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From WWI to the Great Depression Econ 210a March 17, 2010

Economic History: The Great Depression

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Slides for March 17, 2010 for Econ 210a by Brad DeLong

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Page 1: Economic History: The Great Depression

From  WWI  to  the  Great  Depression  

Econ  210a  March  17,  2010  

Page 2: Economic History: The Great Depression

Readings  •  Michael  D.  Bordo  and  Hugh  Rockoff  (1996),  "The  Gold  Standard  as  a  'Good  Housekeeping  Seal  of  

Approval'"  Journal  of  Economic  History  56  (1996):  389-­‐428  <hXp://Znyurl.com/dl20090112ah>  •  John  Maynard  Keynes  (1920),  The  Economic  Consequences  of  the  Peace,  chapters  1,  2,  and  6  

<hXp://www.gutenberg.org/files/15776/15776-­‐h/15776-­‐h.htm>  •  ChrisZna  Romer  (1990),  "The  Great  Crash  and  the  Onset  of  the  Great  Depression,"  Quarterly  

Journal  of  Economics  104,  pp.719-­‐736,  <hXp://Znyurl.com/dl20090112af>  •  John  Maynard  Keynes  (1932),  "The  World  Economic  Outlook,"  AtlanZc  <hXp://Znyurl.com/

dl20090112ae>  •  ChrisZna  Romer  (1992),  "What  Ended  the  Great  Depression?"  Journal  of  Economic  History  52,  pp.

757-­‐784.  <hXp://www.jstor.org/stable/2123226>  •  Margaret  Weir  and  Theda  Skocpol,  "State  Structures  and  Social  Keynesianism:  Responses  to  the  

Great  Depression  in  Sweden  and  the  United  States,"  InternaZonal  Journal  of  ComparaZve  Sociology  pp.  4-­‐29  <hXp://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GLQ3AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA7-­‐IA3&dq=Margaret+Weir+and+Theda+Skocpol,+%22State+Structures+and+Social+Keynesianism&ots=P2iXGFkFfu&sig=APmY6D1P2QkJ0l28RRWX5YxjBmg#PPA29,M1>  

•  (OpZonal)  William  Keeton  (1992),  “The  ReconstrucZon  Finance  CorporaZon:  Would  it  Work  Today,”  Economic  Review  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  of  Kansas  City  77:1,  pp.33-­‐54.  <hXp://www.kc.frb.org/PUBLICAT/ECONREV/EconRevArchive/1992/1q92keet>  

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Cuung-­‐Edge  Macroeconomic  Theory  •  Jean-­‐BapZste  Say  (1829):  

–  The  Bank  [of  England,  in  1824-­‐5],  legally  obliged  to  redeem  its  banknotes  in  specie,  regarded  itself  as  obliged  to  buy  gold  back  at  any  price,  and  to  coin  money  at  a  loss  and  at  considerable  expense.  To  limit  its  losses,  it  forced  the  return  of  its  banknotes,  and  ceased  to  put  new  notes  into  circulaZon.  It  was  then  obliged  to  cease  to  discount  commercial  bills.  Provincial  banks  were  in  consequence  obliged  to  follow  the  same  course,  and  commerce  found  itself  deprived  at  a  stroke  of  the  advances  on  which  it  had  counted,  be  it  to  create  new  businesses,  or  to  give  a  lease  of  life  to  the  old.  As  the  bills  that  businessmen  had  discounted  came  to  maturity,  they  were  obliged  to  meet  them,  and  finding  no  more  advances  from  the  bankers,  each  was  forced  to  use  up  all  the  resources  at  his  disposal.  They  sold  goods  for  half  what  they  had  cost.  Business  assets  could  not  be  sold  at  any  price.  As  every  type  of  merchandise  had  sunk  below  its  costs  of  producZon,  a  mulZtude  of  workers  were  without  work.  Many  bankruptcies  were  declared  among  merchants  and  among  bankers,  who  having  placed  more  bills  in  circulaZon  than  their  personal  wealth  could  cover,  could  no  longer  find  guarantees  to  cover  their  issues  beyond  the  undertakings  of  individuals,  many  of  whom  had  themselves  become  bankrupt...  

•  John  Stuart  Mill  (1844a):  –  What  they  called  a  general  [glut  or]  superabundance,  was  not  a  superabundance  of  commodiZes  relaZvely  to  commodiZes,  but  a  

superabundance  of  all  commodiZes  relaZvely  to  money.  What  it  amounted  to  was,  that  persons  in  general,  at  that  parZcular  Zme,  from  a  general  expectaZon  of  being  called  upon  to  meet  sudden  demands,  liked  beXer  to  possess  money  than  any  other  commodity.  Money,  consequently,  was  in  request,  and  all  other  commodiZes  were  in  comparaZve  disrepute.  In  extreme  cases,  money  is  collected  in  masses,  and  hoarded;  in  the  milder  cases,  people  merely  defer  parZng  with  their  money,  or  coming  under  any  new  engagements  to  part  with  it.  But  the  result  is,  that  all  commodiZes  fall  in  price,  or  become  unsaleable.  When  this  happens  to  one  single  commodity,  there  is  said  to  be  a  superabundance  of  that  commodity;  and  if  that  be  a  proper  expression,  there  would  seem  to  be  in  the  nature  of  the  case  no  parZcular  impropriety  in  saying  that  there  is  a  superabundance  of  all  or  most  commodiZes,  when  all  or  most  of  them  are  in  this  predicament...  

