the 19th century: France had outlawed the guilds during the French Revolution, and elsewhere in Europe, liberals worked to ban labor and guild organizations on the theory that they limited economic freedom.
A Guild System(III)
• Guild masters faced increasing competetion with machine production.
• In response, many workshops tried to increase efficieny by what was known in France as confection, production of standart sizes and styles rather than special orders for individual customers.
• This practice increased the division of labor, because each of a shop’s artisans produced only a part of a more or less uniform final product. Thus, less skill was required and the value of skilld diminished.
Consequences of mechanization in workplaces• Masters tried to increase production and reduce costs by
lowering wages paid for piecework. • This led to work stoppages or strikes.• But there were many unskilled workers willing to work for
lower wages or under less protected conditions than traditional artisans. This was the consequence of migration.
• For a urban journeymen, becoming a master and having their own shop was getting more and more difficult.
• Thus, many of them spent their lives as wage laborers whose skills were simply bought and sold in the marketplace.
• This led to a working-class political action.
The Chartist MovementDefinition The Chartist Movement, or Chartism, was an attempt in
Britain to build an independent political party devoted to the interests of working people.
The movement began in 1837 and inspired a general strike in August 1839.
A mass demonstration in Newport in November 1839 was met by troops who fired on the crowd and killed at least 15.
The name Chartist came about because the movement advocated a charter for reform of the British political system.
The Chartist Movement (1)
• To begin with workers generally hopeful the liberal movement was a means for improving their lives, but after mid-C19th they started losing faith & shifting in some cases towards more radical ideas & agendas of socialist thinkers who argued against the selfish individualism advocated by the liberals
• While it was not till much later that workers’ rights were paid greater attention, early attempt of workers to organize politically & independently to demand political changes can be seen in Chartist Movement that developed in Britain in mid-1830’s
The Chartist Movement (2) May 1838 Chartists published ‘The People’s Charter’, essentially a list of key
political demands incl. :• Every man over 21 to have the right to vote• A secret ballot to be introduced• A MP did not have to own property of a certain value or above to become
a MP• All MP's to be paid to allow working men to serve in Parliament• All constituencies to be equal in terms of population size• Elections to Parliament to be held every year so that MP's would have to
answer to their voters if they had not performed well.
Although Chartist Movement eventually dissolved, (losing some of its support especially as economic conditions made a relative improvement), its goals were nonetheless later supported by others & ultimately all of the above goals were accomplished.
The Chartist Movement (3)
• The Chartists obtained one and a quarter million signatures and presented the Charter to the House of Commons in 1839, where it was rejected by a vote of 235 to 46.
• Many of the leaders of the movement, having threatened to call a general strike, were arrested.
• When demonstrators marched on the prison at Newport, Monmouthshire, demanding the release of their leaders, troops opened fire, killing 24 and wounding 40 more.
• A second petition with 3 million signatures was rejected in 1842; the rejection of the third petition in 1848 brought an end to the movement.
• More important than the movement itself was the unrest it symbolized. The Chartists' demands, at the time, seemed radical; those outside the movement saw the unrest and thought of the French Revolution and The Reign of Terror.
• The radicalism that surfaced in the agitation for the Charter and a desire for a working-class voice in foreign affairs eventually channeled itself into related areas like the Socialist movement.
Revolutions of 1830• Partially successful challenges to conservative order
occurred in 1830. 1st major successful challenge in France where Bourbon monarchy was overthrown. Charles X, Louis XVIII’ brother, became king after Louis’ death (1824).
• Charles was much more extreme conservative (supported by “ultraroyalists”) who wanted to turn clock back fully to absolutist years. He introduced series of conservative / reactionary policies incl. payments to aristocrats who lost land in French Revolution. Unhappy that there were too many liberals in Chamber of Deputies, he called new election in early 1830... But liberals gained even more seats! Charles now led royal coup d'état issuing ‘Four Ordinances’ on July 25th 1830.
Charles X
Four Ordinances & ‘July Revolution’
• 1) Restrictions on Freedom of the Press
• 2) Chamber of Deputies Dissolved
• 3) New Elections Called
• 4) Franchise restricted to only the very wealthiest
• These ordinances basically ignored constitutional monarchy established at Vienna. Liberal newspapers called on people to resist. Labourers in Paris, (already hurt by harsh economic conditions since 1827), took to the streets & were attacked by Kings forces in the ‘July Days’. Many died, but ultimately king was forced to abdicate on Aug 2nd 1830. The Chamber of Deputies chose Duke of Orleans, thereafter known as Louis Philippe, (known to have more liberal leanings), as new king.
