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EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION:
A STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS
IN KARNATAKA
ANITHA K.
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE ,.··· .. ·r . '.' A"i...:.L'., ~ __ , ' :«--' ':';,.1
BANGALORE - 560072 '-:;T TO r,' L'""":I)
A THESIS SUBMITIED THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE, FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION
1997
CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have guided and
supervised the preparation and writing of the Thesls
entitled "EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL
EDUCATION : A STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS IN
KARNATAKA" by Ms Anitha K. who worked on this
topic at the Institute for social and Economic change,
Bangalore, from January 1992 to June 1997.
I also certify that the Thesis has not previously
formed the basis for the award of any Degree, Diploma
or Associate Fellowship of the University of Mysore
or any other University.
Date :)7 ,-. '1+ C·.\_Il~
(c. s. NAGARAJU) Associate Professor
Institute for Social and Economic Change Bangalore - 560072.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the present thesis entitled
"EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION: A
STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS IN KARNATAKA" is the
outcome of the original research work undertaken and
carried out by me under guidance of Dr. C.S. Nagaraju,
Associate Professor, Education Unit, Institute for
social and Economic change, 8angalore 560072. Due
acknowledgments have been made wherever anything has
been borrowed from other sources.
I also declare that the material of this thesis
has not formed, in any way the basis for the award of
any Degree, Diploma or Associate Fellowship previously
of the University of Mysore or any other University.
,I ,Ii,,;;, k
(ANITHA K.)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis is the outcome of the work done at
the Institute for Social and Economic Change,
Nagarbhavi, Bangalore under the supervlslon of
Dr. C.S.Nagaraju. I place on record my profound
grati tude and indebtedness
interest in this particular
to him for provoking my
field. His benevolent
encouragement, valuable insights and enduring support
have all made this endeavor possible.
I thank the Institute for Social and Economic
Change, in particular to the Director, Dr. P.V. Shenoi
and facilities to for providing me an opportuni ty
undertake this pursuit. I have benefited from the
academic interactions wi th the faculty of the
Institute for Social and Economic Change. Mention must
especially be made of Dr. Abdul Aziz, Dr. A.S.
Seetharamu, Mrs Vani and Dr. M.D.Ushadevi, who were
willing to share their wisdom and gave encouragement
needed in this regard.
I like to record my Slncere thanks to the
Department of Education, University of Mysore for
extending their support and encouragement in completing
this study. I am particularly grateful for the
Public Instruction, Officials of Zilla Panchayat,
DDPI's, AEO's, Gram Panchayat, SEC members,
Headmasters, Teachers and Villagers of Chickmaglore,
Mandya and Mysore districts for furnishing the required
information.
I acknowledge with Slncere appreciation the help
of Mrs. