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EDNAFERBER’SWOMENCHARACTERS,1911–1930,ANDTHEREINTERPRETATIONOFTHEAMERICANDREAMTHROUGHAFEMALELENS
AThesis
SubmittedtotheFacultyof
TheSchoolofContinuingStudies
Andthe
GraduateSchoolofArtsandSciences
Inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe
degreeof
MasterofArts
InLiberalStudies
By
AnneEfmanAbramson,B.A.
GeorgetownUniversity
Washington,D.C.
April30,2010
ii
EDNAFERBER’SWOMENCHARACTERS,1911–1930,ANDTHEREINTERPRETATIONOFTHEAMERICANDREAMTHROUGHAFEMALELENS
AnneE.Abramson,B.A.
Mentor:MichaelCollins,Ph.D.
ABSTRACT
EdnaFerber(1885‐1963)wasaPulitzerPrize‐winningauthorandoneof
themostpopularwritersofhertime.Today,however,sheisrarelyreadinschools
orcolleges,althoughherplaysarestillproduced,andthefilmsbasedonher
novels,playsandshortstoriescontinuetobeappreciatedbyclassicfilmlovers.
ThisthesisdemonstrateshowEdnaFerbercreatedfemalecharactersintheearly
yearsofthetwentiethcenturywhostruggledagainsttheconstraintsofsociety’s
traditionalfemaleroles,whowerethefirstintheirnontraditionalprofessions,
andwhoachievedtheirownversionoftheAmericanDream.EdnaFerberalso
revisitedAmericanhistorywithstoriesthathighlightedwomen’scontributionsto
America.
ThisthesisfirstintroducesEdnaFerber,herbackgroundandherearly
yearsdrawingfromFerber’stwoautobiographies,APeculiarTreasure,1939,and
iii
AKindofMagic,1963.Second,itdiscussestheNewWomanattheturnofthe
century;theAmericanDream,historicallyandinrelationtoFerber’sfemale
characters;andEdnaFerberasamiddlebrowmodernwriterwhoseliterary
outputhadpowerfulculturalagency.Inaddition,itshowshowEdnaFerberused
smalltownMidwesternsettingstoexploreandresolvethefemaleconflict
betweencommitmenttofamily/communityandself‐actualization.Thefocusison
EdnaFerber’sworkwrittenbetween1911and1930:theshortstoriesabout
EmmaMcChesneyinthreecollections,RoastBeefMedium1913,PersonalityPlus
1914,andEmmaMcChesney&Co.1915,andsixnovels,DawnO’Hara1911,Fanny
Herself1917,TheGirls1921,SoBig1924,ShowBoat1926,andCimarron1930,
writtenduringatimeofsignificantchangeforwomeninAmerica.Inconclusion,
thethesisdemonstrateshow,atacriticaljunctureinAmericanhistory,these
storiesofindependent,successfulwomenservedasbothmodelandinspirationto
Ferber’slargefemaleaudience.EdnaFerber’sbedrockbeliefinAmericaand
Americanwomeniswhatallowedherandherfemalecharacterstointerpretthe
AmericanDreamthroughafemalelens.
iv
Thispaperisdedicatedtomymother,EvaOstroyEfman,whocametothebigcity,NewYork,andreturnedhometoWilkesBarre,PA.asayoungmarriedwomantorunherfamilyDryGoodsStore.AndtomyfatherSamEfman,whofirstleftRussiaandthenGalena,Illinoisbecausehewantednopartofhisfather’s,antiquesshop.
v
TABLEOFCONTENTS
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................................iv
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1
CHAPTERONE:THEEARLYYEARS..................................................................................................6
CHAPTERTWO:THEMIDWEST,ITSPEOPLEANDITSVALUES...................................... 14
CHAPTERTHREE:THEAMERICANDREAM.............................................................................. 20
CHAPTERFOUR:THEEMERGING‘NEWWOMAN’ATTHETURNOFCENTURY...... 29
CHAPTERFIVE:MIDDLEBROWMODERNWRITERSANDMASSAPPEAL................... 39
CHAPTERSIX:DAWNO’HARAANDEMMAMcCHESNEY:CHANGEINTHEFEMININEOBLIGATION ..................................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTERSEVEN:FANNYHERSELF,TRIUMPHOFARTOVERMATERIALISM.......... 55
CHAPTEREIGHT:PIONEERINGWOMENANDTHEWESTERN,SOBIGANDCIMARRON................................................................................................................................................. 63
CHAPTERNINE:THEGIRLSANDSHOWBOAT,THEGENERATIONALNOVELS......... 76
CHAPTERTEN:CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 87
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................... 92
1
INTRODUCTION
EdnaFerber’sfemalecharacters,inhershortstoriesandnovelswritten
between1911and1930,embodiedtheAmericanDream,theideathatwith
intelligenceandhardworktherearenolimitstoindividualsuccess.These
womenblazednewtrailsinawhite,male‐dominatedsocietyandengagedin
professionspreviouslyonlyenvisionedformen:farmers,pioneers,newspaper
publishers,travelingsaleswomen,andbusinesswomen.Hercharacterswere
independent,successful,self‐supporting,andvisionaryintermsofwomen’s
liberation.Herheroineswerealsopioneersinliteratureinrevealingthe
importantrolewomenhadplayedhistoricallyinthegrowthofAmericasincethe
CivilWar.
AdoptingandadaptingthepromiseoftheAmericanDreamforthemselves,
Ferber’swomenservedasmodelsfortheNewWomanworkingatatimeofrapid
industrializationintheUnitedStatesandexpandingopportunitiesinthe
workforce.EdnaFerberalsorevisitedtraditionalAmericanhistoricalnarratives
withherfemalecharactersatatimewhenwomen’scontributionstoAmerican
historyhadnotbeenacknowledgedbecause“mythicalcommemorationin
Americasooftenfixatesonmaleachievement.”1Throughfemalecharacterswho
wereentitledandemboldenedontheirjourneytoself‐definition,eachstoryand
1J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),135.
2
novelinthistwentyyearperiodrevealsaprocessthathelpsthosewomenself‐
actualize,leadingtoindividualachievement,self‐fulfillment,contributionsto
familyandcommunity,andthedreamattained.
ThisthesiswilldiscussEdnaFerber’sthreeshortstorycollectionsabout
EmmaMcChesney,RoastBeefMedium1913,PersonalityPlus1914,andEmma
McChesneyAndCo.1915,andsixnovelswrittenbetween1911and1930,when
herculturalagencywasatitshighestandwhenshewaspartofaselectgroupof
writers,dubbedmiddlebrowmoderns,who“advancedtheculturaldebateover
domesticityandwomen’swork,marriageandreproduction,assimilation,
consumercultureandcapitalism,andtheriseofnewtechnologies.”2Herbooks
soldexceptionallywellandtheirauthorityandimpactderivedfromtheir
powerfulmessagethatawomancoulduseallofherfacultiesandcompetitive
driveintheserviceofherownambitionandthisdrivewouldnotdiminishher
femininitybutratherenhanceit.Additionally,Ferberdemonstratedthatinthe
journeytorealizeherdreamsawomancouldholdontoold‐fashionedvaluesand
artfullybalancehertime‐honoredcommitmenttofamilyandcommunitywithher
moremodernpursuitofsuccess.
EdnaFerber’sownlifeandcareerweretheembodimentoftheAmerican
Dreamandthewellspringofherintensiveliteraryoutput.Shewasintelligent,
2LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:PopularAmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),6.
3
disciplined,hard‐working,andpossessedextraordinarybusinessability.Sherose
fromhumblebeginnings—withoutacollegedegree—tobecomeabestsellingand
prize‐winningauthorandplaywright.EdnaFerberisrelevantbecauseshedared
toexploreandintegrateoldandnewworldsoffeminineaccomplishment.When
EdnaFerberdiedonApril16,1968,herobituaryranonthefrontpageofTheNew
YorkTimeswithafullpageinsidechroniclingherlifeandwork.Therewasa
photoofEdnaFerberwithKatharineHepburnandPresidentFranklinD.
Roosevelt,printedundertheheadline“NovelistwhochronicledAmericaisdead
at82.”3ItwasastunningtributefromthebenchmarkofAmericanjournalism,
recognizingherstatusasasignificantwriter.Theobituarystated,“Herbooks
werenotprofound,buttheywerevividandhadasoundsociologicalbasis.”
4Additionallyitnoted,“Shewasamongthebest‐readnovelistsinthenationand
criticsofthenineteen‐twentiesandthirtiesdidnothesitatetocallherthegreatest
Americanwomannovelistofherday.”5
Inherlifetime,EdnaFerberpennedtwelvenovels,publishedtwelveshort
storycollections,collaboratedonnineplays—sixwithGeorgeS.Kaufman,twenty‐
fiveofherworkswereadaptedintoscreenplays,andshewonaPulitzerPrizein
1925forherbook,SoBig.Whenshecouldtaketimeawayfromherwriting,she
3ObituaryofEdnaFerber,NewYorkTimes,April17,1968.
4Ibid.
5Ibid.
4
hadaseatattheexclusiveAlgonquinRoundTable.Toappreciatethedepthofher
popularity,whenshewasatwenty‐sevenyearoldreportercoveringthe1912
RepublicanNationalConvention,PresidentialnomineeTheodoreRoosevelt,after
meetingher,askedherhowshewasgoingtoresolvethemarriageissueinher
serialEmmaMcChesney.Hewrote,“IwonderifyoufeelthatIamhopelessly
sentimentalbecause...Iwouldhavelikedsomehowtoseenotonlytheboymarry,
butpoorEmmaMcChesneyatlasthavethechanceherselftomarrysomebody
decentwithwhomshewasinlove!”6AccordingtoPublisher’sWeekly,from1900
to1960,“onlyturn‐of‐the‐centurynovelist(sic)WinstonChurchilloutperformed
Ferber.”7
Ferber’strajectoryfromsmallMidwesterntownstothebigcities,Chicago
andthenNewYork,gavehertheinsightsheneededtounderstandandchronicle
thestrugglesofherlargelyfemale,lowerandmiddleclass,andimmigrant
audiences.Unabletoaffordcollege,sheenteredtheworkforceattheageof
seventeenasthefirstfemalenewspaperreporterfortheAppletonDailyCrescent
(Wisconsin)andcontinuedworkingdailyforoversixtyyearsuntilherdeathin
1968.Throughhardwork,self‐discipline,andingenuitysheroseintheworld,
6JulieGilbert,Ferber:EdnaFerberandHerCircle:aBiography(NewYork:ApplauseBooks,1998),409.
7J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),18.
5
andalthoughraisedJewish,shewoulddescribeherJudaismas“thesourceofher
‘Puritan’conscience.”8
TheNewYorkTimesstated,“Ineverythingsheundertook,whethercivic
improvement,books,plays,causesagainstprejudice,shehadburning
determination.”9Thissamedeterminationisfoundineachofhersemi‐
autobiographicalfemalecharacters.Inherstorieswrittenbetween1911and
1930,andespeciallyinthenovelsofthe1920s,shewrotewithauthorityabout
womenwhomaximizedtheirintelligence,theirbusinesstalent,andtheirabilityto
persevereagainstdifficultoddsintheserviceoftheirambitionandtheirgoals.
ThisthesiswillrevealhowEdnaFerber’schildhoodandMidwestern
valuesnurturedherpositiveviewofwomenandtheirabilitytocompetein
society.Additionally,itwillshowhowFerberwasabletoreachlargeaudiences
bycapitalizingonnewtechnologiesthatusheredinmasscirculationmagazines,
Hollywoodmovies,monthlybookclubs,andnationaladvertisingandmarketing
campaigns.Finally,althoughtheroadtosuccessisdifferentandevolvingforeach
femalecharacter,thethesiswilldemonstratehowFerberexploredandresolved
theconflictbetweencommitmenttofamily/communityandself‐actualization,
therebyremovingtheobstaclestoachievingtheAmericanDream.
8ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocialRepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),66.
9ObituaryofEdnaFerber,NewYorkTimes,April17,1968.
6
CHAPTERONE
THEEARLYYEARS
Bornin1885inKalamazoo,Michigan,toanAmerican‐bornmotherof
GermandescentandanHungarian‐bornfather,EdnaFerbercameofagebefore
womenhadtherighttovoteormanychancestorealizethebenefitsoffull,
participatorycitizenship.Awoman’sfuturewastiedtoherfamilystatusifshe
wasnotmarriedortoherhusband’scareerifshewas.Everythingduringthis
timecenteredinandaroundthehomeforwomen,thedomesticsphere.A
woman’shomereflectedherfinesensibilitiesanditwasafulltimejobtomaintain
homeandfamily.Beginninginthelateeighteenhundreds,womenventuredout
andintothefieldsofteaching,socialwork,andsocialscience,butrarelycombined
workandfamily.Womentookprideintheirself‐reliance,strongworkethic,and
commitmenttotheircommunityandthesociety.Ferber’sbodyofworkandher
ownlifestylecelebratedtheseveryqualities.
AttheageofnineEdnaFerberboastedofhavingread,“allofDickens,butI
alsoadoredtheFiveLittlePepperbooks,theSt.NicholasMagazine,allofLouisa
Alcott....Ireadallthebooksinthehouse...allthebooksintheveryinadequate
littlepubliclibrary.”1Bythetimesheenteredhighschool,shewasreadingabook
aday.Whenshereachedherjobatthepaper,allofherreadingbegantoshow
1EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.,1939),36.
7
results:“Now,whenIneededit,Ifoundmyselfequippedwithafairvocabulary....
O’Henry,thewriterofshortstorieswiththesnapperending,wasthemodelafter
whicheveryyoungwriterpatternedhimself....Now,unconsciously,Icopiedhis
style;buttherewasastrongdashofDickens,too;...”2
SheidentifiedwithO’Henry’sstrongobservationsaboutthelittlefolks,the
oneswhopopulatedthesmalltownsacrossAmerica.Therewassomesimilarity
inthewriters’backgrounds.Theybothservedasshopclerks,heathisuncle’s
drugstoreandsheatherparent’sdrygoodsstore.Theybothpickedupthepatois
ofthemasses.Theywerebothnegativelyimpactedbydishonestyinbusiness;
O’Henry,accusedofstealingfromthebankheworkedat,wouldservetimeina
Federalprison,andEdnawouldseeherdreamofgoingtocollegedismantledby
anemployeewhonotonlystolefromtheFerbersbutindirectlycausedtheir
bankruptcy.InaninterviewinTheNewYorkTimesin1915,sheclaimed,“Inever
aimedtowearO’Henry’smantle,orhisshoes,orhiscloak....Iwroteaboutthe
womanwhointerestedme—thebusinesswoman.IthappenedthatO’Henrywas
interestedinher,too.”3Thisworking‐classAmericanwoman,venturingout
againstdifficultoddsandcompetinginabusinessworlddominatedbymen,
wouldremainthefocusofallofherwriting.
2EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.,1939),104.
3JoyceKilmer,“BusinessWomanMostDomestic,”NewYorkTimes,April4,1915.
8
Ferber’sparents,infollowingtheirownAmericanDream,traveledtothe
smalltownsofKalamazoo,Michigan;Ottumwa,Iowa;andfinallyAppleton,
Wisconsin;tosetupageneralstore.Herfatherwasnotadeptatbusinessand
tragicallybegantolosehiseyesightatanearlyage.Mr.Ferber’sweaknesses
forcedhermotherintothedualrolesofheadofthehouseholdandbreadwinner.
Earlyon,Ferbersawthatrealwomencouldrisethroughhardshipandbe
successfulinthebusinessworldofmen.Theuprootingfromonesmalltownto
anotherwithstopsinChicago,atthehomeofhermaternalgrandparents,
enhancedFerber’sfeelingsofisolationandhelpeddevelopherabilitiesasakeen
observer.Shestates:
thetownsofmyearlychildhoodprovidedmewiththeterrorandlonelinessofSelinaPeakeinthenovelSoBigwhenshecameasaschoolteachertothelittleDutchsettlementofHighPrairiejustoutsideChicago;SabraCravatofthebookCimarronwhenshecamewithhermelodramatichusbandYanceyCravattothewildstrangelifeoftheIndianTerritory’sopeningofOklahoma;thechildMagnoliaHawksofthefloatingtheatreinShowBoat.4
IntheProgressiveErainAmerica,1890through1920,womenbeganto
adoptthemodeloftheself‐mademananduseitfortheirownself‐making.
Womenwerebeginningtoaccesshighereducationandthegrowingconsumer
culturegavethemopportunitiestobecomeentrepreneurs.Independenceand
upwardmobilitywereopeninguptowomeninbravenewways.“Ifpopular
literaturegeneratedimaginativemodelsforfemaleenterprisewherenoneexisted
4EdnaFerber,AKindOfMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),75.
9
inreality,itnonethelesswasmarkedbyanambivalencetowardwomen’scapacity
toreconcilethetenderqualitiesoffemininitywiththecutthroatworldof
marketplacecompetition.”5Ferber,whosechildhoodandyoungwomanhoodtook
placeatthebeginningoftheProgressiveera,wasabletomeldthevaluesofthe
nineteenthcenturywoman’sfictionswithhercompetitivenewbusinesswoman
characters.Ferber’smotherandthefarmwomenwhotradedattheirstoregave
herabedrockbeliefinwomen’sstrength.Inherhistoricalnarratives,sheoften
revisitswomenabandonedorleftbehindtosecurethedreamforherfamily,a
womanwhoisliberatedoutofnecessitytoassumethetraditionalpatriarchal
role.EdnaFerber’stwoautobiographies,PeculiarTreasurewrittenin1939andA
KindofMagicin1963,andhernieceJulieGilbert’sbiography,Ferber:EdnaFerber
andHerCircle,1978,demonstrateherdesireforwomentoachieveandherbelief
inthepowerandstrengthofwomen.
AllthathappenedinherownfamilypreparedFerbertodemandthe
dreamforwomenandreinterprethistorythroughthelensofherfemale
characters.Herwomenwerestrongandsmart,andtheyembracedtheir
responsibilitiesinintelligentways;theyweresurvivorsnotvictims.Whatever
propelsthemintotheworkforce,necessityordesirefornewareasoffulfillment,
isturnedintoamotivatingforce.ThisredefiningoffemalecharacterssetFerber
apartfromhercontemporaries.Herwomenareself‐madeandaresuccessful
5JeffreyLouisDecker,MadeinAmerica:SelfStyledSuccessfromHoratioAlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),xxviii.
10
whenmeasuredbythetraditionalstandardsofAmericansocietythatvalued
domesticsuccessforwomenandprofessionalandmonetarysuccessformen.