The Independence of Belgium• Developments in France in 1830 led to political
changes in other areas. E.g., at Vienna new state known as United Kingdom of the Netherlands formed incl. territory known later as Belgium. Uprisings began late Aug 1830 & Dutch forces failed to defeat Belgians who declared their independence & established a liberal constitution. This territorial change conflicted with Vienna decisions, but Russia busy with own uprising of Poles, Prussia trying to suppress liberal uprisings in smaller neighbouring German states & Austria likewise in Italian states. Great Powers therefore took no action. Belgian independence officially recognized with Treaty of London in 1839.
British Counterpart to Revolution
• Revolutionary uprisings shook much of Europe from late C18th onwards, but Britain was an exception.
• While no revolution in Britain during this period, there was, however, change. Change was more gradual & incremental & usually result of compromise between more conservative & liberal elements of society.
• E.g., ‘Great Reform Bill of 1832’ increased size of British electorate by providing wealthier business & commercial class with right to vote. This change was not a result of revolution, but of recognition of changes in domestic balance of power, compromise & a strong parliamentary tradition open to adapting in order to meet the rising needs / demands for change.
1848: Year of Revolutions
• As in 1830, there was in 1848 another wave of revolutionary uprisings in Europe, but this time even more widespread than before (only Britain & Russia remaining largely untouched by effects). This time nationalism also played a greater role, & while most of the uprisings did not ultimately achieve their goals, they shook the Continent like never before. It is for this reason that 1848 is known as the ‘Year of Revolutions’.
• Again, uprisings of 1848 were typically led by liberals (though in most cases they held nationalist objectives too). To increase their strength against conservative forces these liberal leaders appealed also to urban working classes. Once they came close to achieving their goals, however, the tendency of liberals was to ignore working class demands for social & economic change causing the 2 allied groups to break-up & allowing forces of conservatism opportunity to reassert authority.
The French Revolution of 1848 (1)• Again, as in 1830, the first major revolutionary uprising of 1848
occurred in Paris, France.• Since 1830 liberals led by Alphonse de Lamartine, who had
themselves contributed to the coming to power of Louis Philippe had become increasingly dissatisfied with his rule & the administration of Prime Minister Guizot.
• Liberals were unhappy with high levels of corruption & wanted the franchise further broadened & opened-up to more members of the middle classes.
• Liberals began a political campaign to support their demands by holding series of political ‘banquets’. They called also for working class support which was quite readily given with workers especially hard-hit by the negative economic conditions caused by poor harvests of 1846 & 1847.
The French Revolution of 1848 (2)
• Feb. 21st 1848 government banned holding of new banquets. Next day workers took to the streets of Paris to protest & their numbers continued to increase the following day. On 24th, fearing for his life, Louis Philippe abdicated & fled to England.
• A new provisional government headed by Lamartine, but incl. more radical workers’ representatives like Louis Blanc, was formed with objective of establishing a new republic & holding elections based on universal manhood suffrage.
The French Revolution of 1848 (3)
The French Revolution of 1848 (4)• Elections held on April 23rd 1848, but, fearing that radicals &
socialists of Paris might threaten their newly acquired lands, (they were small-scale landholders since Revolution of 1789), typically conservative, rural peasants voted in large numbers for more moderate & relatively conservative candidates who now dominated the new National Assembly.
• National Assembly therefore ended many concessions made in the meantime to urban working classes, leading to further working-class rioting in Paris. Workers were eventually suppressed following bloody conflict with troops under command of General Cavaignac who was sent by the Assembly to deal with the problem. Clashes following his arrival in Paris are known as the ‘Bloody June Days’ due to large numbers of workers killed or wounded.
The Rise of Louis Napoleon (1)
• When presidential elections eventually held for new French Republic, Louis Napoleon stood as a candidate. His greatest asset was his name! The name “Napoleon” symbolized glory, & most impt. social stability & order... just the qualities that French populace, (the peasantry in particular), were then seeking. He won elections by a massive majority, gaining approximately ¾ of the votes.
• Louis Napoleon, however, proved to be no great republican or democrat. In 1851 he took on dictatorial powers, making himself Emperor one year later.
The Rise of Louis Napoleon (2)
• While some suspicion as to who his father actually was, Louis Napoleon (1808-1873) was accepted as being the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte (or Napoleon I). Napoleon I’s son died an unhealthy young man, in 1832 in Austria. Out of respect to him, Louis Napoleon was to take on the title of Napoleon III (rather than Napoleon II).
Rulers of France: 1789-1871Louis XI (r. 1774-1792)
First Republic (1793-1804)
Napoleon Bonaparte (1804-1815)
Louis XVIII (1815-1824)
Charles X (1824-1830)
Louis Philippe (1830-1848)
Second Republic (1848-1856)
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1856-1870)
Third Republic (1871-1940)
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (1)
• Throughout much of the Habsburg Empire there were revolts & revolutionary uprisings in 1848 (continuing in some cases into 1849).
• In March 1848 Magyar nationalist Louis Kossuth called for the greater independence of Hungary. Meanwhile students rioted in Vienna. Quickly losing control of the situation, the once great statesman Metternich resigned & fled, soon to be followed out of the capital by the emperor.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (2)
Metternich fleeing the uprisings of 1848
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (3)
• The Habsburgs, however, were less fearful of any urban uprisings than they were of a general uprisings of the serfs.
• There had already been a few instances of serfs attacking official & aristocratic properties & in an attempt to cut-off the danger & to win their loyalty, the decision was taken to abolish serfdom.
• This was to be one of the most significant gains of the turmoil of 1848.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (4)
This map shows complex ethnic composition of Habsburg Empire... in a simplified form! Actually more complex! The map just shows the different regions according to which ethnic group was numerically dominant, but does not reflect fact that even where there is a single colour,e.g Slovakia, there were other ethnic groups too.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (5)
• Magyar’s revolted demanding virtual independence for a Hungarian state covering much of the east of the Habsburg Empire, but Romanians & Croatians & Serbs who would thereby come under their control were not happy with this. These ethnic groups now rose up against Magyars & the Habsburgs wisely assisted them. Meanwhile the Czechs also revolted, demanding an autonomous Slavic state of Bohemia & Moravia... & in Italy too, the Austrian dynasty was faced first by war (against the neighbouring northern Italian state of Piedmont), then by radicals, republicans & nationalists (most famously Giuseppe Mazzini & Giuseppe Garibaldi) who declared Rome a republic & began to fight for a united Italy.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (6)
• With the middle classes worried about radical successes, & the different ethnic groups of the Empire quarrelling amongst themselves, &; with Russian Tsar Nicholas I supporting Habsburg forces with 200,000 men, one by one uprisings were put down & the Habsburgs reasserted their control.
• In June 1849, concerned about possibility of a more powerful Italy becoming its southern neighbour, France sent troops to put down uprisings in Rome. French troops remained there, supposedly to protect the Pope, until 1870.
1848: Revolutionary Uprisings in the Habsburg Empire (7)
Italy in 1848
Mazzini Garibaldi
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (1)
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (2)
• Meanwhile, liberals & nationalists were restless in the various German territories too, including in Prussia. Nearly all the gains they made during this year, however, were only temporary; Once order had been restored, the conservative administrations, withdrew concessions that they had earlier made to quieten protest.
• The biggest disappointment for most German supporters of change was the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament.
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (3)• The Frankfurt Parliament met on May 18th 1848. Consisted of
representatives from all German territories, & its purpose was to unite Germany under a relatively liberal constitution.
• Conservatives & radical workers were not ofcourse happy with the liberal outlook of most representatives, yet even these representatives had difficulty agreeing among themselves what sort of Germany they wanted.
• Main split between supporters of a smaller Germany (not incl. Austrian Empire) – the kleindeutsch, & supporters of a larger Germany incl. Austria, + Prussia & other German Bund territories – grossdeutsch.
1848: The Frankfurt Parliament (4)• Already having to cope with own internal ethnic quarrels, its ethnic
groups fearful of German domination & nationalism threatening its v. existence, Austria rejected idea of unification. Prussia only alternative to lead a united Germany.
• March 27th 1849 Parliament offered crown of united Germany to Prussian King Frederick William IV. He refused! Why? :a) because, he argued, kings got their power from God & should not be limited by a constitution such as that which parliament wished to imposeb) because, most probably, he wasn’t prepared to fight war, (against other German kings & princes, & possibly against the Habsburgs too), who were not likely to accept this situation.
• The German liberals efforts had failed miserably, they simply did not have the power to achieve their ends.