•  John  Stuart  Mill  (1844b):  –  A  commercial  crisis  is  the  recoil  of  prices,  ayer  they  have  been  raised  by  speculaZon  higher  than  is  warranted  by  the  state  of  the  

demand  and  of  the  supply.  SpeculaZon  is  almost  always  set  in  moZon  by  something  which  affords  apparent  grounds  for  expecZng  either  an  extra  demand  or  a  deficient  supply.  But  the  anZcipaZon  may,  in  the  first  place,  be  erroneous;  in  the  second,  however  raZonal  it  may  be,  the  speculaZon  (especially  where  the  prospect  of  gain  is  considerable)  is  very  likely  to  be  overdone,  each  speculator  conducZng  his  operaZons  as  if  he  alone  knew  the  circumstances  on  which  the  hope  of  profit  is  grounded....  [P]aradoxical  as  it  may  appear,  the  largest  purchases  are  oyen  made  at  the  highest  price....  Then  the  recoil  comes;  and  the  price  falls  to  a  lower  point  than  that  from  which  it  had  risen...    many  of  those  who  during  the  high  price  have  contracted  engagements,  which  they  trusted  to  a  further  rise  for  giving  them  the  means  of  fulfilling,  are  unable  to  hold  on  unZl  the  crisis  is  past,  but  must  sell  at  any  sacrifice....  When,  however,  as  in  1825  and  at  several  other  periods  in  the  present  century,  the  opening  of  new  markets,  or  some  expected  deficiency  of  supply  extending  to  various  important  arZcles,  has  set  speculaZon  at  work  in  several  great  departments  at  once,  the  spirit  is  apt  to  become  general,  and  other  commodiZes  rise  in  price  without  any  reasonable  cause  whatever.  In  such  cases,  the  ulZmate  revulsion  is  most  extensive  and  calamitous.  As  long  as  the  seasons  vary,  as  markets  fluctuate,  and  men  miscalculate,  or  the  passion  of  gain  (as  in  gamblers)  over-­‐rides  their  calculaZons,  so  long  will  these  alteraZons  of  ebb  and  flow,  these  ”[business]  cycles,"  as  Colonel  Torrens  calls  them,  "of  excitement  and  depression,”  conZnue...  

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Improvements  in  Macroeconomic  Theory  since  1844  

•  A  recogniZon  that  what  assets  are  “cash,”  are  “money”  is  endogenous—the  “commercial  crisis”  is  not  just  a  rise  in  the  demand  for  but  a  big  fall  in  the  supply  of  cash  or  of  assets  perceived  as  good  as  cash  

•  A  recogniZon  that  you  do  beXer  when  you  do  a  three-­‐commodity  model—safe  money,  risky  bonds,  and  goods  and  services—than  just  a  two-­‐commodity  model  of  money  and  goods  and  services  

•  The  “credit  channel”  •  Work  on  aggregate  supply:  

–  And  on  feedback  from  aggregate  supply  down  to  aggregate  demand...  

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The  Pre-­‐WWI  Order  (According  to  Keynes)  

•  John  Maynard  Keynes,  Economic  Consequences  of  the  Peace:    –  What  an  extraordinary  episode  in  the  economic  progress  of  man  that  age  was  which  came  to  

an  end  in  August,  1914!  The  greater  part  of  the  populaZon,  it  is  true,  worked  hard  and  lived  at  a  low  standard  of  comfort....  But  escape  was  possible,  for  any  man  of  capacity  or  character  at  all  exceeding  the  average,  into  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  for  whom  life  offered,  at  a  low  cost  and  with  the  least  trouble,  conveniences,  comforts,  and  ameniZes  beyond  the  compass  of  the  richest  and  most  powerful  monarchs  of  other  ages...  

–  The  inhabitant  of  London  could  order  by  telephone,  sipping  his  morning  tea  in  bed,  the  various  products  of  the  whole  earth,  in  such  quanZty  as  he  might  see  fit,  and  reasonably  expect  their  early  delivery  upon  his  doorstep;  he  could  at  the  same  moment  and  by  the  same  means  adventure  his  wealth  in  the  natural  resources  and  new  enterprises  of  any  quarter  of  the  world,  and  share,  without  exerZon  or  even  trouble,  in  their  prospecZve  fruits  and  advantages;  or  be  could  decide  to  couple  the  security  of  his  fortunes  with  the  good  faith  of  the  townspeople  of  any  substanZal  municipality  in  any  conZnent  that  fancy  or  informaZon  might  recommend...  

–  But,  most  important  of  all,  he  regarded  this  state  of  affairs  as  normal,  certain,  and  permanent,  except  in  the  direcZon  of  further  improvement,  and  any  deviaZon  from  it  as  aberrant,  scandalous,  and  avoidable.  The  projects  and  poliZcs  of  militarism  and  imperialism,  of  racial  and  cultural  rivalries,  of  monopolies,  restricZons,  and  exclusion,  which  were  to  play  the  serpent  to  this  paradise,  were  liXle  more  than  the  amusements  of  his  daily  newspaper,  and  appeared  to  exercise  almost  no  influence  at  all  on  the  ordinary  course  of  social  and  economic  life,  the  internaZonalizaZon  of  which  was  nearly  complete  in  pracZce...  

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WWI  and  Ayer  (According  to  Keynes)  

•  John  Maynard  Keynes,  Economic  Consequences  of  the  Peace:    –  Very  few  of  us  realize  with  convicZon  the  intensely  unusual,  unstable,  

complicated,  unreliable,  temporary  nature  of  the  economic  organizaZon  by  which  Western  Europe  has  lived  for  the  last  half  century.  We  assume  some  of  the  most  peculiar  and  temporary  of  our  late  advantages  as  natural,  permanent,  and  to  be  depended  on,  and  we  lay  our  plans  accordingly.  On  this  sandy  and  false  foundaZon  we  scheme  for  social  improvement  and  dress  our  poliZcal  pla~orms,  pursue  our  animosiZes  and  parZcular  ambiZons,  and  feel  ourselves  with  enough  margin  in  hand  to  foster,  not  assuage,  civil  conflict  in  the  European  family.  Moved  by  insane  delusion  and  reckless  self-­‐regard,  the  German  people  overturned  the  foundaZons  on  which  we  all  lived  and  built.  But  the  spokesmen  of  the  French  and  BriZsh  peoples  have  run  the  risk  of  compleZng  the  ruin,  which  Germany  began,  by  a  Peace  which,  if  it  is  carried  into  effect,  must  impair  yet  further,  when  it  might  have  restored,  the  delicate,  complicated  organizaZon,  already  shaken  and  broken  by  war,  through  which  alone  the  European  peoples  can  employ  themselves  and  live.  

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Rebuilding  the  Gold  Standard  as  Job  #1,  and  Its  Consequences  

•  Second-­‐rate  countries  before  WWI  were  those  that  could  not  maintain  the  gold  standard  –  Subject  to  instability  –  Subject  to  inflaZon  

•  WWI  inflaZon  had  pushed  everyone  (save  the  U.S.)  off  the  gold  standard  •  Dilemmas  of  return:  

–  Run  the  system  with  many  less  reserves  than  it  had  proporZonal  to  spending  •  Surplus  countries  then  want  to  hoard  gold  •  Deficit  countries  then  must  deflate  

–  Or  mammoth  deflaZon  –  Or  coordinated  devaluaZon  

•  Credibility  –  You  have  abandoned  gold  once,  you  can  do  it  again  –  You  have  a  different  post-­‐WWI  electorate  –  Nothing  worse  than  aXempZng  to  make  a  credible  commitment  to  an  

incredible  anchor  

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The  Great  Depression  in  the  USA  

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Two  Great  Depressions  

•  One  in  Europe,  another  in  North  America  •  United  States  close  to  being  a  closed  economy  –  It  does  it  to  itself  

•  Europe  interdependent  – Different  mechanisms  of  depression  

•  Our  task:  to  understand  them  

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The  Coming  of  the  Great  Depression  to  America  

•  A  shock  (Federal  Reserve  aXempts  to  “cool  off”  the  stock    market  bubble  by  raising  interest  rates  and  discouraging  loans)  

•  Another  shock  (the  stock  market  crash)  •  A  vulnerability  (consumer  durables  and  their  financing)  •  A  recession  •  The  collapse  of  the  financial  system  •  The  Federal  Reserve  

–  High-­‐powered  money  and  interest  rates  –  Lender-­‐of-­‐last-­‐resort  funcZon?  

•  Crowding  out  a  private  sector  lender-­‐of-­‐last-­‐resort?  –  Response  to  European  devaluaZons  

•  The  Hoover  administraZon  –  Balance  the  budget  –  Jawboning  the  businessmen  –  “Prosperity  is  just  around  the  corner”  

•  The  Great  Depression  

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New  Deals  

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The  Great  Depression  in  Europe  

•  The  gold  standard  and  the  Great  Depression  in  Europe  

•  The  experience  of  the  gold  bloc  •  The  experience  of  Britain  •  The  experience  of  Germany  – Hilferding,  Bruening,  and  company  – Hitler  

•  PoliZcal  consequences  of  the  Great  Depression  

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New  Deals  II  

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Consequences  of  the  Great  Depression  

•  Keynesianism  – And  monetarism  too  

•  Mixed  Economies  –  Size  of  the  public  sector  –  Public/private  partnership  –  Public  ownership  and  guidance  

•  Social  Democracy  – Welfare  –  Social  insurance  – UnionizaZon