“Throughherheroine,EmmaMcChesney,theauthor[Ferber]attemptedto
resolvethecontradictionforenterprisingwomenwhowishedtoremainfaithful
totheidealsoftruewomanhood.”6ThewomeninFerber’swritingare
independentthinkerswhostriveforpersonalfulfillmentandserveasexamples
formillionsofwomenreadersofwhatthisnew,workingwomancanlooklike.As
hernieceJulieGilbertstates,“ShewasaprecursoroftheWomen’sLiberation
Movementbydepictingeverysingleoneofherfictionalheroinesasprogressive
originalswhodoggedlypavedlargeinroadsforthemselvesandtheir‘race.’”7
EdnaFerber’smotherJuliawasabusinesswomanoutofnecessity,asmany
ofFerber’sfemalecharacterswouldbecome.Watchinghermotherbuy,selland
maneuverinman’sworldwasthefirsthandexperiencethathelpedFerber
envisionherfemaleprotagonists.Whenspeakingofhermother,EdnaFerber
recountsthefountainfromwhichallherstrongfemalecharactersemanate.
Shebelongsdefinitelytothatraceofironwomenwhichseemstobefacingextinctionintoday’sAmerica.TheybravedtheAtlanticinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies;theycrossedawildernessofplainandprairieintheeighteenth;theyplungedintobusinessandtheprofessionsinthe
6JeffreyLouisDecker,MadeinAmerica:SelfStyledSuccessfromHoratioAlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),25.
7JulieGilbert,Ferber:EdnaFerberandHerCircle:aBiography(NewYork:ApplauseBooks,1999),12.
11
nineteenththroughastormofhorrifieddisapproval.Hardy,indomitable,oftheearthanditsfullness.Weshallnotseetheirlikeagain.8
EdnaFerber,whowassurroundedathomeandinthestorebyhard
workingwomen,celebratestheAmericanwoman,herstrengthandhercourage,
andsherevisitshistorybygivingAmericanwomentheirhonoredplaceinit.
Ferberpassionatelybelievesthatherwomenshouldserveasmodelsand
inspirationinbusinessandhistory.Shewrote:
Themajorwomenofallmynovels,plays,andshortstorieswritteninthesepastfiftyyearsandmorehavebeendelineatedaspossessedofstrength,ingenuity,perception,initiative.ThisisbecauseIthinkthatwomeningeneral—andcertainlytheAmericanfemaleoftheUnitedStates—isstrongerincharacter,moreingenious,moreperceptiveandmorepower‐possessing(potentially)thantheAmericanmale.9
Ferber’schildhoodexperienceinthesmalltownofOttumwa,Iowa,from
agesfivetotwelve,showedherthedarksideoftheAmericanDream.Herfather
broughtanemployeetojusticeforstealing,butwhenthetrialbegan,nowitnesses
wouldtestifyonMr.Ferber’sbehalf.Theiremployees,theirneighborsandtheir
townabandonedtheFerbers.“ChildthoughIwas,thebrutalityandignoranceof
thatlittletownpenetratedmyconsciousness.”10Ferberdescribeswalkingto
8EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),165.
9EdnaFerber,AKindOfMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),322.
10EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),31.
12
schoolorthestoreinthissmalltownandhearingkidshurlanti‐Semiticremarks.
WithonlysevenJewishfamilies,therewaslittleprotectionfortheFerbergirls
whoseparentsspenttheirdaysintheirstore.Thefeelingsofbeinganoutsider
gaveherthedepthtounderstandwhatitfeltlikeforalloutsiders,immigrants,
African‐Americans,NativeAmericansandwomen,whowerestilltryingtogaina
footholdinAmerica.
ItwasinOttumwa,Iowathatherfantasiesofescapingandbecoming
famousbegan.TheFerberfamilyenjoyedthetravelingtheatershowsthatcame
throughtownandbroughtideasabouttheoutsideworld.YearslaterFerber
wouldsay,“Godblessthetheaterforwhatitgavetoafrightenedfun‐lovingfamily
offour.”11Itwasalsoherethatherfatherbegantolosehiseyesightandsheread
aloudtohimthePotashandPerlmutterstoriesfromtheSaturdayEveningPost.It
wasapowerfullessontowatchamanwhowasgoingblindlistentothesestories
andlaughsohardhebegantocry.Andhere,in1897,Ferberwenttoherfirst
movie‐ananimatograph.
Therefore,atanearlyage,Ednahadalreadyencounteredherpassionfor
reading,fortheshortstory,andforthetheater.Herabilitytowritenovels,short
storiesandplaysallowedforamulti‐disciplinedplatformforhertalent.She
neverwroteconsecutivelyinthesameform,switchingfromnoveltoshortstory
11Ibid.,56.
13
toplay—andshelikeddoingitall.Attheendofanovelorplay,sheoften
traveled,butwhenwritingsheneverbrokethemomentum.
Apatternhadalreadyevolved:whatwasbitterorhardandcouldcertainly
derailanyAmericanDreamistransformedintoalessoninstrengthandresolve.
ToFerber,thispromiseofAmericaisalwaysthere.Herwomenaretheunderdogs
whobattleagainsthardshipanddiscriminationandwin;thesewomenarethe
emotionalbackboneofallofherwriting.Althoughherfamilyhadbeen
bankruptedbythelawsuitinOttumwa,inlateryearswhenshevisitedIowaEdna
Ferberclaimed:
Forthefirsttimeinmylife,outofthedeepwellofrepressionwheretheyhadsolongfestered,Idraggedthosesevenyearsofmybitterlittlegirlhoodandlookedatthem.AndthecoolcleanIowaaircleansedthem,andIsawthemthen,notasbittercorrodingyears,butasastringentstrengtheningyears;yearswhoseadversityhadgivenmeandmineasolidfoundationofstamina,determinationandaprofoundloveofjustice.12
12EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.,1939),31.
14
CHAPTERTWO
THEMIDWEST,ITSPEOPLEANDITSVALUES
EdnaFerbermaintainedaspiritualhomeintheMidwest,longaftershe
ceasedtolivethere.TheFerbers’movetoAppleton,Wisconsin,whenEdnawas
twelve,restoredherfaithinthepromiseofAmerica.“Appletonrepresentedthe
Americansmalltownatitsbest.Asenseofwell‐beingpervadedit.Itwas
curiouslymodernandfreeinthebestsenseofthewords.Cliques,malice,gossip,
snobbishness—alltheinsularmeannesses—werestrangelylackinginthis
thrivingcommunity.”1TheAppletonSynagogue,TempleEmanu‐El,withitsforty
JewishfamiliesmostlyfromasmalltowninGermanycalledGemuden,wasalsoa
sourceofsupport.EdnaFerberlovedherhighschooland,inhersenioryear,was
theStateofWisconsindeclamatorychampion.
Temporarilydevastatedbythelackoffundsthatpreventedherfrom
attendingNorthwesternUniversityandachievinghergoalofbecominganactress,
EdnaFerberwentdowntowntotheAppletonDailyCrescentin1902atonly
seventeenandwashiredasareporter.Afterayearandahalf,aneweditor
arrived,andshewasdismissedandshemovedontotheMilwaukeeJournal.In
trueFerberfashion,sheremembersthisexperienceasthebestthingthatcould
havehappenedtoher,statingrepeatedlythatshelearnedmorebeinga
1EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.,1939),58.
15
newspaperreporterthansheeverwouldhavelearnedatcollege.Inaddition,she
alwayspridedherselfonherclaimthat,“‘Iwasonceanewspapermanmyself.’”2
Yearslatershewoulddescribehowdifficultitwastoleaveherfather.“Iwonder
nowhowIeverhadthecouragetoleavethatblindinvalid.Ittakesrealcourageto
beselfish....IamcertainInevershouldhavewrittenifIhadnotgone.“3Manyof
Ferber’swomenaretornbetweentheircommitmenttofamilyandtheirneedfor
independenceandself‐fulfillment,andcannotdecidewhethertheirdrivetoself
fulfillmentisjustifiedorselfish.
WorkinginMilwaukeeandlivinginaboardinghouse,shewasableto
experiencewhatmanyyoungwomenofherdaydid—comingtothebigcityto
findwork.ThecityservedastheGardenofEden,achancetoremakethemselves
likeAdam,rebornwithallthepossibilitiesavailabletotheNewWoman,outof
sightoffamilyandcommunity.Here,shewasalsoabletozeroinonthescopeof
Midwesternersdailylives,thesocialeventsthatgetreported,andtoinvestigate
theundersideofthetown.AttheMilwaukeeJournal,Ednachasedstoriesthrough
roughweatherandwalkedhundredsofmilesaweek.Shebecameilland
returnedhomeafterfoursyears,physicallyandemotionallyexhausted.However,
sherecoveredfromherordealbywritingherfirstnovel,DawnO’Hara,andthen
herfirstshortstory,TheHomelyHeroine,whichshesenttoEverybody’sMagazine
2EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),109.
3Ibid.,129.
16
whereitwasaccepted.Althoughstillclerkingparttimeatthefamilystore,her
newcareerasawriterhadbegun.
EdnaFerberhadnointerestinemulatingtheEuropeansortheRussiansin
writingstyleorcontent.Herideologywasclosetothefoundingfathersand
earlyliterarygiants—AmericaandAmericansasrebornandpossessingthetalent
todevisealiteraturethatreflectsthenewcontinent.LikeHenryWadsworth
Longfellow,shewantedanationalliterature,“‘commensuratewithour
mountainsandourrivers....Wewantanationaldramainwhichscopeshallbe
giventoourgiganticideasandtotheunparalleledactivityofourpeople....’”4
EdnaFerberwantedtowritein“American.”
HereinAmerica,Ithought,therewaslightness,buoyance,andanelectricqualityintheair.Hereeverythingwasstilltobedone....BetweenusandtheRussianwayofthinking—or,forthatmatter,theEnglish,theFrenchortheGerman—therelaythreethousandmilesofcleansingsaltwater;and,stillmoreeffectuallyseparatingus,abulwarkoffreedomofspeech,ofthought,ofconduct.Herewasanewfreshcountry.WhynotwriteinAmerican?5
EdnaFerberwasinlovewithAmericansmalltownlife.“Whatacountryit
is!...Intheveryqualityofthesoilitselfthereseemstobesomethingthatmakes
forvitalityandexcitement,anelectricelementverydisconcertingtotheEuropean
4PaulaMarantzCohen,SilentFilmandtheTriumphoftheAmericanMyth(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001),23.
5EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiterary
GuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),181‐182.
17
visitor.”6Shesaidmanytimesshewouldlovetositonacorneranywherein
Americaandwatchlifegoby.HerlanguageisthatofworkingclassAmericans
whosestrugglesshechroniclestoreflectwhatwashappeningsociallyand
politicallyatthetime.
EdnaFerberlikedtowriteabouttheAmericanMidWestandtheWest.
“TheMiddleWest,theFarWeststimulatesandexcitesmemorethananyother
sectionofAmerica....Itseemstometobefresher,morevital,anintegralpartof
theAmericanwayoflife.”7Shealsofavoredwritingabouttheworkingclass:“itis
themiddle‐layerworkingpeoplewhohavetherealcockinessandflavor‐ordid
have....Butthemanandwomanwithajob—ornotlongwithoutone...theystill
retainakindofprimaryAmericanfreshnessandassertiveness.”8
EdnaFerber’sworkalsoembracedRegionalism,whichbecameimportant
afterthe1850sbecauseitgavewomentheopportunitytoexploretheconditions
andconflictsaffectingthembyobservingtheirimmediatesurroundings.
Womenwritersusedgeographyasawaytotalkaboutgender;‘undercoverofregionalism...thesewomenwritersexploredtheterritoryofwomen’slives...Theywereregionalists—butnotsolelyinthewayscriticshaveconventionallythought.ThegeographyofAmericaformedan
6EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),10‐11.
7Ibid.,255‐256.8Ibid.,365.
18
importantpartoftheirwork,butessentiallytheychartedtheregionsofwomen’slives,regionsbothwithoutandwithintheself.’9
EdnaFerberwouldbecomeknownforherregionalandgenerationalnovels,
whereaftercarefulresearchshewoulddevelopnarrativesthatcombinedhistory
withplaceand,especiallyintheearlynovels,recastthewoman’sroleand
establisheshercontributiontothathistoricalnarrative.Ironically,the
RegionalismalsohurtsFerber’scriticalreception.AsAngelaJanuzziwritesinher
thesis,Faulkner,Ferber,andthePoliticsof20thCenturyCanonFormation,“Ferber
madehersettingsthecenterpieceofeachbookratherthancreatingthemasmere
backdrops,andthisleftheractualstory‐tellingtobecompletelycontingentupon
regionaldescriptions,ratherthantheopposite.”10
AttheheightofFerber’spopularity,herstoriesaboutMidwesternsmall
townlife,itspeopleandtheirstruggleswerecloselyalignedwiththemainstream
marketersofliterature.ThemissionofthePulitzerPrize,createdin1917,wasto
“selectanovelreflectingthe‘whole,’oralternatelythe‘wholesome’atmosphereof
Americanlife,’aswellas‘thehigheststandardofAmericanmannersand
9ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnneBradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),187.
10AngelaJanuzzi,“MakingAn‘AmericanClassic’:Faulkner,Ferber,And
ThePoliticsof20thCenturyCanonFormation”(master’sthesis,UniversityofMaine,2007),47.
19
manhood.’”11NicholasMurrayButlerwouldgoontodominatetheprize
selectionsandextolthisidealizedgoodAmericancitizenascomingfrom“oneof
thehundredormoresmallcitiesandtownsintheMiddleWest.”12
Simultaneously,themostpopularmagazinesofherday,“cultivatedanaudiencein
thenewcitiesoftheMidwest,oftenaimingexplicitlyatsalariedwhitecollar
workersandtheirwives.”13Itwasthese“MainStreet”writerswho“readily
acknowledgedtheopenborderstheyhopedtocreatebetweenlifeandart,seeing
theirliteraryworkassocial‘potions,’intraclassallegories,patronageofsocial
classes,andscriptsforliving.”14
11ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocialRepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),13.
12Ibid.,14.13Ibid.,15.14Ibid.,19.
20
CHAPTERTHREE
THEAMERICANDREAM
ThepromiseofAmericathatwascriticalforthePuritansduringthe
nation’sfoundingwasthepromiseofabetterlifeforthemselvesandtheir
children.Inhisbook,TheAmericanDream,JimCullenstates:
Their[Puritans]confidence—inthemselves,intheirsenseofmissionfortheirchildren,andinaGodtheybelievedwasontheirside—impelledthemwithruthlesszealtogambleeverythingforthesakeofavision.Intheprocess,theyaccomplishedthecoretaskintheachievementofanyAmericanDream:theybecamemastersoftheirowndestiny.1
InthefoundingoftheRepublic,theDeclarationofIndependencebecametheBible
oftheAmericanDreamforthearistocratswhocreateditbyespousingLife,
LibertyandthePursuitofHappiness.Althoughsignificantgroupswere
excluded—women,AfricanAmericansandNativeIndians—intheend,those
groupswhowereexcludedusedthelanguageofabsoluterightsintheirbattlesfor
thosesamerights.
Allnotionsoffreedomrestonasenseofagency,theideathatindividualshavecontroloverthecourseoftheirlife.Agency,inturn,liesattheverycoreoftheAmericanDream,thebedrockpremiseuponwhichallelsedepends.ToparaphraseHenryDavidThoreau,theDreamassumesthatonecanadvanceconfidentlyinthedirectionofone’sdreamstoliveoutanimaginedlife.”2
1JimCullen,TheAmericanDream:AShortHistoryofanIdeaThatShapedaNation(Oxford[England]:OxfordUniversityPress,2003;OxfordUniversityPresspaperback,2004),18.
2Ibid.,10.
21
CullenreferstoBenjaminFranklin,as“FoundingFatheroftheAmerican
Dream”3andtheembodimentoftheself‐mademan.Franklin’sphilosophy,a
“trustinthebasicdecencyofhumanbeings,abeliefthatearthlyandheavenly
rewardsarebroadlyconsonant,andaboveall,asereneconfidencethatbothcan
beattained—reflectedthecoreconvictionsofagreatmanyAmericansofhis
time.4
Asthenationgrew,philosophers,theologiansandPresidentswereableto
espousetheirpersonalideasandtoreflectonthepromiseandpossibilities
inherentintheAmericanDream.PresidentAndrewJackson,thefirstpresident
whocamefromhumblebeginnings,wasanexemplaroftheAmericanDream.
“Bornpoorinanearwilderness,hehadforgedsuccesslargelyonhisown,byhis
strength,hisironwill,hisexertionsandconvictions.”5Thedreamofabetterlife
andupwardmobilitycontinuedtodominatepoliticaldiscourse.AbeLincoln,
speakingtoCivilWarsoldiersin1864,said,“Nowhereintheworldispresenteda
governmentofsomuchlibertyandequality.Tothehumblestandpoorestamong
usareheldoutthehighestprivilegesandpositions.”6
3JimCullen,TheAmericanDream:AShortHistoryofanIdeaThatShapedaNation(Oxford[England]:OxfordUniversityPress,2003;OxfordUniversitypaperback,2004),65.
4Ibid.,65.
5Ibid.,69.6Ibid.,97.
22
Cullenexplains:
IfthereisoneconstantintheDeclarationofIndependence,itliesinthewaynoversionofthestatusquoisevercompletelyacceptable.Itprovidesuswith(oftenimperceptiblyshifting)standardsbywhichwemeasuresuccessbutsimultaneouslycallsattentiontothegapbetweenwhatisandwhatwebelieveshouldbe,agapthatdefinesournationalexperience...theDeclarationwasbornandlivesasthecharteroftheAmericanDream.Itconstitutesus.7
Inthetimeframeofthesebooks,writtenbyEdnaFerberbetween1911and
1930,itwasacceptedthattheabilitytorisefromhumblebeginningstobecome
PresidentoftheUnitedStatesorchairmanoftheboardwastheexclusivedomain
ofmen.Consequently,storiesofupwardmobilityandself‐makingwerethe
domainofmenaswell.
Inhisbook,TheApostlesoftheSelfMadeMan,JohnCaweltiexaminestheimageoftheself‐mademan,thatindividualisticexemplaroftheAmericanDream.Caweltidescribesthreeprincipal‘traditions’abouttheself‐madeindividualandthe‘idealofsuccess’inAmerica:First,theProtestantworkethic,basedonthebeliefthatpiety,honesty,hardwork,andfrugalitybringapersonbothsuccessinthislifeandsalvationinthenext;second,thevisionoftheself‐mademanasaneconomicsuccess,withinitiative,competitiveness,andaggressivenessreplacingtheoldvirtuesinalatenineteenth‐centuryatmosphereofincreasedindustrialdevelopment;third,atraditionofsuccess‘tiedtoindividualfulfillmentandsocialprogressratherthantowealthorstatus.’8
However,theseprincipalsalsostronglyreflectthecomplexsetofstrengths
andcharactertraitsinEdnaFerber’swomen.Theyarevirtuousenoughtobe
electedandcompetitiveenoughtobesuccessful,andsuccessistiedtoself‐
7Ibid.,58.8SallyElizabethPeltierHarvey,WillaCather:RedefiningtheAmerican
Dream(Cranbury,NJ:AssociatedUniversityPresses,1948),7.
23
fulfillmentandsocialprogress.Inherautobiography,AKindofMagic,Ferber
states:
TheywereandarebooksoftheAmericandream,oftheAmericannightmare,ofthesmallnessandgreatnessandbeautyandsordidnessandromanceandtragedyofapeopleintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Iamnotatallembarrassedtosayindeepandquietsatisfactionthatthesebookshavebeenreadbyfourgenerations....Thebookswillbereadinthenextfiftyyearsbyanotherfourgenerationsifthisworldstillmanagestopickitswayoutofthepathofthemissilesandthespaceships.Makeofthiswhatyouwill.9
Thebulkofthisstatementistrue;theywereandarebooksabouttheAmerican
Dream,butinEdnaFerber’swritingthedreambelongstowomen,dramatically
re‐aligningawoman’splaceintheworkforceandre‐imagininghistorical
narrativesconcerningtheWest.“FerberwasoneofAmerica’smostprominent
historicalnovelists,awriterwhoseuniquelyfeminist,multiracialviewofthe
nationalpastdeliberatelyclashedwithtraditionalnarrativesofwhitemasculine
power.”10Herpowerwasfurtherenhancedwhenthesenovelsweretranslatedto
themoviescreen.Althoughtranslationtothescreenmarginalizedherwomen
protagonists,theystillhadauthority.
Ferber’snovelsconsistentlyemployednarrativeelementsandthemesthatdirectlycounteredHollywood’s‘wayofseeing’history,humanagency,andtheAmericanexperience.Thenovel’sfemaleprotagonistswerescarcelysubordinatetomalehistorymakersorvictimizedbysocialconventions
9EdnaFerber,AKindofMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,
Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),142.10J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,
andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),5.
24
andconditions,asHollywoodtypicallywouldhaveit,butinsteadactively,‘drovethecourseofAmericanhistory.’11
IntheJournalofPopularCulturein1968,AbigailHamblen,writingto
acknowledgeEdnaFerber’sdeath,wroteaboutFerberandtheAmericanDream.
ReadingaFerbernovelisanengrossingexperience.TheFerbermagicmakestheAmericanDream,aswehaveseen,averyvividconcept....HereisanauthorconcernedprincipallywiththematerialityoftheAmericanDream....Forthemostpart—atleastinhermajorfiction—sheignorestheunsatisfied,thefailures,thebroodingsadnessofthoseforwhomtheAmericanDreamhasbeenasneeringdelusion.12
HambleniscorrectinsayingthatFerberdoesnotdealwiththedisillusioned,
especiallyinherearlywork.However,contrarytowhatHamblenstates,Edna
Ferberwasnot“concernedprincipallywiththematerialityoftheAmerican
Dream.”13Whenherfemalecharactersaresuccessful,mosteschewmaterialism
forpersonalfulfillmentandworkonbehalfoftheirownself‐interestandthe
welfareofothers,andtheyworkforsocialprogress.Byplacingapositive
connotationonrewardingthosewhopersevere,Ferberbringsthepossibilityof
theAmericanDreamtoavastswathofAmericanwomenwhosevaluesshewishes
toshapeandwhosedirectionshewantstosteertowardsthePromisedLand.She
didnotwriteaboutthefaileddream,becauseherwomenalwaysemergefromthe
11J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,
andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),ix.
12AbigailAnnHamblen,“EdnaFerberandtheAmericanDream,”JournalofPopularCulture,noII(1968):408.
13Ibid.,408.
25
strugglevictorious,althoughtheyhaveexperiencedsomeadjustmenttotheir
goalsinthejourney.HerbeliefswereclosetothatofthewriterWilliamDean
Howellswhowrote,“thattheAmerican,‘breathesararifiedandnimbleairfullof
shiningpossibilitiesandradiantpromises.’”14Thesuccessofherwomenagainst
incredibleoddswasproofofHowell’sdictum.
OneofthefrustrationsthatEdnaFerberexperiencedasawriterwasthat
criticsandreadersfailedtounderstandhersatire.“InCimarronIwroteastory
whosepurposewastoshowthetriumphofmaterialismoverthespiritinAmerica,
andIdidshowit,butperhapsIwastooreticentaboutit....InSoBigIusedthe
sametheme...Sameresult.Terrificsales;aboutninepeopleknewwhatIwas
drivingat.”15Ferberwasaddressingmanyseriousissues:pioneerwomenwho
wantedtotransformthenewfrontierstolookliketheestablishedcitiestheyleft
behind;nativism,thepoortreatmentofimmigrantpopulations;racismagainst
AfricanAmericansandNativeAmericans;andtheillusionoflimitlesslandand
limitlesswealth.Althoughdisappointedthathersatirewasnotunderstood,ifyou
studyherreadingpublic,youngwomen,immigrantwomen,andwomenstriving
fornewfrontiersoftheirown,theirreadingherstoriesassatire,andnotuplift,
wouldcompletelyunderminetheirpowerforthewomenwhoreadthem.
14SallyElizabethPeltierHarvey,WillaCather:RedefiningtheAmerican
Dream(Cranbury,NJ:AssociatedUniversityPresses,1948),16.15JulieGilbert,Ferber:EdnaFerberAndHerCircle:aBiography(NewYork:
ApplauseBooks,1999),312.
26
AsAmericansmalltownswereshiftingfromaproducer‐toaconsumer‐
basedeconomy,theopportunityforupwardmobilitywasdisappearing.The
storiesthatchronicledtheupwardlymobile,includingtheHoratioAlgerstories,
becamemorepopularthaneverduringthistimeofexpansionintheearly
nineteenhundreds.Thesestoriesgavehopetothoseatthemargins,immigrants,
AfricanAmericansandwomen.InmostofFerber’sstories,afterherfemale
characterssucceedonaprofessionallevel,theygaininsecurityandareallowedto
succeedonapersonallevel.ReaderscouldnotseethesatirebecauseFerber’s
womencharacters,nomatterhowreluctant,stridentorunaware,succeedby
traditionalstandardsandwerenotvictimizedbythesysteminthepursuitoftheir
dream.Ferberalsomaintainssomeofthevalues,dedicationtofamilyand
community,thathadbeenlostintheaggressiveworldofearlytwentiethcentury
Americawhenmanyworshipedmaterialismoverallelse.Herwomenareself‐
made,butsofterandmorethoughtfulintheiraggressionandclimbtosuccess.
Consequently,Ferberwasabletocreatewomenwhoexemplifiedamorebalanced
dreamincontrastwiththeruggedindividualwhostroveforsuccessatanycost.
AgoodexampleofthisistheEmmaMcChesneyserieswhere“thevirtuesoftrue
womanhoodthatEmmabringstoheroccupation—dignity,cordiality,goodhealth
andmaternalsacrifice—createtheconditionsforhersuccess.”16Themalesin
Ferber’sstoriesareeitheranewtypeofpartner,acompanionwhoisintelligent
16JeffreyLouisDecker,MadeinAmerica:SelfStyledSuccessfromHoratioAlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),27.
27
andsecureenoughtoallowthefemaletoliveanindependentandfulfillinglife,or
theyareconvenientlyeliminated.
Adversity,inwhichthefemaleheroineneedstosummonallofher
determination,hardwork,andintelligenceinordertoextricateherselffrom
difficultsituationsandbecomethemasterofherowndestinyintheserviceofher
dream,isamainstayofallofFerber’swomencharactersbetween1911and1930.
InEmmaMcChesney,thetitlecharacter,Emma,isasinglemotherwhostartsasa
stenographerandultimatelyrisestoatoppositionatherfactory.DawnO’Hara,
herfirstnovel,recountsthetrialsofayoungbride/newspaperwomanwho
escapesamentallyunstablehusbandandworkshardtostaydedicatedtoher
marriageandultimatelyherowncareergoals.InFannyHerself,Fanny’smother’s
deathleavesheraloneintheworldexceptforabrotherwhosemusicalstudies
shecontinuestosupport.Althoughsuccessfulinbusiness,Fannygivesitallupfor
herartandajobasanillustratorchroniclingtheillsofsociety.InTheGirls,Isaac
Thrift,thepatriarchbuildsastrongbusinessthatisalmostruinedbyhisson‐in‐
law’sembezzlementbutrescuedbyhisdaughterCarriePayson,whohasthe
businesstalentneededtorunthecompanyandprovideforherfamily.InSoBig,
afterSelinaDeJong’shusband’sdeath,shetakesoverhisfarmandsinglehandedly
bringshishardscrabbleacrestolifewithnewvegetablesthatcommandahigh
priceinthemarketplaceandwhosevarietiesmakeherfamous.InCimarron,
SabraCravat,ratherthanfallapartduringherhusband’slongabsences,manages
28
thenewspaperhestarted,hisaffairsandtheirhomesuccessfully.InShowboat,
threegenerationsofwomenevolvewithincreasedfreedomsandresponsibilities
tokeeptheircareersandtheshowboatalive.
TheAmericanDream,theideathatonecanbeginanewandnotbelimited
byhis/herhistoryorregressivesocietalnorms,isparticularlyrelevantfor
Ferber’scharactersintwoways.First,herwomenarenotconstrainedbysociety’s
verylimitedandlimitingviewofawoman’srightfulplace,andtheycantherefore
branchoutintonewareasofworkandfulfillment.Secondly,inherhistorical
narratives,aslayersarepeeledawayandwomen’scontributionstohistoryare
acknowledged,womenareelevatedinauthorityandstature,therebygivingthem
equalstatusinrelationtotheirmalecounterparts.Inbookafterbook,these
heroinesdealwiththepromiseoftheAmericanDream,wherehardworkand
determinationpayoff,andtheyratherthantheheroesarerewarded.
29
CHAPTERFOUR
THEEMERGING‘NEWWOMAN’ATTHETURNOFTHECENTURY
Inherbook,Women’sFiction,NinaBaym,describesthecriteriafor
women’sfictionwrittenbetween1820and1870.“Theyarewrittenbywomen,
areaddressedtowomen,andtelloneparticularstoryaboutwomen.They
chroniclethe‘trialsandtriumph’ofaheroinewho,besetwithhardships,finds
withinherselfthequalitiesofintelligence,will,resourcefulness,andcourage
sufficienttoovercomethem.”1ThisstandardcouldbeusedtodescribeFerber’s
fiction,onlywithachangedsetting.Ferbertakesthemoralvaluesandworkethic
fromwomen’sfictionofthatearliertimeandincorporatesthemintoher
successfulbusinesswomen’sfictionandherhistoricalnarratives.
EdnaFerber’sstatementthatatayoungageshehadreadallofLouisaMay
AlcotthelpstoexplainthebackgroundofFerber’sfemalecharacters.AsElaine
Showalternotesinherbook,AJuryofHerPeers,“Theheroineofwomen’swriting
inthe1870swas‘thecomingwoman,’theemancipatedwomanofthefuture.”2
AftertheCivilWar,andwhatwasassumedasavictoryforcivilrights,women’s
rightsbecamecenterstageinwomen’sliterature.“Radicalabolitionistshad
1NinaBaym,Women’sFiction:AGuidetoNovelsbyandaboutWomeninAmerica18201870(NewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1978;reprint,Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1993),22.(pagecitationsaretothereprintedition).
2ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnne
BradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),164.
30
promisedthataftertheemancipationoftheslavewouldcometheemancipationof
thewoman.”3AsJuliaWardHowestates:
‘Ilookedtothemasculineideaofcharacterastheonlytrueone.Isoughtitsinspirationandreferredmymeritsanddemeritstoitsjudicialverdict...Thenewdomainnowmadecleartomewasthatoftruewomanhood—womannolongerinherancillaryrelationtoheropposite,man,butinherdirectrelationtothedivineplanandpurpose,asafreeagent,fullysharingwithmaneveryhumanrightandeveryhumanresponsibility.Thisdiscoverywasliketheadditionofanewcontinenttothemapoftheworld,orofanewtestamenttotheoldordinances.’4
IthasbeenwrittenaboutLouisaMayAlcottthat“LittleWomen,(1868)is‘the
Americanfemalemyth,’andAlcott’sheroineJoMarchhasbecomethemost
influentialfigureoftheindependentandcreativeAmericanwoman....Through
thefigureofJoMarch,Alcottexploredalternativemodelsforthewomanartist.”5
InLittleWomen,AlcotttriestogivetheindependentJoanegalitarianmarriage
andshowhow,withcertainaccommodations,apartnercouldsupportherinher
work.InWork,herheroineChristieDevon,widowed,isliberatedtoleadherown
life:“Christiehasthecredibilityofthewidowwithouttheburdenofthewife.”6
ManyofFerber’scharactersfollowthesamepattern;theyareindependent
womentryingtoaffectsupportiverelationshipssotheycancontinuetoworkwith
3ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnneBradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),165.
4Ibid.,165.5ElaineShowalter,SistersChoice:TraditionAndChangeinAmerican
Women’sWriting(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1991),44.6ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnne
BradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),170.
31
somedegreeofindependence.Thosewhoaresinglehavetheopportunityto
strikeoutontheirown,outofnecessity.Whentheydofindapartner,itis
someonewithastrongfemalevalence,whooffersemotionalsupportandallows
theheroinetobeonanequalfooting.EdnaFerber’sideasareclosetoAlcott’s
heroineRosewhocriesoutin,RoseinBloom,“We’vegotmindsandsoulsaswell
ashearts;ambitionandtalentaswellasbeautyandaccomplishments;andwe
wanttoliveandlearnaswellasloveandbeloved.I’msickofbeingtoldthatisall
awomanisfitfor!”6
InmanyofFerber’sstories,oneofhercharacterscomestothedefenseof
theworkingwomansaying,“Anyworkiswoman’sworkthatawomancando
well.”7Ferberprovesthisstatementbyplacingherwomencharactersinjobs
usuallythoughtofasexclusivelyformen.Ferbermadeeloquentpleastowomen
inherautobiographytomakethemostoftheirlives.“Yetifeachwomanfrom
eighteentoeightywouldquietlytakestock,determinedtoliveuptohermental
andphysicalandspiritualpotentialitiesforonehouraday—evenfortwohoursa
week—ourfranticworldoftodaycouldbesavedfromitself.”8
6ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnneBradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),171.
7JeffreyLouisDecker,MadeinAmerica:SelfStyledSuccessfromHoratioAlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),25.
8EdnaFerber,AKindOfMagic:Autobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,
Doran&Co.,1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,1966),340.
32
EdnaFerber’swomenwanttobetreatedasequals,intheworkplaceandin
marriage.Mostofthemfacethelifejourneyalone.Theyaredivorcedorwidowed
orsingle,butratherthanallowingthistobeahardship,thisbecomesasourceof
strength.Ferberdoesnottrytopaintthedynamicofahappymarriage:allofher
characters,inherearlynovels,areintheprocessoftryingtoeffectarelationship
thatwillleadtoacompanionatemarriage.AttheendoftheEmmaMcChesney
series,Emmadoesmarry,butshespendsthefirstfewweeksaftermarriage
visitinghersonanddaughter‐in‐law,alone.AlthoughSabraCravatinCimarronis
married,herhusbandisawaymuchofthetime.Ferber’ssinglewomen,through
hardworkandself‐reliance,summonalloftheirstrengthandindependenceinthe
serviceoftheirowndreams.
AsAmericaapproachedtheturnofthecentury,thechoicesforwomeninsociety
weregrowingexponentially.TheNewWomanchallengedthelimitedrolesthat
hadcircumscribedtherangeofpossibilitiesinhermother’sgeneration.As
Showalterstates:
Theprewaryearswereaperiodofexhilaratingfemalesolidarity,inthesuffragemovement,infeministclubsandprofessionalcommunities....Thenewterm‘femininism’replacedthe‘womanquestion’tosuggestaquestforintellectual,political,sexualselfdeterminationaswellasthevote,andactivefeministsjoinedtheNewWoman.9
9ElaineShowalter,AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnne
BradstreettoAnnieProulx(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009),242.
33
ThissentimentalheroinebeforetheCivilWarfounditdifficulttoexistin
therealworldbecausehernaturewasthoughttobemorefragilethan
competitive.Herinfluenceextendedonlytoherhomeandherfamily.By
contrast,theNewWomanwhoemergedattheturnofthecenturywasvitaland
energetic.“Shewasathletic,healthy,eagertotakeonchallengesinanondomestic
world.”10ItcouldbesaidthattheoldvirtuesoftheTrueWoman,purity,piety,
submissivenessanddomesticity,gavewaytotheNewWoman.Shewas“better
educatedandtrainedthanthewomanofthepast;willingandabletoearnher
living...waslessdependentonmen,botheconomicallyandintellectually.”11
Inherearlyfiction,EdnaFerbersituatesherwomenintheworkforceand
highlightshowtheywillimprovetheirownsituationaswellasthatoftheir
families,theirco‐workers,andthecommunitythatsurroundsthem.Withthe
revolutionintheworkplace,theadditionofsignificantnumbersofwomen
workers,Ferberdrawswomenwhoprovetheirworthtosocietywithout
threateningthatsocietyorshortchangingfamilyorcommunityintheprocess.
Ferberseesawomanintheworkplaceaspositiveandnurturingandasamodel
forbalancebetweenworkandfamily.However,shealsogivesthemaccessto
10LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:Popular
AmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),91.
11MarthaJ.Cutter,UnrulyTongue:IdentityandVoiceinAmericanWomen’s
Writing,18501930(Jackson:UniversityofMississippiPress,1999),xv.
34
theiraggressionandcompetitiveness,toolstheyneedtogetahead.MartyBrooks
statesinhisthesisSelfMadeWoman:
Thefeminineupwardmobilitynarrativeswrittenbetween1900and1930werepartofamoveawayfrommaternaljustificationsofmiddleclasswomen’spublicworkandtowardmoreliberalconceptionsoffeminineinfluenceinthepublicsphere,influencebasedonself‐interestandself‐assertion.Thenarrativeof‘Americansuccess,’workingone’swayupinsocietythroughone’sindustryandgumption,becameavehiclethroughwhichwriterscouldimaginetheimpactthatwomenworkersmighthaveonsocietyinwaysthatwerenotstrictlylimitedto‘maternal’function.Itallowedwritersbothto‘test’theimpactthe‘new’workingwomanmighthaveonsocietyandtoimaginetherolethatthesewomenworkersmighttake.Italsoallowedwriterstoenvisionhow‘feminine’reformofAmericanSocietymighttakeplace.12
FerberstatesinherautobiographythatJaneAddamsandIdaTarbellwere
heroesofhers.JaneAddamswasthefounderofHullHouse,oneoftheearliest
settlementhousesinthecountry,whichservedthepoorimmigrantpopulationof
Chicago.IdaTarbellwasamuckrakingjournalistwhoexposedthemonopolistic
practicesoftheStandardOilCompany.Inherearlywork,Ferberalwaysincludes
someaspectofJaneAddams’conflictbetweenthefamilyandthesocialclaim,a
daughter’sstruggletobereleasedfromfamilyobligationssothatshecanfulfill
importantcontributionstosociety.ThissocialclaimsurfacesevenasFerber’s
womenareintheirupwardlymobileclimb.Itisaneffectivewayofbridgingthe
gapbetweengenerations,asmanyofFerber’sstoriesbegininthelatenineteenth
century.Thefemaleherousuallyrescuessomeonelessfortunate,animmigrant
12MartyBrooks,“‘Self‐Made’Women:EnvisioningFeminineUpwardMobilityinAmericanLiterature,1900‐1930”(PhDdiss.,DukeUniversity,1999),15.
35
factoryworker,anorphan,orsomeonecaughtinthelegalsystem.Themagichere
istherescuerwho,becauseofherworkinhelpingothers,gainsinvitalityand
intellectandheightenshervalueintheworkforce.Ferberistryingtoprovethat
women,althoughworkingoutsideofthehomeandoutsidethetraditionalsettings
ofwomen’swork—teacherandsocialworker—couldbringthemodelofgood
worksandgoodvaluestoanyworkplace.
Addamsalsoadvancedtheideaofculturalfeminism.Thisphilosophy
arguedthatwomenweremorehumanitarian,caringanddown‐to‐earththanmen
were.Byrestrictingwomen’sfreedomandkeepingtheminthehome,thelarger
societyshoweditwascorruptandunjust.Everydaylifefunctionedpoorlybecause
itwasbasedonmalevaluesandethics.Societywouldberadicallyaltered
throughtheinclusionofvaluesotherthanthedisplayofpowerandforce,
characteristicsofmen.AllofFerber’sworkisimpactedbytheseideasofJane
Addams.WhileFerberallowsherNewWomanindependence,shesoftensthe
conflictbetweenself‐sacrificeandself‐realization.
Bytheearlynineteenhundreds,theNewWomanwasincreasinglyengaged
inworkoutsidethehome.MartyBrookswrites:
...theprimechangeintheworkforcewasinthetypeofwomenenteringthelaborforceandthetypeofjobstheyoccupied...Womenintheworkingandimmigrantclassesalwaysworked,butsuddenlytheywerebeingjoinedbytheirwell‐heeledsisters.Andthese‘new’womenworkerswere
36
appearinginplaces,departmentstoresandofficesthatmadethemhighlyvisible.13
By1910thirty‐eightpercentoftheclericalworkforceandtwenty‐eightpercentof
thesalesforcewerewomen.Thiswasasignificantincreasefromtheendofthe
19thcentury.
Asteadystreamoftime‐savingnewproducts‐vacuumcleaners,washing
machinesandevenautomobiles‐werereleasingwomenfromthedrudgeryof
houseworkandallowingthemtotakeonnewrolesoutsidethehome.Women’s
economicenfranchisementgavethemincreasedeconomicpowerandsocial
freedom.Whereasthevotewascriticalforwomenintheearlyyears,itdidnot
proveasdynamicaforceforchangeaseconomicopportunity.InUnrulyTongue,
MarthaCutterstates:
WhenthefurorovertheNewWomansubsided,itbecameapparentthatwomenhadusedthenewimagetoclaimpersonal,political,linguistic,sexual,andsocialfreedom.Thedomesticrealmandthedomesticdiscoursewouldneveragainhavethesamesanctityaswomen’s‘natural’destiny.Thechainshadbeenbroken;thecagehadbeensprung.14
TheNewWomanimpactsFerber’shistoricalnarrativesandher
generationalnovels.HerhistoricalnarrativesrevisitAmericanwomen’s
contributionstosociety,placingtheminfrontiersettingsandvalorizingtheir
contributionstothegrowthofthenation.Ferber’sgenerationalnovelsalways
13MartyBrooks,“‘Self‐Made’Women:EnvisioningFeminineUpwardMobilityinAmericanLiterature,1900‐1930”(PhDdiss.,DukeUniversity,1999),7.
14MarthaJ.Cuter,UnrulyTongue:IdentityandVoiceinAmericanwomen’s
Writing,18501930(Jackson:UniversityofMississippiPress,1999),15.
37
highlightwomen,insmallbusinesses,onthefarm,orontheprairie,whowere
oftenthebrainsandthebackboneofthesesuccessfulenterprises.Withoutthe
emergenceoftheNewWoman,Ferber’sshortstoriesandherhistoricalnovels
wouldnothavehadthecredibilitytoofferthisvisionoffemininepower,and
consequentlytheabilitytopositanindependentAmericanDreamforwomen.
InaninterviewwithR.HeylbutWollensteininTheNewYorkTimesonMay
11,1924,entitledGirls–SeenbyEdnaFerber,Ferbercrystallizesherthoughts
abouttheNewWoman.Ferbercomparestheflapperofthetwentiestothemore
seriouscollege‐educatedwoman,whoalthoughstillevolving,ismoreself‐
assured.“Thesetwotypesaregoingtomergeintoonesomeday,andshe’llbe
thereal,vital,worthwhile,representativetwentiethcenturywoman.”15Ferber
believedthattheFirstWorldWarandtheresultingchangesinsocietyhadnot
allowedwomentorealizetheirfullpotentialforgrowth.However,inlookingto
thefuture,herwordsreflectWilliamDeanHowell’sshiningpossibilities—the
promisethatthedreamwillbefulfilled.HereFerbersays:
Iwouldn’twanttotradethelasttenyearsforanytwentythatwentbefore.It’sbeenglorioustoactuallyseethechangescomeinwomen’sdressingandthinkingandlivingandplanning.Icanhardlywaittoseewhatthenexttenwillbring.There’sbeenvastmotionforward:theactofprogressingtowardanewtypeofwoman.Onlyweoftodayhaven’tarrivedathercrystallization.Wehaven’tgottentoadestination;notevenastop‐over.We’restillontheway.Butinwaitingformytwentiethcenturywomanto
15R.HeylbutWollstein,“Girls—SeenByEdnaFerber,”NewYorkTimes,May11,1924.
38
crystallize,Icanonlylookatthemoreorlessephemeralgirlsoftoday,sovivid,soexquisite,sosureofthemselves,andwishIweretenyearsyounger!16
16R.HeylbutWollstein,“Girls—SeenByEdnaFerber,”NewYorkTimes,May11,1924.
39
CHAPTERFIVE
MIDDLEBROWMODERNWRITERSANDMASSAPPEAL
ThepowerofEdnaFerber’smessagecamefromherculturalagencyand
thatagencywasfueledbyherabilitytoreachlargeaudiencesduringatimeof
dramaticchange.Ferber’spopularity(atatimewhenwriters,whoworkedatthe
intersectionofpopularculture,literature,theater,magazines,radioandmovies
sawthewidestdistributionoftheirwork)madeinroadswiththeNewWoman
whowasseekingmodelsforherupwardmobilityandherculturaleducation.
“Thetermmiddlebrowwasdevisedtocondemntheattemptsofeducatorsand
writerstodemocratizeculture.”1Thepopularmagazinesofthedayincluded
Ferber’sshortstoriesaswellashernovels,inserializedformat.Inthebeginning
ofthetwentiethcentury,theeditorsofAmerican’spopularmagazineswere
powerfularbitersofliteraryandculturaltastes,andtheyinfluencedpoliticsas
well.“Thoughmodernssneeredatwomen’smagazines,theyrepresentedan
influentialmiddlebrow‘cultureofletters,’inthetwentiesandthirties.”2They
publishedFerber’sworkenthusiastically.However,theintelligentsiaresentedthe
1LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:PopularAmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),116.
2Ibid.,119.
40
factthattheaverageman“wasnotonlythecenterofthepoliticalsystem,butthe
arbiter,toaveryconsiderableextent,ofliteraryandartisticdestiniesaswell.”3
By1926,FerberhadbecomeoneofthemostpopularwritersinAmerica.
Shehadmadethebestsellerlistsandherbookswereselectedbythepopularnew
monthlybookclubs,Book‐of‐the‐MonthClubandLiteraryGuild,andmanyofher
books,shortstoriesandplayswerealreadymadeintoHollywoodfeatures.Her
relationshipwithHollywoodwasoneofthemostsuccessfulinhistory.Itbegan
withthesalein1918ofOurMrsMcChesney,(aplaysheco‐wrotewithGeorge
HobartthatwasasuccessonBroadwaystaringEthelBarrymore),andcontinued
throughthesaleofIcePalace,purchasedin1958byJackWarnerforWarner
Brothersfor$350,000and15%netprofitfromthefilm.Intheintroductionto
MiddlebrowModernsbyLisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,EdnaFerberis
groupedwithwomenwriterswho,“deliberatelytargeted‘middle’audiencesfor
maximumdistributionandprofit.”4Theygoontoconcludethat“eachofthese
womenwritersstruggledtoclaimavoicewithinalargelymale,aesthetically
exclusiveliteraryestablishment;eachbridgedthechasmofpopularandcritical
3ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocialRepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),12.
4LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:Popular
AmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),4.
41
acclaim,yetneverreceivedthelevelofrespectsuchanachievementtypically
commands.”5
Thesheernumbersofreadersofpopularmagazinesduringthe
ProgressiveeracreatedaplatformforNewWomanliterature.Editorswere
awarethattheinclusionofpopularfictionintheirmagazineswaskeytoretaining
currentreadersandincreasingcirculation.Thenumbersarestaggering.
Cosmopolitan,whichpublishedsomeoftheEmmaMcChesneyseries,hada
circulationofonemillionby1915.In1911,theWoman’sHomeCompanion,
realizingitcouldexpanditsreadershipwithfiction,begantopublishserialized
novelsandshortstoriesineveryissue.In1927,theCompanionreachedtwo
millionviewersandwriters,includingEdnaFerber,werepaidupto$85,000fora
novelserialization.Itwasestimatedthatforeverysubscriptiontherewerean
additionalthreetofivereaders,boostingthepotentialreadingaudienceintothe
millionsandpromptingcriticallywell‐reviewedwriters,includingWillaCather
andEdithWharton,aswellaspopularmalewriterslikeRobertChambers,tolook
toserializationtoearnaliving.
FerberandHollywoodbothusedhistoryasawaytoenhancetheircraft.
“PartofFerber’suniquenesscertainlylayinherabilitytoconnecttherevisionist
historicaltrendsinAmericansocialandculturalhistoriographyduringthefirst
5Ibid.,19.
42
halfofthetwentiethcenturywiththeculturalpowerofHollywood.”6Hollywood
waslookingformaterialforitslargefemaleaudienceandFerbersuppliedthat
material.Herapproachtohistory,womenandrace,“fitwithHollywood’sown
ambitiontoproduceanationalhistoricalgenrethatappealedtowomen.”7
Ferber’soriginalfemalebusinesswomanandhergenerationalnovels
explorethetransitiontomodernlifeandthefreedomsthatnewgenerationsof
womengainedinthatprocess.Manyartistsaddressedtheissueofwomen’sroles
andthedynamicchangethatwastakingplace.
...butthemiddlebrowwriterpublishinginamassmediumoperatedinanarrativelandscapeofarchetypalcharactersrepresentingoldandnewwaysofbeing,aswellastraditionalandmodernconceptionsofwoman’splaceinthedevelopingindustrialorder.Theywerethusabletodrawmoreclearlythebattlelinesinagenderwaroverhowwomenweretofitintothemodernworldofnewtechnologies,educationalopportunities,andchangingculturalvalues.8
EdnaFerbertooktheprocessofmarketingherliteraryproductsseriously,
therebyenablingherreadertoaccessherstoriesthroughmanymedia.Thebroad
coalitionofAmericanwomenwhoreadherbooks,throughtraditionalandnew
media,wasneitherhighbrownorlowbrow,butpartofthevastmiddlebrow,the
littlefolkswhoFerberwaswritingabout.Itwasthiscommercializationofculture
6J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),29.
7Ibid.,29.8LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:Popular
AmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),87.
43
andthegoalofprovidingaccesstoherworkbyawideraudiencethatthreatened
anddiminishedFerber’scriticalreception.ThebookSoBighadthree
adaptationsinHollywoodwithlegendarystarslikeBarbaraStanwyckandJane
Wyman.SoBigwasserializedintheWomen’sHomeCompanionfromDecember
1923throughMarch1924forwhichFerberreceived$35,000.WhenSoBigwas
firstsoldtoHollywood,itwasmadeintoasilentfilmandFerberreceived$20,000.
Whentalkingpicturescameinthefilmwasremadein1931,thestudiopaidher
another$20,000.TheironyhereisthatthebookSoBigisaboutawomanwho
turnsatruckfarmintoasuccessfulenterprise,butwhoisnotsweptupin
materialism.Instead,sheuseshermonetarygaintoreinvestinherfarmand
appreciatethenaturalbeautyoftheartandarchitecturethatsurroundher.
EdnaFerberdidthesamewiththemoneyshereceivedfromthesaleofher
books.Shekepttoarigidscheduleofwritingeachday,longafteritwasclearthat
shedidnotneedthemoney.Itwasnotthatshewasmaterialistic,althoughshe
didenjoymaterialthings;rathersheneededtoworkforherownsatisfaction.So
Bigwasabestseller,spendingsixteenweeksonTheNewYorkTimesbestsellerlist
andsellingthreehundredandtwentythreethousandbooksbeforetheageof
bookclubs.ThesuccesshelpedFerberstaytruetohercraft,andthesaleofone
bookallowedhertowriteanother.
InaletterwrittentothePulitzerPrizecommitteeEdnaFerber’sfriend
WilliamA.White,amemberofthePulitzercommitteeandeditoroftheEmporia
44
Gazette,makesapleaforthechoiceofSoBigasthewinner.“Thecontentionof
herbookisthatAmericaneedscreativespiritinsomethingbesidesfinance;that
weshouldexpressourselvesinbeautifulthings—beautifularchitecture,beautiful
livesandthatbeautyisthesadandvitallackofAmerica.”9Whitewouldgoonto
writeanintroductiontoacollectionofherstoriesandstate,“InSoBig,Ferber
wroteastorythatcelebratedlifeandthespirit,notsuccess.”10Eachofhernovels
wasaliteraryenterprise,runlikeabusinesswithaneyetowardmaximumsales
inallmedia.Althoughofferedlargesumsofmoney,Ferberneverrushedoutto
HollywoodtowritescreenplayslikehercounterpartsAnitaLoosorLillian
Hellman.Frankly,shewasnotdesperateforthemoney,andshedidnotlike
Hollywood.
EdnaFerberwouldalsobeconsideredanoriginalintermsofbranding.
WhenshesoldabooktoHollywood,hercontractstatedthatallprintedmaterials
andpostersreflecthernamefirst,beforethefilm’sname.Hermoviesappearedas
EdnaFerber’sCimarronorEdnaFerber’sSoBig.Thisisstilltruetoday.In
addition,sheinventedtheideaofsellinglimitedrightstodevelopherstoryor
novel.Inthecaseofthemovierightsforanybook,sheinsistedonlimitedrights,
theuseofherproductforalimitedtime.Whentheperiodexpired,she
renegotiatedandgotanadditionalsum.Eveninthetwenties,beforetheadventof
9J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),45.
10Ibid.,46.
45
TV,shealwayssoldonlythefilmrightsandinsistedthatshekeeptheradioand
TVrightsforherself.Laterinthefifties,shewasabletonegotiateapercentageof
thefilm’sprofitsalongwiththeinitialpurchasefee.ShereadVarietyandthe
othertradepublicationsofthefilmindustrydailytomonitorherbrandand
maintainbothcontrolandincome.
EdnaFerberwasanastuteobserverofAmericansmalltownlife.Shewas
schooledinnewspaperworkandtheFerberfamilystoreandherliterarytalent,
businessacumen,determination,andintimacywiththelivesofthewomenshe
waschroniclingintersectedtocreatehermassappeal.Astudyofmiddle‐class
femaleconsumersbyEricLofroth,preparedinthe1930s,concludes:
Themiddle‐classfemalereaders...foundthemselvestheobjectsoftheburgeoningmiddlebrowcultureindustryofthe1920swhichproposedtouseliteratureasavehicleforself‐improvement,toprotectliteraryandculturalvaluesinamomentofenormousculturalflux,andperhapsmostimportantly,tosellbooksinanincreasinglyfluidliterarymarketplace.11
11LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:PopularAmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),9.
46
CHAPTERSIX
DAWNO’HARAANDEMMAMcCHESNEY:CHANGEINTHEFEMININEOBLIGATION
DawnO’Hara,TheGirlWhoLaughed,writtenin1911,andtheEmma
McChesneyseries(RoastBeefMedium,EmmaMcChesney&Co.andPersonality
Plus),writtenbetween1911and1915,areimportantworksinEdnaFerber’s
oeuvrebecausetheymakethecasefortheworkingwomanbyhighlightinghow
shecanenhancetheworkplace,serveasamodelforbalancebetweenworkand
familyobligations,andstillbeliberatedandentitledtofollowherowndream.
Althougheachcharacter’sinitialreasonforworkingorcontinuingworkingis
predicatedonmonetaryneeds,EmmatocareforasonandDawnahusband,the
journeythroughworkliberatesthem.Dawnisanewspaperreporterand
ultimatelypublishesherfirstnovel,andEmmarisestothenumbertwopositionof
theFeatherloomPetticoatCompany.Ferberisshowinghowawomancanfulfill
herfeminineobligationswithoutshortchangingherself.Thefamilyobligationis
animpetusratherthananimpedimenttoachievement,andbothwomenare
ultimatelynotvictimsoffamilyresponsibilities.
DawnandEmmaarebothworkingwomentryingtomakeitinaman’s
world.Eachisaloneafterabadmarriage:Emmaleavesherdishonesthusband
whohasadrinkingproblemandDawn’shusbandisinstitutionalizedafter
sufferingamentalbreakdown.Dawn,exhausted,returnshometothenurturing
andsupportofherMidwesternfamilyandEmmatravelsthroughoutthesame
47
MidwestwhereshebelievesthepeoplearethebestreflectionofAmerica.Dawn
struggleswithself‐doubtandfeelsconflictedabouttheobligationtostayinher
marriagebecauseherhusbandisunabletocareforhimself.Emmaburstsonthe
scenefullspeedahead,notallowingabadmarriageorachildtoholdherback.
Nothingisgoingtostopherjourneytobecomeaself‐madewoman,andsheis
happytoarticulatewhatisneededtoreachthisvaultedpositioninbusiness.
WhenwemeetEmma,shehasbeenontheroadfortenyears,hasworked
herwayupthecorporateladderandhandlestheprimeMidwestterritoryforher
employer,T.A.Buck,PresidentoftheFeatherloomPetticoatCompany.Sheisin
theprocessofraisingasontobeanupstandingcitizen—takingontheman’srole
ofteachinghimtheropes,demandingandshaminghimintoworkinghard—while
simultaneouslyhelpingherboss,nowT.A.Buck,Jr.,takeaninterestinhisfamilial
inheritance.AsinmanyoftheCinderellastoriesofthattime,sheultimatelydoes
marryherboss,butonlywhentheyareonanequalfootingthatEmmareferstoas
“aclosercorporation”andaftershehassingle‐handedlyraisedason,savedthe
company,andhelpedT.A.Buck,Jr.realizehisfullpotential.
EmmaMcChesneyexemplifiestheNewWoman,vital,energetic,andhard
working,whoseintelligenceismeldedtoastrongpersonality,anditisthe
personalitythathelpshersucceed.WhenEmma’srival,fatEdMeyers,is
questionedastowhyhiscompanydidnotsellasmanypetticoatsinSouth
America,heexplains.“Itisn’tFeatherlooms.It’sMcChesney.Herlineisnobetter
48
thanours.It’sherpersonality,notherpetticoats.”1Shehaslearnedagreatdealin
herprogressionfromstenographertoassistantsaleswomenandfinallyto
saleswomanforthecovetedMidwestterritory.Shesellspetticoats,shewears
petticoats,andsheknowstheproductbetterthanthepresidentofthecompany,
thefactoryworkerswhomadethemoranyoneoutontheroadsellingasimilar
product.Sheisastorehouseofknowledgeaboutherbuyers,theneedsofthe
territoryshecovers,thecitiesshevisits,andtheroutineneededtomaintaingood
healthandoptimism.Sheiscompetitiveandnotafraidtouseherknowledgeto
getthejumponthecompetitionortouseabribeasshedoeswhileinSouth
America.Tolandasale,sheusesanymeansshecan,fromdinnerstotheater
tickets.Emmaexemplifiestheemergingwhite‐collarbusinesswoman;sheis
driven,determinedandascompetitiveasanyman.Sheuseshermaternal
instinctstomodelhealthyself‐interestwithregardtoherself,herson,andher
organization.Thisservesasamodelforworkerswhocannowincorporatethese
lessonsandfeelcomfortablereachingbeyondhomeandhearth.
Allherdriveandsuccessissublimatedtothefactthatsheisamotherfirst
andforemostandshemustprovideforheryoungson.However,thezealwith
whichsheenjoysherworkandtheenergyshegetsfromthesalesprocessconnote
achangingviewofawomanwhoworksandhowshecanbebothsavedanda
savior.Whenshevisitshernewgrandchildoutwest,shecommentsonher
1EdnaFerber,EmmaMcChesneyandCo:(NewYork:FrederickStokesandCo.,1915;QuillPenClassics,2008),23.
49
daughter‐in‐law’sfriend’slackofenergy,“theplacid,black‐silk,rathervague
womanofmiddleage,whosefacehastheblandlookoftheshelteredwomanand
whowrinklesearlyfromsheerlackofsufficientactivityorvitalinterestinlife.”2
Emma’sthoughtsrantoherhome,“tothebig,busyfactorywithitshumming
machineryanditscapableofficestaff...toallthevitalabsorbing,fascinatingand
constructiveinterestswithwhichherbusyNewYorklifewasfilledto
overflowing.”3Herdriveisnotconflictedbecausesheisabletoachieveabalance
betweenworkandfamily,succeedatboth,anddeviseawaytousehermaterial
instinctsintohelpingothersinherworkplace.Helpingpoorimmigrantsandlow
wageearnerstotheirownmeasureofsuccesssignalsasolutiontotheproblemof
immigrantworkersandhowtodealwiththemintheAmericanworkplace.
DawnO’HarastrugglesasawomanworkingataNewYorknewspaper
whilesupportinganillfamilymember.Attheoutset,Dawnissadabouther
breakdown,herbadmarriage,andherneedtopushforacareer.Shesays,“Allmy
lifeIhaveenviedtheloungersintheparks....Theyalwaysseemedsoblissfully
care‐freeandatease—thosesprawlingmenfigures—andI,towhomsuchsimple
2EdnaFerber,EmmaMcChesneyandCo:(NewYork:FrederickStokesandCo.,1915;QuillPenClassics,2008),121.
3Ibid.,122.
50
joyswereforbidden,beingawoman,hadenviedthem.”4Thisisanoddreversalof
rolesandspeakstoherinternaldrive.
DawnleavesNewYorktoworkataMilwaukeepaper,becomesbest
friendswiththecityeditor,whoembodiesaHoratioAlgerstorywithinthestory,
andromanticallyseesherdoctor,Dr.ErnstVonGerhard.Hertakeonnewspaper
reportingisamodelforwomen.
Ifawomanreporterweretoburstintotearseverytimeshesawsomethingtoweepovershe’dbegoingaboutwitharednoseandpuffyeyelidshalfthetimes.Scarcelyadaypassesthatdoesnotbringherfacetofacewithhumansufferinginsomeform.Notonlymustsheseethesethings,butalsoshemustwriteofthemsothatthosewhoreadcanalsoseethem.Andjustbecauseshedoesnotwailandtearherhairandfaintshepopularlyissupposedtobeaflinty,cigarette‐smokingcreaturewhorampagesupanddowntheland,seekingwhomshemayrendwithherpenandgazing,dry‐eyed,uponscenesofhorridbloodshed.5
Dawnhastobestrong—withoutemotion—atwork,butisabletodevelop
inhernewcompanionaterelationshipwithDr.VonGerard,andhetakesherwork
andherfeelingsintoaccount.“OdearLord,don’tbotheraboutmyambitions!
Justletmeremainstrongandwellenoughtodotheworkthatismyportionfrom
daytoday....Letthisnewandwonderfullovewhichhascomeintomylifebea
staffofstrengthandcomfortinsteadofaburdenofweariness.”6Dawn’sbookis
accepted,andshemovesintoanewrealmoffreedom.Thisfulfillingmoment,
4EdnaFerber,DawnO’Hara:TheGirlWhoLaughed(NewYork:Grosset&Dunlap,1911),28.
5Ibid.,159.
6Ibid.,246.
51
abovemonetarygainandclearlydirectedatinner‐fulfillment,isDawnO’Hara’s
AmericanDream.“Itwon’tmeanmoney—atleast,Idon’tthinkitwill.Butitwill
meanafuture.ItwillmeanthatIwillhavesomethingsolidtostandon.Itwillbe
arealbeginning—abreathingspell—timeinwhichtoaccomplishsomething
reallyworthwhile—independence—freedomfromthistread‐mill.”7
TheempowermentandunderstandingthatEmmaMcChesneybringsto
women’stransformativeroleintheworkplaceisreflectedinherpopularitywith
readers;afterthirty‐twostoriesabouther,CosmopolitanofferedEdnaFerberthe
opportunitytowritetheserialindefinitely.Ferberrefusedforfearshewouldnot
growasawriterifshecontinued,butinthemindsofherreaders,thethirty‐two
storieswereenoughtobeanimportantlegacy.“Fullofinspirationand
transformation,thiscycleofstoriesconstituted,inmanyrespectsbusinessfairy
talesofwill,personality—Victorianfemale‘faculty’thathadbecomewhitecollar
‘capability.’”8
Emma’sgreatestcontribution—greatereventhanmodelingthe
intersectionofhardwork,personalityandaccesstoacompetitivenature—isher
abilitytomanagefemaleworkersnotbyfearorreprimandbutbytheexampleof
7Ibid.,255.8ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocial
RepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),79.
52
herbehaviorastheonewhogetsaheadbylisteningtothedesiresandstrugglesof
thewomenworkingattheFeatherloomplant.“Emmaoffersavisionofprogress
basedonsorority,empathyandtheupwardmobilityoftheoffice—themeritof
workandtheloyaltyoffashioningoneselfonone’ssuperior‘mothers.’”9Emma’s
mainthemes—thatwomenbelongintheworkforce,thatawomancanbeas
competitiveasthenextguy(EdMyers),thatcaringforandnurturingfemale
employeesbothencouragesthemandisgoodforthecompany,andthataworking
womanstillisabletotakethetimetomakemenofherboys,herson(Jock)and
herboss(Buck,Jr.)–wereprovocativefortheirtime.
DawnO’HarawaswrittenwhileEdnaFerberwasrecuperatingfroma
nervouscollapse.ShehadbeenareporterontheMilwaukeeJournal,andafter
fouryearsofchasingstories,shewasforcedtoreturnhometorestandrebuild
herstrength.Eventhoughsheworkedparttimeasasalesclerkinthefamily
store,shewasabletofinishherfirstnovel,muchasDawndoesinDawnO’Hara:
writinganovelwhileworkingatapaperandrecuperatingfromanervous
collapse.Ferberwasnotpleasedwiththebookandclaimedthathermother
submittedittothepublisher,FrederickA.Stokes,behindherback.
Ferber’sserialEmmaMcChesney,raninTheAmericanmagazine,the
publisheroftheHoratioAlgerstories,andtheninCosmopolitan,thehighest
9Ibid.,83.
53
circulationmagazineofitsday.Overthecourseofthreeyears,thesethirty‐two
shortstoriesmadeEdnaFerberahouseholdname.Inherbook,AFeelingfor
Books,whichdiscussestheriseoftheBook‐Of‐TheMonth‐Clubandliterarytastes,
JaneRadwayexplains,“MiddleClassreaders...valuebooksnotforlinguistic
innovation,but‘becausetheyareseekingamodelforcontemporarylivingand
evenradicaladviceaboutappropriatebehaviorinachangingworld.’”10
EmmaMcChesneyisanoriginalcharacterinAmericanliterature—thefirst
businesswoman.“TheNewYorkTimes,inareviewofEmmaMcChesney&Co.,had
recognizedtheachievementofFerber’sheroinewhentheycrownedher‘adefier
ofprecedent’and‘thepioneeramongtravelingsaleswomen.’”11Inaninterview
inTheNewYorkTimes,EdnaFerberexplainsthatEmmaMcChesneywasso
originalthatafterherfirststoryappeared,IdaTarbellencouragedhertowritean
additionalone.EdnaFerberstates:
Sheissonew—sheisonly10,or,atthemost,15yearsold!Sheissonewsheisworthtalkingabout.Buttenyearsfromnowatalklikethiswillbeananachronism.Theideathatanyoneeverquestionedtheproprietyofawoman’sgoingintobusiness,orthoughtthatsuchanactonherpartwasinconsistentwithdomesticity,willbeasobsoleteasmilestones.12
10LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:PopularAmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),119.
11JeffreyLouisDeckerMadeinAmerica:Self–StyledSuccessfromHoratio
AlgertoOprahWinfrey(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),27.12JoyceKilmer,“BusinessWomanMostDomestic,”NewYorkTimes,April
4,1915.
54
Asthecountryindustrializedandtherewasaneedtoincludemillionsof
middleclassandimmigrantwomenintheworkforce,modelinghowthisdramatic
changewouldplayoutandhowawomancouldcontributetothechangein
positivewayswascritical.ThismodelingiswhatEdnaFerberaccomplishedin
boththeEmmaMcChesneyshortstoryseriesandtheDawnO’Haranovel.In
WhiteCollarFictionsthisisreferredtoas“culturalwork.”“Inpartthistermhas
beencoinedtodescribethewayinwhichpopularorcriticallyprominentauthors,
intheirownday,articulateandproposesolutionsfortheproblemsshapingtheir
historicalmoment,thusprovidingtheirreadersawayoforderingtheworldand
attributingmeaningtoit.”13
13ChristopherP.Wilson,WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocial
RepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992),20.
55
CHAPTERSEVEN
FANNYHERSELF,THETRIUMPHOFARTOVERMATERIALISM
In1917,EdnaFerberwrotethesemi‐autobiographicalFannyHerself.Itis
thefirstnovelorshortstoryinwhichshehighlightstheconflictinherentinthe
AmericanDream:thestruggleamongprofessionalsuccess,personalfulfillment
andtheneedforartisticexpression.ThesettingisyetanotherMidwesterntown,
Winnebago,Wisconsin.Fanny,ayounggirl,watchesasherwidowedmother
takescontrolofthefamilystoreandrunsit,likeamanwould,inordertosupport
herselfandhertwochildren.Itwasatimewhentherewere“plentyofwomen
wageearnersinWinnebago,aselsewhere;clerks,stenographers,schoolteachers,
bookkeepers.”1However,Fanny’smotherisdifferent.“ButherewasMolly
Brandeis,aJewess,settingouttoearnherlivinginbusiness,likeaman.Itwasa
thingtostirCongregationEmanu‐eltoitsdepths.Jewishwomen,theywouldtell
you,didnotworkthus.Theirhusbandsworkedforthem,ortheirsons,ortheir
brothers.”2
AfterMollyBrandeisdies,Fannysellseverythingandsetshergoalon
earningtenthousandayearwithoutsacrificinglikehermotherdid.Fannyputs
theselfishpartofherselffirst.EdnaFerbertellsthereader:
1EdnaFerber,FannyHerself(NewYork:FrederickA.StokesandCo.,1917;NewYork:QuillPen,2008),11.
2Ibid.,11.
56
TherecametoFannyBrandeisagreatresolve.Shewouldputherselfinahighplace.Everytalentshepossessed,everyadvantageeveryscrapofknowledge,everybitofexperiencewouldbeusedtowardthatend.Shewouldmakesomethingofherself.Itwasaworldly,selfishresolve,bornofabittersorrow,andambitionandresentment.Shemadeuphermindthatshewouldadmitnohandicaps.Race,religion,training,naturalimpulses—shewoulddiscardthemalliftheystoodinherway.ShewouldleaveWinnebagobehind....Inherplaceshewouldmoldahard,keen‐eyed,resolutewoman,whosegod‐headwastobesuccess,andtowhomsuccesswouldmeanmoneyandposition....shehadretainedinhermemorythisoneimmovabletruth:Astraightlineistheshortestdistancebetweentwopoints.3
Fannycarefullyassessedtheskillsshehadlearnedatthefamilystoreand
sethersightsonworkinginthemailorderbusiness.Shesubliminallyresponded
tohermother’swarningthatthemailorderbusinesswouldbethemonsterthat
swallowsupallthesmallfamilybusinessesacrossAmerica.Whenacontacttells
heraboutanopeningatHaynes‐Cooper,thegiantmailorderhouseinChicago,she
landsajob,andthecombinationofdomesticandworkskillslearnedin
Winnebagodeliversthefreshideasthataredesperatelyneededbymanagement.
Manywomenwereentreatedtobringtheirefficiencyandskillslearnedathome
totheworkplace;Fannydoesit.MichaelFenger,themanager,admits,“Now,asa
rule,IneveremployawomanwhenIcanuseaman.There’sonlyoneother
womanfillingareallyimportantpositioninthemerchandiseend....I’drather
haveamaninherplace;butIdon’thappentoknowanymenglove‐geniuses.”4
3Ibid.,91‐92.4Ibid.,115.
57
AtHaynes‐Cooper,Fannyimplementssomanygoodideassoquicklythat
sheispromotedwithinafewmonthsandrapidlymovesupthecorporate
managementchain.Hermarriedbossfallsinlovewithher,butshedoesnotget
involvedandwarnshimstronglythatshewillbesuretoleteveryoneknowifhe
stepsoutofline.Fannywillnotpermitherselftobeavictimhereandwillnotbe
luredintoaninappropriaterelationship,adangerthatbesetsmanywomenher
ageinthebigcity.Atthispointtheauthorstepsintothenoveltosay:
Myself,IconfessIamtiredofthesestoriesofyoungwomenwhogotothebigcity,theretodobattlewithfailure,tograpplewithtemptation,sinanddiscouragement.SoitmayaswellbeadmittedthatFannyBrandeis’storywasnotthatofapainful‐hand‐over‐handclimb.Shewasmadeforsuccess.Whatsheattempted,sheaccomplished.Thatwhichshestrovefor,shewon.Shewastoosure,toovital,tooelectric,forfailure.No,FannyBrandeis’strugglewentoninside.Andintryingtostifleitshecamenearmakingtheblackestfailurethatawomancanmake.Ingrubbingforthepotofgoldshealmostmissedtherainbow.5
Inanoddpassage,asifaconsciencehadbeenawakened,Ferber,the
author,warnsthereaderaboutFannyandtheperilsofsuccessshemayencounter
asshemovesupthecorporateladderandreplacestheinfant’swearbuyer.
Ferberclearlysetsupthestruggleherebetweenmonetarysuccessandself‐
fulfillment.Shewarnsthereaderthatthedriveformaterialismisattheexpense
ofbeautyandhappiness.
Formypart,IconfessthatFannyBrandeisbeginstoloseinterestforme.BigBusinessseemstodwarfthefinerthingsinher....You,too,feelthatwayabouther?Thatisasitshouldbe.Itisthepenaltytheypaywho,
5Ibid.,111.
58
givengenius,sympathy,andunderstandingastheirbirthright,tradethemforthetawdrytrinketsmoneybrings.6
Fannydoesmakeittothetopbutherconscienceisprovokedbytwo
specialevents.AfterabuyingtripinEurope,shelandsinNewYorkonlyto
witnessalaborstrike.UnlikeEmmaMcChesney,whotriedtooutshinethelabor
organizerswhoenterherfactorybyshowingofftheworkingwoman’ssuperiority,
Fannytakestimetosketchthestrikersandcapturethestruggleintheirfaces.As
laborerspassbyonegroup’ssignhauntsher,Infant’sWear.Herchildhoodfriend,
ClarenceHeyl,encourageshertosketchthesewomensothatothersmight
witnessthemaswell.Shedismissestheideaofacareerasanartistfor,atthat
moment,sketchingdidnotseemlikeacareer.
Theodore,herlonglostviolinistbrother,arrivesfromGermany.Hehas
studiedthereforyearsthankstothesacrificesofMollyandFannyBrandeisandis
homesulkingafterabadmarriage.HeobservesFanny’sbusinesspositionand
insteadoffeelingproud,hefeelsregret.“AndthenTheodore,thecareless,the
selfish,theblind,saidamostamazingthing.Fanny,I’llwork....AndI’lltakeyou
outofthis.Ipromiseyou.”7Hefeltsorryforher.Shestillpushesonwithher
work,butatinyspark,somefeelingofsolidaritywithhermarchinglaborsisters,
hasreachedher.Herbrother,forallofhismoderatesuccessinmusic,isafailure
6Ibid.,128‐129.7Ibid.,240.
59
asahusbandandahumanbeingandcannotexhibitunderstandingor
compassionforanyoneotherthanhimself.Hehasnotgrownemotionallysincehe
lefthome.
AfterHaynes‐Cooperisrestructuredandprofitsharingallowsthewomen
workingatlowpayscalestoberemuneratedadequately,Fenger,themanager,
decidestocashoutanddevelophisownmailorderbusiness.Heisallgreed,has
littleregardforthesalariesoftheworkers,andisdriventomakemoremoney—
solelyforhimself.Fengerismiserableathome,hateshiswife,andonlyfeels
excitementinthestruggleformorewealth.Fannyhasvisitedhishandsome
home,andalthoughforamomentshewishedforahomejustlikeit,shehasseen
howemptyhislifeisevenwiththematerialtrappingsofasuccessfulman.Atthis
pointFannyknowsthatthisdreamoftenthousandayear,anapartmentonLake
ShoreDriveandadriver–hasnotfulfilledheronadeeppersonallevel.Thereis
somethingmissing.Theauthorsays,“ThetroublewasthatFannyBrandeis,the
creative,wasnotbeingfed.Andthecreativefirerequiresfuel.”8
ThejudgmentofClarenceHeyl,herchildhoodfriend,thatshehad
sacrificedherselfandbeenaslavetosuccess,beginstoabsorbher.Heylstates:
Idon’tsayyou’rewronginwantingtomakeaplaceforyourselfintheworld.Butdon’texpectmetostandbyandletyoutrampleoveryourownimmortalsoultogetthere.Yourheadisbusyenoughonthisinfants’wearjob,buthowabouttherestofyou‐‐howaboutyou?Whatdoyousupposeallthoseyearsofwork,andsuppression,andself‐denial,andbeauty‐
8Ibid.,135.
60
hungerthereinWinnebagoweremeantfor!...Theyweregiventoyousothatyoumightrecognizehunger,suppression,andself‐denialinothers.9
Hegoesontosaythatthereisafighterrevealedinallofhersketchesandthat
fighterwillneverdie.Atthispoint,Fannycannotagreewithhimbecauseshehad
sethercoursesorigidlythattoletanythingoranyonequestionitwouldsurly
distractherfocus.
Sheproceedswithherwork,butwhenHaynes‐Cooperofficiallymovesto
profitsharingandFengercrossesthelineinhisattempttocoerceherintobeing
hisbusinesspartner,sherunsawayanddoesnotcomeback.Shesetsoutforthe
mountainsofColoradowhereClarenceHeylkeepsacabin.Nowthatshehas
achievedherbusinessgoals,sheisfreetonurtureherspiritbysketchingthosein
thelabormovementandexposingsociety’sills.Hereherself‐fulfillmenttrumps
monetarysuccess,andFannyfindsabalancedmiddlegroundinhernewcalling.
Initially,Fannywastryingtoreachherdreamthetraditionalway,byachieving
materialsuccess.Whenthedreamcomesupempty,shelookstomoregenuine
self‐fulfillment,thekindthatresultsfrommaturityandmeldingone’spassions
andtalents.SherealizesherAmericanDreaminhernewroleasanartistand
learnsagreatdealaboutwhosheisduringthejourney.
9Ibid.,161.
61
BeforesittingdowntowriteFannyHerself,EdnaFerberwasdoingalotof
soulsearchingaboutherownlife’sdirection.ShehadjustfinishedOurMrs
McChesney,whichopenedattheLyceumTheateronOctober19th,1915.
NowIsettleddownforthelongpullofnovel‐writing.IhadputitoffaslongasIcould,dreadingit.ItwasJanuary1916;DawnO’Harahadbeenpublishedin1911.InbetweenIhadpublishedavolumeofunrelatedshortstores,threevolumesofMcChesneystories,andhadwrittentheMcChesneyplayincollaboration.Thisseemedtomeaprettypoorperformance.AsidefromthecreatingofthecharacterofEmmaMcChesney,Ihaddonenosolidthing.10
EdnaFerberadmitsthatmostofhercharactersarebasedonpeopleshe
knewinAppleton,includinghermotherasMollyBrandeisandherselfasFanny.
Butinarevealingmomentinherautobiographyshesays,“Thetroublewasthatin
themiddleofthebookIkilledMollyBrandeisbecauseshewaswalkingoffwith
thestoryundertheheroine’sveryeyes.WhenMollyBrandeisdiedthestorydied
withher.Shewastoosustainingandvitaltodismiss.”11ItspeakstoFerber’son‐
goingstrugglewithhermotherJuliaandthebattletobreakoutonherown.Allof
herfemalecharactersstruggletobreakawayfromtheirmothersandthefamilial
roost,totrytocreatetheirownlivesandindividuatethemselvesonbehalfoftheir
owndreams.
Asinallofherbooks,EdnaFerberacknowledgesherheroes,JaneAddams
andIdaTarbell,fortheirworkwiththeunderservedinAmerica.Thesocialclaim
10EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),223.
11Ibid.,223.
62
isthrownuptoFannyasawomenstrikingoutnotinservicetosocietybutin
servicetoherself.ClarenceHeyl,herfriendandloveinterest,tellsFannythatshe
isafailure.“JaneAddamswouldhavebeenasuccessinbusiness,too.Shewas
bornwithahumanitysense,andavaluesense,andasomethingelsethatcan’tbe
acquired.IdaTarbellcouldhavemanagedyourwholeHaynes‐Cooperplant,if
shehadto.”12
12EdnaFerber,FannyHerself(NewYork:FrederickA.StokesandCo.,1917;NewYork:QuillPen,2008),202.
63
CHAPTEREIGHT
PIONEERINGWOMENANDTHEWESTERN,SOBIGANDCIMARRON
SoBig,EdnaFerber’sPulitzerPrizewinningnovelwrittenin1924,
contraststhebitterstrugglebetweenoldhard‐workingpioneervaluesandnew
post‐WorldWarIfastmoneyandmaterialism.Sheextolsthevirtuesofthe
Victorianerabyplacingthenovelinthelatenineteenthcenturyandhighlighting
theevolvingchangesinsocietythroughtheFirstWorldWar.“SoBigwasthe
firstofFerber’snovelstoconsiderthelegacyofthepioneerwomaninthe
developmentofthenation.”1Attheturnofthecentury,SelinaPeakeisforcedto
liveinHighPrairie,afarmingtownoutsideofChicago,becauseitaffordsherajob
asaschoolteacherafterherfather’sprematuredeathwhenshewasnineteen.She
couldhavechosentoliveinNewEnglandwithtwospinsteraunts,butsheis
independentandwantstoearnherownway.
LonelyinHighPrairie,shemarriesawidowedfarmer,thehandsome
PervusDeJong,andistiedtohislandandtheroughworkoffarmingfortenyears.
HerhusbandisofDutchancestryand,likeallthefarmersinHighPrairie,his
farmingmethodsareoldcountry.“Whatwasgoodenoughformyfather,isgood
1J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),36.
64
enoughforme.”2Selinaisinlovebutsheagesovernightandherintelligenceisall
butoverlookedbyahusbandwhoisincapableofhearingher.Hewasa“husband
wholookeduponconversationasaconvenience,notasapastime.”3Ononeofhis
tripstotheChicagomarkethespendstheeveningoutsideintherain,catches
pneumonia,anddiessoonafter.Selinaisleftwiththefarmandayoungsonto
carefor.Shedoesnotstoptomourn.Shortlyafterherhusband’sdeath,she
drivestotheChicagomarketonherownwithproducefromthefarm,unheardof
inthosedays.Everyoneadmonishesher,“Awomenshedon’tgotomarket.”She
replies,“Thiswomandoes.”4Selinafeelsliberatedwhenshetakesthereinsofthe
horses,andlikeallofFerber’swomen,shewillnotbeavictim.
HerewasSelinaDeJongdrivinguptheHalstedroadtowardthecityinsteadofsitting,black‐robed,inthefarmparlourwhileHighPrairiecametocondole.InSelina,astheyjoggedalongthehotdustyway,therewelledupafeelingverylikeelation.Consciousofthis,theNewEnglandstraininhertookhertotask.‘SelinaPeake,aren’tyouashamedofyourself!You’reawickedwoman!Feelingalmostgaywhenyououghttobesad....PoorPervus...thefarm...Dirk...andyoucanfeelalmostgay!...Youshouldbeashamedofyourself!’...Youthwasgone,butshehadhealth,courage;aboyofnine;twenty‐fiveacresofwornoutfarmland;dwellingandouthousesinabadstateofrepair;andagayadventuresomespiritthatwasnevertodie.5
2EdnaFerber,SoBig(GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1924;
NewYork:HarperPerennial,2000),82.3Ibid.,93.4Ibid.,111.5Ibid.,115
65
AfterPervus’sdeath,Selinaimplementsalltheideasshehashadfor
improvinghistwenty‐fiveacres.Shetakesoverthefarm,defendsherselfby
statingthatsheneedstosupporthersonandrefusestogiveupherdreamof
makingthefarmasuccess.Instead,shebecomesapioneer:firstbecauseshe
takesoverthefarmandrunsitonherownandsecondbecausesheplantsnew
varietiesofasparagusandhothousetomatoes.
ManyfeministhistoriansofwomenontheAmericanfrontierhavearguedthat‘insteadoffreeingwomenfromsocialconstraints,theWestisolatedwomenfromotherwomen,heightenedtheirvulnerabilitytomen,andincreasedtheirdomesticworkload.’Certainly,itwasSelina’ssenseofpersonalandphysicalisolationthatcausedhertomismarrythestolidPervusDeJongandwreckheryouthwithhardwork.Selinaseesthisnotasatragedybutratherasanopportunitytoembracelife,thelandscape,andAmerica’sgloriousfutureforproductivity.InSelina’sworld,womenworkharderbecausetheydotheworkofbothsexes,butunlikemen,theycansucceedatdoingallsortsofwork.6
Inmakingimprovementstothefarm,sheishelpedbyaloanfromthe
wealthyandsuccessfulfatherofanoldschoolfriendwhocomesuponher
peddlinghervegetablesinaswankyChicagoneighborhood.Aftercarefulwork
andyearsofdevotion,herfarmpaysoffhandsomely,andherproductsaresought
ayearinadvanceatpricesherpoordeadhusbandcouldonlydreamof.Shehas
succeededonherownandearnedenoughmoneytopayforherson’seducationas
anarchitect.
6J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),38.
66
Afteryearsoffarming,Selinaisself‐sufficientandfeelsagreatsenseof
accomplishmentinmakinghervegetablesfamous.Atthisimportantmoment,she
islikeAdam,“selfreliantandselfpropelling.”7KristinaK.Groover,statesinThe
WildernessWithin:
Whilenaturedoesappearasametaphorforthespiritualrealminwomenwriters’texts,itismoreoftenasagardenorotherdomesticatedoutdoorspace.Mediatingbetweenuntamednatureandthedomesticrealm,themetaphoricalgardenservesasanextensionofboth,thussuggestingthefluidityofboundariesbetweenthetemporalandspiritualworlds.Further,thesubstitutionofthegardenforthewildernessreinforcestheideathatthespiritualmaybelocatedinquiteordinaryspacesofeverydaylives,ratherthanonthehorizon.8
Selinafindsthelandbeautifulanditsustainsherandherfamily.Shehasreached
theapotheosisofherspiritualjourney,notinheadingoutwestbutbyheading
intoherowntwenty‐fiveacres.
TheconflictofthegenerationsarisesinSelina’sviewofherson,Dirk
DeJong,alsoknownasSoBig.Sheistroubledbythenextgeneration,especially
hersonandhisfriends.Dirkembodiesthematerialdreamwithoutthevaluesof
hardworkandsacrifice.Hedecidestogiveuphisprofessionofarchitecture
becauseitwouldtakealifetimeofhardworkwhileearninglittlemoneytoget
ahead.Hegoesintosellingbondsbecausehewantstomakemoneyfastto
supporthisextravagantlifestyle;herunsaroundwithamarriedwomanandafast
7KristinaK.Groover,TheWildernessWithin:AmericanWomenWritersandSpiritualQuest(Fayetteville:UniversityofArkansasPress,1999),4.
8Ibid.,18.
67
crowdthatisinvolvedinpartiesandcharitiesandaffordshimmanycontacts.
Selinabelievesthisnextgenerationhaslostitsvalues,asitadmirescapitalism
strictlyformaterialgain.Sheseeshersonasamanwithnoconscience.“Ferber’s
faithinpioneervaluesandherrevulsionagainstpostwarmaterialismalso
appealedtohundredsofthousandsofAmericanreaders,manyofwhomhadnot
movedtothecities,experiencedtheFirstWorldWaranditsaftermathof
‘disillusionment,’orfledtoanartisticexileinEurope.”9
RalphPoel,theyoungmanwhomSelinametuponarrivinginHighPrairie
andwhomshehelpstoescapethehardlifeoffarming,returnstriumphantfrom
Europe.Heisasuccessfulsculptor,heisself‐propelledandself‐reliantandhehas
comeupthehardwaylikeSelina.ShehasplayedapartinsettlingtheMidwest
andmodernizingagriculture.Whileshebeganasapioneerwomanworking
alongsideherhusband,afterhisdeathshetookthebravestepofrunningthefarm
onherown.“Ferber’sSelinasharesthere‐envisioningoftheAmericanfrontier
landscapeandtheroleofwomenindevelopingthatideal.”10Selinadoesnot
succumbtothematerialtrappingsofthedreambutstaysclosetothelandandher
bedrockvaluesofhardwork,self‐relianceanddiscipline.Shecannotsaveherson
fromthefalsedream.Shefeelshewillcomeupempty,andhedoesbylosingthe
loveofanindependentwomanartistwhofeelshedoesnothavetheintegrityshe
9J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),45.
10Ibid.,41.
68
islookingfor.BothSelinaandRalphPoelhaveachievedtheirAmericanDream
withhardworkanddiscipline,andsherealizesherdreamofeducatingherson
andgrowingfinevegetables.
Cimarron,writtenin1929,isEdnaFerber’sfirsttrueWestern.Herfriend
WilliamA.White,editoroftheEmporiaGazette,andhiswifeencouragedherto
writethestoryoftheOklahomaLandRushof1889,wherethousandsofmen,
womenandchildrencrossedthecountryincoveredwagonsforachanceatfree
landfromtheAmericangovernment.Ferberrefused,thinkingitwasastorythat
shouldbewrittenbyaman.Nonetheless,shewastakenwiththebackground
stories,theoilrichIndiansinfancycarsandhermeetingwithElvaShartel
Ferguson.ElvawasraisedinKansasandmarriedThompsonB.Fergusonin
1885.Asacouple,theyparticipatedinthreelandrunsandmovedpermanentlyto
Watonga,OklahomaTerritory,in1892,wheretheyestablishedtheWatonga
Republicannewspaper.AsherhusbandmovedintoRepublicanpolitics,hewas
appointedgovernoroftheOklahomaTerritoryin1901,sheassumedfull
responsibilityforthepaper.EdnaFerber,whostayedatElvaShartelFerguson’s
homeandtookmeticulousnotes,wasabletorecoverthewomen’sexperiencein
thisepisodeforherreadingpublic.Elvastates,“ThewagontriptoOklahoma,the
69
f11oundingofthepaper,thedescriptionofthetown,theeventssurroundingmy
familyandnewspaperwereusedinmyownwordsasItoldherthestory.”11
IndirectcontrasttotheestablishedmaledominatedhistoryoftheWest,
EdnaFerber,aJewishwoman,writesasuccessfulepicWestern.“EdnaFerber’s
addressofthefrontierheritage,particularlythepioneerwomaninCimarroncan
beunderstoodasanengagementwithanexistingtraditionthatuntilthattime
wasalmostentirelytheprovinceofmalewriters.”12Althoughsheconcerned
herselfwithhowshewouldtellthestoryinanewway,“Ferberofferedanew
perspectiveonwesternhistory,onethatprivilegedtheperspectivesoftwogroups
oftenignoredintraditionalaccountsofthefrontier—womenandNative
Americans.”13
YanceyCravatisthequintessentialAmericanhero;hestakeshisclaimin
thenewterritoryonlytoleaveafteritissettledandbecomestooconventional.
Heentreatshiswifetojoinhiminthelandrushbyexplainingwhattypeofwomen
maketherush,aloneiftheyhaveto.“Womenwithironin‘em.Womenwho
11W.DavidBairdandDanneyGoble,TheStoryofOklahoma.(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1994),375.
12LisaBotshonandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:PopularAmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003),176.
13J.E.Smyth,EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010),118.
70
wantedlandandahome.Pioneerwomen.”14WhenSabra’sfamilyquestionshim
aboutthetypeofwomanthatwillliveinthisnewterritory,hemakesa
passionate,revisionistspeechaboutthewomenwhosettledAmerica.
It’swomenlikeherwho’vemadethiscountrywhatitis.Youcan’treadthehistoryoftheUnitedStates,myfriends...withoutlearningthegreatstoryofthosethousandsofunnamedwomen...Goodwomen,withaterribleandrigidgoodnessthatcomesofworkandself‐denial...theirstory’sneverreallybeentold.Butit’sthere,justthesame.Andifit’severtoldstraightyou’llknowit’sthesunbonnetandnotthesombrerothathassettledthiscountry.15
YanceyCravat,dreamer,orator,newspapermanandlawyer,doesconvince
hisyoungbride,Sabra,tomakethelandrushtoOklahomain1889.Assoonas
shearrives,Sabramakesitclearthat,“Idon’twanttobeapioneerwoman....I
can’tmakethingsdifferent.Ilikedthemastheywere.Comfortableandsafe....
Let’smakeitatownlikeWichita...withtrees...andpeoplebeingsociable...not
killingeachotherallthetime...churchonSunday...aschoolforCim.”16Shefails
tounderstandwhysomanymenarenotworking.YanceyexplainstheAmerican
governmentdisplacedthecattlemenandthecowboys.”Thefreerangenever
belongedtothemreally,butthattheyhadcometothinkofitastheirs....The
rangeiscutupintotownsites,andthetownintolots,beforetheirveryeyes.
14EdnaFerber,Cimarron(GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1930;NewYork:AmereonHouse,nodate),18.
15Ibid.,19.
16Ibid.,117.
71
Why,itmusthavesickenedthem—Killedthemalmost—toseeit.”17Yanceyisthe
traditionalquestinghero,whosettlestheterritoryonlytoleaveinsearchof
newer,moreunsettledlands.ItisYanceywhobringsSabratothewilderness,but
asinalltalesoftheWest,shewantstodomesticateitandturnthewildernessinto
agardenandthetownintoapropercityliketheonesheleft.
Sabrabeginsthebookasayoungbridewhostaysputandrunsthe
newspaperandherhomewhileherhusbandisawayforlongperiods,making
runsintothenewterritoriesofCubaandAlaska,andheultimatelyleavestofight
intheFirstWorldWar.Sabrabeginstoself‐actualizeduringhislongabsences,
especiallywhensheisatthehelmofthepaperandmustmakehardchoicesin
businessaswellasfamilymatters.Althoughyoungandnaive,sheobservedearly
inherarrivalthat:
Menmakesuchalotofworkofnothing....Itwasherfirstadmissionthatthemaleofthespeciesmightbefallible....Theselastthreeweekshadshownherthatthemalewasoftenmistaken,asasex,andthatYanceywasalmostalwayswrongasanindividual...Alsothathewasenthralledbythedramaticsofanyplanhemightconceive,butthathewasoftentooimpatientofitsmechanicstocarryitthroughtocompletion.18
SheacknowledgesthatsheenjoysthefreedomofOsageandher
independencefromherfamilyinWichita,Kansas.“Sabrawasemergingslowly
fromherroleofcharminglittlefool.Bydegreesshewastotakemoreandmoreof
ahandintheassemblingofthepaper’sintimateweeklyitems,whileYanceywas
17Ibid.,114.18Ibid.,107.
72
concernedwithcosmicaffairs.”19SabraspearheadsthedrivebytheOsage
womentocreateagoodenvironmentinwhichtoraisechildren.Shebuildsthe
weeklyOklahomaWigwamintoadailyandfinallyapaperwithmorningand
afternooneditions.ShebegsYancey,whoismentionedasGovernor,totakethe
jobasawayofshowingherfamilythatshemadetherightchoice,buthehasno
interestinsettlingdownorinpolitics.“Hewouldgoonthestumptomakeothers
CongressmanandGovernors,buthehimselfwouldnottakeoffice.‘Palaveringtoa
lotofgreasyofficeseekersandpanhandlers!Dancingtothetuneofthatgangin
Washington!Iknowthewholedirtylotofthem.’”20
Yanceyreturnshomeatpivotalmomentsinthebookandforthehistorical
backdropofthenovel.AtfirsthedefendsDixieLee,thelocalwomanofillrepute,
againsthiswifeandhergroupwhowanttorunDixieoutoftown.AsFerber
comments,“Lawinalawlesscommunitynottenyearsold;acommunitymadeup
forthemostpart,ofpeoplewhoseverypresencetheremeantimpatienceofthe
oldorder,defianceoftheconventions.”21Afteroneofhisfive‐yearabsences,he
tacklestheplightoftheIndiansinOklahomawithaneditorialthatSabraknows
willpreventhimfromelectedoffice.
19Ibid.,161.20Ibid.,216.21Ibid.,265.
73
Herdedlikesheepinacorral—no,likewildanimalsinacage—theyarelefttorotontheirreservationsbyagovernmentthathastakenfirsttheirland,thentheirself‐respect,thentheirlibertyfromthem.Thelandofthefree!Whentheverypeoplewhofirstdweltonitareprisoners!Slaves,butslavesdeprivedofthesolaceofwork.Whathoehavethey,whatambition,whatobjectinliving!Theirspiritisbroken.Theirprideisgone.Slothful,yes.Whynot?Eachmonthhereceiveshisdole,hispittance.LookattheOsageNation,nowdwindledtoawretchedtwothousandsouls.Themenarestillhandsome,strong,vital;thewomenbeautiful,dignified,oftenintelligent.Yettheretheyhuddleintheirmiserableshantieslikebeatenanimals,eatingthefoodthatisthrownthembyagreat—munificent—government.ThegovernmentoftheseUnitedStates!Letthembefree.LettheRedManliveafreemanastheWhiteManlives....22
Yancey’seditorialispowerfulandspeakstoFerber’sconcernaboutthe
government’streatmentoftheNativeAmericans.Thepowerofthispiececould
makeitarallyingcryforallofthoseexcludedfromtheAmericanDream,including
women.
OneofthedisappointmentsSabraexperiencesinOsageisthathervalues
clashwiththoseofherchildren,thenextgeneration.Thefreedomtheyhave
grownupwithallowsherson,Cim,tointermarrywithayoungIndianwoman.
Althoughatfirstshocked,SabraadaptsandendsupshowcasingherIndianfamily
aroundWashingtonwhereshelivessincebeingelectedtoCongress.More
difficultthanCimisherdaughter,Donna.Donnasetshersightsonawealthy
marriedmanandmaneuversenoughsothatheleaveshiswifeandmarriesher.
Theirrelationshipisallaboutwealthandmoneyandtheconsumptionofmaterial
things,butthereisnostruggleforthematerialgain.Donnatakesthemodelof
22Ibid.,281.
74
herhardworking,self‐sacrificingmotherandtotallyrejectsit.Shereturnshome
fromschooladeterminedwomanofeighteen.“Hermothersheregardedwitha
kindofaffectionateamusement.‘Whatarottendealyou’vehad,Sabradear,’she
woulddrawl....‘Oh—youknow.Thisbeingapioneerwomanandaprofessional
Marcyandhead‐held‐highinspiteofabumofahusband.’”23ShetellsSabrashe
doesnotwanttobeanewspaperreporter.“‘Iwanttomarrytherichestmanin
OklahomaandbuildapalacethatI’llhardlyeverlivein,andtravellikeroyalty,
andclankwithemeralds.’”24SabrabelievesDonna’sdriveformoneyis
misguided.Donnaloatheseverythingaboutthepioneertownandspirit.Donna
begshermothertolookatheractionswithoutsentiment.
Unliketherealmodel,ElvaFerguson,whosehusbandgetsappointedas
governoroftheOklahomaTerritory,Sabraherself,withthebackingofthepaper
shehasbuiltoveralifetimeandtheconnectionsmadethroughwomen’sgroups
acrossthestate,getselectedtoCongress.Ferberstates:
ThesightofawomanontheflooroftheCongressionalHousewasstillsomethingofanovelty.SentimentalAmericahadshrunkfromthethoughtofwomeninactivepolitics.Woman’splacewasintheHome,andAmericanWomanhoodwastooexquisiteaflowertobesubjectedtotheharshatmosphereoftheAssemblyfloorandthecommitteeroom.25
23Ibid.,326.
24Ibid.,327‐328.25Ibid.,368.
75
However,afteralifetimeoffendingforherself,Sabradoesnotshrink,andher
oratoryskillsnowmatchthoseofhererranthusband.Herpurposeistobreakthe
glassceilingforwomenandallowthemtheirdream.AsSabrastates:
IfAmericanpoliticsaretoodirtyforwomentotakepartin,thereissomethingwrongwithAmericanpolitics....Weweren’ttoodelicateandflowerliketocrosstheplainsandprairiesanddesertsinacoveredwagonandtostandthehardshipsandheartbreaksoffrontierlife...buthereinthislandthewomenhavebeenthehewersofwoodanddrawersofwater...thousandsofunnamedheroineswithweather‐beatenfacesandmud‐cakedboots...alkaliwater...sun...dust...wind....Iamnotbelittlingthebravepioneermenbutthesunbonnetaswellasthesombrerohashelpedtosettlethisgloriouslandofours....26
Yancey’sspeechisnowhers.Althoughshetriedtohelphimgetelected,starting
offasthetraditionaldevotedhelpmatewhogoesalongtosupportherhusbandin
realizinghisdreams,intheend,shebecomesthereluctantembodimentofher
ownAmericanDream.SabraisthePrairieMadonnawho,throughherhardwork
anddiscipline,risesasawomantooneofthemostprominentpositionsin
America,showcasingnotonlythepromiseoftheAmericanDreambutits
realization.
26Ibid.369.
76
CHAPTERNINE
THEGIRLSANDSHOWBOAT,THEGENERATIONALNOVELS
TheGirls,1921,isthefirstofEdnaFerber’sgenerationalnovels.Itdeals
withthreegenerationsofThriftwomenwholiveonthesouthsideofChicagoin
theyearsleadinguptotheFirstWorldWar.Chroniclingthreegenerationsisa
deviceFerberusestoexplorethenewfreedoms,newattitudes,andnewvaluesof
differentgenerations.TheGirlsbeginswiththepatriarch,IsaacThrift,whohad
cometoChicagoin1836,openedageneralstoreandthenmovedontorealestate
andotherinvestments.Hisdaughter,Carrie,marrieshisassistant,Samuel
Payson,andhastwodaughters.Paysonabscondswithonehundredandfifty
thousanddollarsinbonds,notes,anddeeds.IsaacThriftspendshisremaining
daystryingtomakegoodonthedebtsincurredbecauseoftheembezzlement.It
leadstobothhisandhiswife’sprematuredeaths.Hisdaughter,CarriePayson,
takesoverthebusiness.“Her[Carrie’s]mindmarchedwithherfather’s.Thetwo
woulddiscussrealestateandholdingsliketwomen.Herswasthemathematical
andlegal‐thinkingtypeofbrainrarelyfoundinawoman.”1Hertwodaughters,
BelleandLottie,arecaredforbyherspinstersister,Charlotte,whoismore
maternal.ThisallowsCarriethefreedomtoworkandearnalivingtosupport
everyone.“She[Carrie]workedlikeaman,ruledtheroost,wasasruthlessasa
1EdnaFerber,TheGirls(GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1921),52.
77
man.Shewasneitheragoodhousekeeperormarketer.”2Onedaughter,Belle,
rushesofftomarryattwentyandleavehome.Shedoesnotgofar,shestillcalls
hermotherdailyandsheisrequiredtoshowupfordinnersonFridaynights.
Lottie,yearsyoungerthanBelle,doesnotmarryandbeginstoassumethe
responsibilityofrunningthelargehomeasbothherauntandmotherareaging
andlesscapable.Sheseesthisasherobligationbutisconflictedwiththedesireto
havemoreforherself.
Lottie’sisthegenerationthatfeelstheshiftinwhatawoman’srolecanbe.
Withonefootinthepast,sheistryingdesperatelytoextricateherselffrom
obligationstohomeandfamily,andwithonefootinthefuturesheistryingto
gainsomemeasureofself‐expressionandindependence.AtfirstLottiequestions
herdesiresforfreedomandadifferentlifethanthatofhermother’sgeneration.
Shefeelsobligationstofamily,butherauntadmonishesher,“Lottie,you’regoing
tobeeatenalivebytwooldcannibalwomen....You’vegotyourwholelifebefore
you,liveitthewayyouwantto.Thenyou’llhaveonlyyourselftoblame.Don’t
youletsomebodyelseliveitforyou.Don’tyou.”3
Lottiebeginstosearchfornewavenuesofself‐fulfillmentandself‐
definition.Lottie’sfriendshipwiththefemaleJudgeBartonleadshertosome
quasi‐socialwork,asshehasagiftforreachingtheyoungwomenwhocome
2Ibid.,64.
3Ibid.,84.
78
throughthecourtsystem.Belle’shousekeeper’ssisterisjustsuchayoungwoman.
Lottiebringsherhometoliveunderthesameroofashermotherandaunt.Itisa
bravestep.“Inspiteofobjections,Lottiemadesporadicattemptstomingleinthe
streamoflifethatwasflowingsoswiftlypasther–thisnewlifeofserviceandself
expressionintowhichwomenwereentering.”4
Atthispoint,Lottie’sfriends,whoareallmembersoftheReadingClub,a
grouptheyformedtoimprovetheirminds,begintodriftapart.Someleavethe
groupforjobsinsettlementworkoradvertising,whileLottiespendsthebulkof
hertimechauffeuringheraunttodoctor’sappointmentsandhermothertorent
collectionsforherbusinessandmarketing.Whenamemberoftheclubmarries
atthirty‐six,theyreuniteandoneofthemdoesathoroughevaluationofthegroup
andtheirplight.Thosewhoarenotmarriedandnotworkingaredesperately
rushingtofindaplacewheretheycanfitin.BeckSchaeferattacksLottie:
Alittletruthwouldn’thurtyou,LottiePayson.Isupposeitwouldn’thelpany,eithertoacknowledgethatyou’reakindofunpaidnursecompaniontotwooldwomenwhoareeatingyoualive!—whenyourfriendJudgeBartonherselfsaysthatyou’vegotaknackwithdelinquentgirlsthatwouldmakeyouinvaluabletoherstaff....Well,Iwouldn’thavespilledallthisifCelehadbeenwillingtotellthetruth.Isaidwewerefailuresandwearebecausewe’veallowedsomeoneorsomethingtogetthebestofus—topileupobstaclesthatweweren’tbigenoughtoteardown.We’veallgoneinforsuffrage,andbleedingBelgium,andnopetticoatsandupliftwork,andwethinkwe’remodern.Wellwe’renot.We’reapastgeneration.We’retheunselfishsofties.Watchtheeighteenyearolds,they’vegotthemethod,they’renotafraid.5
4Ibid.,86.
79
Lottieisawareofthenextgeneration’sfeelingsaboutobligationand
independencethroughherdealingswithhereighteen‐year‐oldniece,Charley,and
theyoungJeannette,whoshehasbroughthomefromcourt.Lottiefeelssuccess
withJeannie,whohasthrivedunderherguidanceandthewarmthofagood
home.Charleyismoredifficulttograsp.Shehastakenabusinesscourseat
collegeandisworkingherwayupinadepartmentstore,andshehasfoundlove
withayoungmanwhoisapoetandabouttogotowar.Thoughhergrandmother
Carriedisapprovesofbothherworkandherboyfriend,sheisnotconcerned.
CharleytellsLottiethatifherlifeislimited,itisherownfault.Lottiesays,“Iam
justthekindofpersonthatthingsdon’thappento.”6Charleytellsherthather
methodsforbottlingupherangerareineffectualandthatsheisbeingtreatedlike
ateenager.Here,Charleytrulyrevealsthesenseoffreedomshefeels,as
comparedtothefreedomLottiecanonlydreamof.Charleystates:
Allthesecenturieswe’vebeentoldtoprofitbytheadviceofourelders.What’slivingforifnottoexperience?Howcananyoneknowwhetheryou’rerightorwrong?Oh,Idon’tmeanaboutthesmallthings.Anystrangercandecideforyouthatblueismorebecomingthanblack.Butthebigthings—thosethingsIwanttodecideformyself.I’mentitledtomyownmistakes.I’vearighttobewrong...thethingistobeabletosay,‘Iplannedthismyselfandmyplansdidn’twork.NowI’lltakemymedicine.Youcan’tlivesomebodyelse’slifewithoutyourowngettingalldistortedintheeffort.’7
5Ibid.,111.
6Ibid.,222.7Ibid.,223.
80
AllthewomeninthebookgearuptoservethecauseofWorldWarI,by
sellingbondsorwrappingbandagesorheadingovertoFrancetohelpinanyway
thattheycan.AlthoughLottieisdrivenbyguilt,believinghermotherwillhavea
strokeinherabsence,shegathersallthestrengthandresolveshehasandheads
toFrancetohelpinthewar.Charley,withtheconfidenceofhergeneration,
chidesherauntfornotsettingherowncourse.Charleystates:
You’veletgrandmadominateyourlife.That’sallrightherwantingto,Imean,that’shumannaturetheoldergenerationtryingtocurbtheyounger.Butyourlettingherdoit,that’sanotherthing.That’sacrimeagainstyourowngenerationandindicatesaweaknessinyounotinher.Theyoungergenerationhasgottorule.Thoseofuswhorecognizethatandactonit,win.Thosewhodon’tgounder.8
Charleyhasannouncedthatshewillmarrythisyoungmanfromtheother
sideofthetracks,apoetwithoutmuchpotentialforincome.Whenher
grandmother,Carrie,tellsherdaughter,Belle,thatshewillneedtoputastopto
themarriage,thedaughterexplainsshedoesnothavethepower.Charley,the
thirdgeneration,takesonhergrandmotherwithoutguiltandthusrevealsthe
hugeshiftinthegenerationsandtheirviewswithregardtoresponsibility,
independence,andrespect.Charleystates:
Youneverdidrespectyourownpeople—yourownfamily.You’venevershownrespecttoLottieortomother,ortofatherortoAuntCharlotte,forthatmatter.SowhyshouldIexpectyoutorespectme.I’mmarryingJesseDickbecausehe’sthemanIwanttomarry.ImaybemakingamistakebutifIamI’mwillingtopayforit.AtleastI’llhaveonlymyselftoreproach.9
8Ibid.,225.9Ibid.,265.
81
Everyoneinthisbookisbothfelledinsomewayoranotherbyamanand
forcedintoindependencebecauseofit.AuntCharlotte,whokissedayoung
soldiershecaredforonthewaytotheCivilWar,isexposedanddamagedbythe
experienceandspendstherestofherdaysworkinginhersister’shome.Carrie,
betrayedbyahusbandwhoembezzledeverythingfromherfamily,needsto
spendtherestofherliferefillingtheemptiedcoffersandtakingcareofher
extendedfamily.Belle’shusband,HenryKemp,seemstheonlysteadymaninthe
groupuntilhisbusinessalmostgoesunderbecauseoftheWar.Lottiebrings
homeherbabyfromFrance,whichsheraisesoutofwedlockbecauseherlover
waskilledintheWar.Charley’spoetboyfriendisalsokilledinthewar.
Thisbookcouldbeconsideredanti‐war,anti‐businessandanti‐tradition,
revealingwhathappenswhenwomenareleftbehindtocleanupthemessthat
menmakeinbothbusinessandwar.Theslowreleaseofrestrictionsforwomen
throughthesethreegenerationsallowsCharleytosetoutonherownjourney.
Whensheisnothappyinthebusinessworld,shefeelssociallyindependent
enoughtoexploredancingandjoinsaballetcompany.Lottie,whodoesnottake
theeasywayoutwithmarriagebutdoestakealover,isfreedupenoughtobring
homethebabyshehashadoutofwedlock.Thefreedomofthesecondandthird
generationtostrikeoutontheirown,withoutsacrificingbecauseofsociety’s
conventionalrules,allowsthemtodiscovertheirownhappinessaspartofthe
82
AmericanDream.Thesuccesshereisfreedom,inthepursuitofhappiness,in
whateverformthattakes.
Showboat,1926,isanothergenerationalnovelwhereallofthewomen,
ultimately,arelefttocareforthemselves.Showboatstraveledtosmall
MississippiRivertownswhereculture‐starvedcommunitieshadnotyetcaughtup
withthetrendsandshowsofthebigcities.EdnaFerberdiscoveredtheshowboat
whentheproducer,WinthropAmes,wasstrugglingintryoutswiththefirst
Ferber/Kaufmanplay,OldManMinick.“Whentheaterscontinuedtobehalf
emptyduringtryouts,Amessuggestedlightlythatthecompanyhireashowboat
nexttimeandfloataroundinsearchofaudiences,neverbotheringtogetoffthe
boat.”10FerbertraveleddownSouthtodoherresearchand,likemuchofher
work,thestoryisbasedonarealshowboatfamily,(theJamesAdamsFloating
PalaceTheatreinNorthCarolina)anditsstar,amulattawhoisforcedtoleavethe
boatbecauseofmiscegenationlaws.
Thestoryoftheshowboat,atravelingtheatrecompanywithsecond‐rate
actorsplayingleadingmenandladiesandingénues,issetagainstabackdropof
thereallifemelodramaoftheHawksfamily.Thewomenofthefamilyhavehad
thebenefitofAndyHawks,thecaptainoftheCottonBlossom,husbandto
PartheniaandfathertoMagnolia.Thewomen’ssomewhatsettledlifeisdisrupted
10EdnaFerber,APeculiarTreasure:Autobiography(NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.1939),277‐278.
83
whenAndyHawksaccidentlydrownsintheMississippiriver.Hiswife,Parthenia
AnnHawks(Parthy),takesoverascaptain,managestheboatwithadded
responsibilitiesandisverysuccessful.Hisdaughter,Magnolia,runsawaywith
herinheritance,herhandsomegamblerhusband,GaylordRavenal,andher
daughterKimtoliveatumultuouslifeinChicago.
TheRavenals’liveonGaylord’swinningsbutmoreoftenthannotMagnolia
isalone,waitingforhim,andindebt.Becauseofhismother‐in‐law’simpending
visit,RavenalleavesMagnoliaforgood.Outofnecessity,Magnoliagoestowork
doingtheonlythingsheknowshowtodo,singoldNegrosongsthatshelearned
asachildonboardtheCottonBlossom.Raisedonaboatwithplentyofblack
help,thesesongsareagenuinepartofherchildhoodeventhoughsheiswhite.
Nobodyseemstoquestionher,andoutoftheneedtoearnalivingshebecomesa
starinherownright.Magnoliaknewthat,“Imusttakethingsinhandnow.Ihave
beenlikeafoolishyounggirlwhenI’mreallyquiteanoldmarriedwoman....I
musttakeKiminhandnow.”11
PartheniaAnnHawksacceptedthelifeoftheshowboatwhenshejoined
herhusbandCaptainAndyHawksontheCottonBlossom.Andyadoredhislittle
daughter,Magnolia,andwantedherwithhimforthelongmonthsthatthe
showboatspentontheMississippi.ParthyisasternNewEnglandschoolteacher
11MaryRoseShaughnessy,WomenandSuccessinAmericanSocietyintheWorksofEdnaFerber(NewYork:GordonPress,1977),171.
84
whoneversawherselfaseitherawifeoramother.Againstherbetterjudgment
sheendsupraisingMagnoliaonboardtheshowboatsurroundedbykitchenhelp
andactors,adetachedlotofsouls,manyofwhomwereescapingthetraditional
lifeandsometimesthelawforthemonthstheboatisafloat.Magnoliaresentsher
mother’sharshruleandmarriesthefirstsuitorwhoarrived,thehandsome
GaylordRavenal.
FromthesternmatriarchalmodelofParthy,Magnolia‘sescapeisasmall
attemptatindividuating,onehermotherpredictswillfailbecauseGayisapoor
choiceforahusband.Itdoesfailand,again,Ferberleavesanabandonedwoman
totakestockandassertherself,tobecomeindependentandsuccessful.
Magnolia’sevolutionasasingerofNegrosongscouldqualifyasawoman
accessinghertalentandusingwhatshehasintheserviceofherself.Magnolia
needstocareforherchildaswell,firstinaconventschoolandthenbypayingfor
hertrainingindramaticarts.
Kim’sabilitytoreachthestagewithoutpersonalstrugglebutwith
determination,directionandeducationrevealshowfarthesethreegenerationsof
womenhavecome.Sheexpectstohaveacareer,shechoosesonethatsheis
passionateabout,sheworksbecauseshewantsto,andshemarriessomeonewho
supportsherdream.ForKim,theAmericanDreamisavailableandshehasan
expectationofhappinessinherchosenfield.KimismarriedtoaBroadway
producerwithwhomshecollaboratesandsharesalife,adedicationtoherart,
85
andafamily.Itisamarriageofequals.Kim’slargerdreamcomestrueatthe
handsofherdeadgrandmother,whorantheboatsowellafterherhusband’s
deaththatKiminheritsahalfmilliondollarswhichsheusestostartherown
theatercompany.KimcallsitTheAmericanTheater.
TheevolutionoftheHawkswomenonboardtheshowboathighlightsthe
generationalgainsforAmericanwomen.WhereasMagnoliamanagestoleaveher
dominantmother,althoughonlywiththefirstmanwhoarrives,herdaughterKim,
secureinherupbringingataconventschool,findsherwaytoBroadwaymusicals
withoutmuchstruggle.ThedifferenceincareersbetweenKim,the
granddaughter,andMagnolia,thedaughter,wholiterallyfightsherwayto
freedom,isgenerational,andthegaininindependencebetweengenerationsis
whatFerberwastryingtohighlight.
Ineachgeneration,thewomenaresuccessful.AlthoughParthyand
Magnoliaareforcedtoworkwiththehandstheyaredealt,Kim,thethird
generation,doesnotneedtorebelandinhertheexpectationofsuccessisa
birthright.Sheisneitherlimitedbysociety,asshehasbenefittedfromthegain
inindependence,norisshelimitedbythefamilyobligation,becauseherfamily
suggestsanewparadigm.AlthoughFerbermusesaboutthelossofthenatural
actress,onethatispluckedfromoblivionandrisestothetopofthestagebythe
shearpowerofherownability,shedoesmakeclearthattheachievementofthe
dreamistheresultofhardwork.ButwithKimshehasremovedthestruggle
86
towardcreativeaccomplishment,andforFerber,aswithmanyotherwritersof
upwardmobilitystories,thestruggleiswheretheexcitementis.
Kimhadnoneofthosepreliminaryhardshipsandterrorsandtemptations,then,thataresupposedtobesetthepathoftheattractiveyoungwomanwhowouldtraveltheroadtotheatricalachievement.Hersuccesshadbeeninstantaneousandsustained.
Shewasintelligent,successful,workmanlike,intuitive,vigorous,adaptable.Shewasalmostthefirstofthisnewcropofintelligent,successful,deft,workmanlike,intuitive,vigorous,adaptableyoungwomenofthetheatre.Therewasabouther—orthem—nothingofgenius,ofgreatness,ofthedivinefire.Butthedramaticcriticsoftheyoungerschoolwhoweretoolatetohaveseenpastgeniusinitsheydayandforwhomthetheatricalgeniusoftheirdaywasyettocome,viewedherperformanceandwaxedhysterical,mistakingtalentandintelligenceandhardworkandambitionforsomethingmorerare.13
EdnaFerber,whohadmanyBroadwaysuccesses,includingStageDoor,
whichtellsthestoryofyoungactressestryingtomakeitinNewYork,goesonto
saythattheperformancesoftheseyoungstarsare“Right.Asrightasan
engineeringblueprint.”14Magnoliaisasuccess—shehasmanagedtoeducateher
daughter,andsheisnotbroughtdownbyhermarriage.Partheniaisasuccess—
shehasmanagedtheCottonBlossomasaneffectivebusinesswomanafterthe
deathofherhusbandandleftalargeinheritanceforhergranddaughter.Kim,the
beneficiaryofeveryone’shardwork,hasrisentoaccomplishherdreamonthe
shouldersoftwogenerationsofstrong,independentwomen.
13Ibid.,173.
14Ibid.,173.
87
CHAPTERTEN
CONCLUSION
EdnaFerber’sjourneyasawriterandherprofessionalandmonetary
successduringherlifetimeserveasamodelofwhattheAmericanDreamcould
looklikeforawomanintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Ferber
incorporatedtheattributesoftheNewWomanintohernovelsDawnO’Haraand
FannyHerselfandintotheEmmaMcChesneyseriesofshortstories,Emma
McChesney&Co.,RoastBeefMediumandPersonalityPlus.Sherevisitedhistoryin
SoBigandCimarronbyreimagininghistoricalnarrativesthatgavewomen
recognitionfortheirimportantcontributionstoAmericanhistoryandthe
settlementoftheWest.HernovelsTheGirlsandShowBoattoldthestoriesof
threegenerationsofwomen,beginninginthelateeighteenhundredsthrough
WorldWarI,andhighlightedtheexpandedopportunitiesandthedramatic
changeforwomenthatoccurredbetweenthegenerationsinthisprogressiveera.
Herwomencharacterstriumphintheirstruggletogainaccesstothepromiseof
theAmericanDreamforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.
In1925,whenaddressingtheAmericanSocietyofNewspaperEditorsin
Washington,DC,PresidentCalvinCoolidgesaid,“TheBusinessofAmericais
Business,...Wemakenoconcealmentofthefactthatwewantwealth,butthere
aremanyotherthingsthatwewantverymuchmore....Thechiefidealofthe
Americanpeopleisidealism.IcannotrepeattoooftenthatAmericaisanationof
88
idealists.”1AlthoughCoolidgewasphilosophicallyandliterallyaddressingmen
only,toEdnaFerber,the“BusinessofAmerica”wasalsowomen’sbusiness.She
chronicledoriginalbusinesswomen,andshewasanarchetypicalbusinesswoman
herself.Shewasawriterwhomasteredshortstories,novels,andplays,andshe
wasasuccessfulbusinesswomaninsellingherliteraryoutputtothevehiclesof
massculture‐magazines,monthlybookclubs,andHollywood.Sheisconsidered
oneofthemostsuccessfulwritersinHollywoodintermsofthenumberofher
worksthathavebeentranslatedtofilm.
InmuchofwhatEdnaFerberwroteshecelebratedthetriumphofthe
spiritovermaterialism.Aftertheclimbtosucceedinwhateverbusinessher
femalecharacterhaschosen,thesuccessisnotthetriumphofgreed,butonethat
istemperedsothatthecharactercanbereleasedtoembracemorespiritually
upliftingandself‐fulfillinggoals.Theiridealismallowsthesewomentousetheir
financialgainsintheserviceofthemselves,theirfamiliesandtheircommunity.
Thefighttosucceedisstillpresent,butitissoftenedbyfeminineintuitionand
maternalinstinctresultinginamorefeminizeddreamwithasolidunderstanding
oflife’sdisappointmentsandchallenges.Ferberwantedtomodulatethemad
grabforsuccessandmaterialismthatwassweepingthecountryduringtheearly
yearsofherwriting,1911to1930.Shehelpedthereaderrememberthebedrock
1capecodtoday,LatimeronLaw:TheBusinessofAmericaisBusiness.http://capecodtoday.com/blogs/index.php/2009/02/25/title…
89
valuesthatmadeAmericagreatandhowthosevaluescouldbeincorporatedto
advanceagreatergood.
EdnaFerbernourishesandsupportsherwomenintwosignificantways.
First,theyaresuccessfulevenifthatsuccessattimesisonlythefreedomto
pursuetheirownhappiness.Thiscreatesastrongmodelofself‐actualizationto
whichherlargeaudiencecouldaspire.Secondly,shechroniclesunexploredareas
forwomen’sworkandfulfillment.Again,thisexpandstherangeofopportunities
andcreatesmodelsforherwomenreaders.Herworkisemphaticallydidactic
becausehervoiceremainsinsidethenovels,anditisplainlyevidentwhatFerber
wantsthereadertothinkandfeel.Hercharactershavelittleinternalvoice:
everythingaboutthemislearnedfromtheauthor.Theseareengaging,purposeful
storiesthatarewellwritten.Theregionalimagesarepaintedingreatdetail,
whichmakesthemhardtoextricatefromtheirtimeandplace.Thehugesweep
ofmelodramaandlandscapeinthepioneerstoriesofSoBigandCimarronand
subsequentregionalnovelspromptedcriticstosaythatFerberwaswriting
screenplaysforHollywood.Thelimitedinteriorvoicesofthecharactershelped
inthetranslationtofilm.
Inherstoriesandnovels,Ferberdemonstratesthatawomancanbe
comfortableandsuccessfulineveryprofession,breakingthecorporateglass
ceilingaswellasrunningthefamilyfarm.Eachofhercharacters,afterexploring
andresolvingtheconflictbetweenobligationtofamilyandcommunityandself‐
90
actualization,areallowedtopursueanindependentdream.EmmaMcChesney
lovesherwork,andthechallengetokeepthebusinessgoingisvitalforherself
andherpsyche.MagnoliaHawksinShowBoatreturnstotheCottonBlossom,
afterhermother’sdeath,andtakesoverascaptain.Shehasaloveoftheriverthat
shecouldnotfindelsewhere,anditgiveshersolaceandprotectioninher
remainingyears.CarriePaysoninTheGirlsrunsthefamilybusinessoutof
necessitybutLottiePayson,herdaughter,isfreedupenoughfromsociety’sstrict
conventionstobringhomeandraiseherchildbornoutofwedlock.DawnO’Hara
growsfromanewspaperwomantoanauthorandfeelsfulfilledandindependent.
FannyBrandeisinFannyHerselfafterastunningsuccessinmailordermarketing,
decidestofollowherpassionofsketchingthoseoppressedbysociety.Sabra
CravatinCimarrontakesallthatshehaslearnedduringthestruggletosettlethe
OklahomaterritoryandbringsittotheCongressoftheUnitedStatesasthefirst
woman’svoice,clearingthewayforotherwomentofollow.
EdnaFerberherselfembodiedtheAmericanDream;allofhercharacters
aresemi‐autobiographical.ShebecameasuccessfulwriterwithalargePark
Avenueapartment,invitationstoexclusivedinnerparties,openingnightsand
weekendsinthecountrywithfront‐pagecelebrities.HerfriendsincludedNoel
Coward,GeorgeandDorothyKaufman,RichardandDorothyRogers,Alfredand
LynnLunt,andmanyotherculturalcelebrities.Ferbermingledwiththemost
excitingandtalentedgroupofpeopleinNewYork:theatercritics,newspapermen,
91
andauthorsofBroadwayplays,popularsongs,andHollywoodmovies.Shewas
financiallyabletotakecareofherself,hermother,andherextendedfamily.Like
allself‐madepeople,shebelievedthatAmericawasthegreatestcountryonearth,
andhertrajectoryfromalowermiddleclassgirlwithoutacollegeeducationtoa
best‐sellingauthorwaslivingproofofit.
ThisthesisexploredhasEdnaFerber’sMidwesternrootsnurturedher
positiveviewofwomenandhowsheemployedthesesmalltownsettingsto
exploretheconflictsholdingwomenbackfromtherealizationoftheirdreams.
Additionally,ithasclarifiedhowFerberwasabletoarticulatewhattheNew
Womanaspiredtoandtomodelwhatshelookedlikeathome,intheworkforce
andinthecommunity.Finally,ithasexplainedhowthenewmediaofhertime
expandedtheaudiencesforFerber’sworkandthesignificantculturalauthorityof
herfemalecharacters.
AllthatFerberlivedthroughasachildandallthatsheaspiredtoasan
adultwereembodiedinthewomencharactersshecreatedbetween1911and
1930.EdnaFerberwantednothinglessforthewomenshewroteaboutand
wroteforthanwhatsheachievedforherself,namelytheopportunitythrough
hardworkandingenuitytoachievetheAmericanDreaminawayappropriatetoa
woman.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
WorksbyEdnaFerber
Ferber,Edna.AKindofMagic:Autobiography.GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Doran&Co.,Inc.1963;NewYork:LancerBooks,Inc.,1966.
Ferber,EdnaAPeculiarTreasure:Autobiography.NewYork:TheLiteraryGuildofAmerica,Inc.,1939.
Ferber,Edna.Cimarron.1929GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,PageandCo.,1930:Reprint,NewYork:AmereonLtd.,no.date.
Ferber,Edna.DawnO’Hara.NewYork:Grosset&Dunlap,1911.
Ferber,Edna.EmmaMcChesneyandCo.NewYork:FrederickA.StokesandCo.,1915;NewYork:QuillPen.2008.
Ferber,Edna.FannyHerself.NewYork:FrederickA.Stokes&Co.1917;NewYork:QuillPen,2008.
Ferber,Edna.SoBig.GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1924;NewYork:HarperCollinsPublishers,Inc.,FirstPerennialClassicedition,2000.
Ferber,Edna.TheGirls.NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Company,1921.
Ferber,Edna.PersonalityPlus:SomeExperiencesofEmmaMcChesneyandherSon,Jock.1914;Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2002.
Ferber,Edna.RoastBeefMedium:TheBusinessAdventuresofEmmaMcChesney.NewYork:FrederickA.Stokes&Co.1913.ChampaignIllinois:BookJungle,nodate.
Ferber,Edna.ShowBoat,GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Co.,1926Reprint,GardenCityNewYork:InternationalCollectorsLibrary,1964.
OtherSources
Baym,Nina.Woman’sFiction:AGuidetoNovelsbyandaboutWomeninAmerica18201870.1978Reprint,Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1993.
Bloom,Harold.JewishWomenFictionWriters.WomenwritersofEnglishandtheirworks.Philadelphia:ChelseaHousePublishers,1998.
93
Botshon,LisaandMeredithGoldsmith,MiddlebrowModerns:PopularAmericanWomenWritersofthe1920s.Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,2003.
Brooks,Marty.“‘Self‐Made’Women:EnvisioningFeminineUpwardMobilityinAmericanLiterature,1900‐1930.”PhDdiss.,DukeUniversity,1999.
Cohen,PaulaMarantz.SilentFilmandtheTriumphoftheAmericanMyth.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001.
Collins,Gail.America’sWomen:400YearsofDolls,Drudges,Helpmates,andHeroines.NewYork:WilliamMorrow:2003;FirstPerennialedition,2004.
Cullen,Jim.TheAmericanDream:AShortHistoryofanIdeaThatShapedaNation.Oxford[England]:OxfordUniversityPress,2003.
Cutter,MarthaJ.UnrulyTongue:IdentityandVoiceinAmericanWomen’sWriting18501930.Jackson:UniversityofMississippiPress,1999.
Decker,JeffreyLouis.MadeinAmerica:SelfStyledSuccessfromHoratioAlgertoOprahWinfrey.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997.
Gilbert,JulieGoldsmith.Ferber:EdnaFerberandHerCircle,aBiography.NewYork:Applause,1999.
Hamblen,AbigailAnn.“EdnaFerberandtheAmericanDream,”JournalofPopularCulture,no.II(1968)404‐409.
Harvey,SallyElizabethPeltier.WillaCather:RedefiningtheAmericanDream.Cranbury,NewJersey:AssociatedUniversityPress,1995.
Januzzi,Angela.“MakingAn‘AmericanClassic:’Faulkner,Ferber,andthePoliticsof20thCenturyCanonFormation.”Master’sthesis,UniversityofMaine,2007.
Meade,Marion.BobbedHairandBathtubGin:WritersRunningWildintheTwenties.NewYork:NanA.Talese/Doubleday,2004.
Showalter,Elaine.AJuryofHerPeers:AmericanWomenWritersfromAnneBradstreettoAnnieProulx.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2009.
Showalter,Elaine.Sister’sChoice:TraditionandChangeinAmericanWomen’sWriting.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1991.
Sol,Adam.“ArtEthnicityandtheNewWomaninEdnaFerber’sFannyHerself.”StudiesinAmericanJewishLiterature(2003)Vol.22,120‐127.
94
Radway,JaniceA.AFeelingforBooks:TheBookoftheMonthClub,LiteraryTaste,andMiddleClassDesire.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1997.
Shaughnessy,MaryRose.WomenandSuccessinAmericanSocietyintheWorksofEdnaFerber.AmericanWomennovelist.NewYork:GordonPress,1977.
Smyth,J.E.EdnaFerber’sHollywood:AmericanFictionsofGender,Race,andHistory.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2010.
Wilson,ChristopherP.WhiteCollarFictions:ClassandSocialRepresentationinAmericanLiterature,18851925.Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1992.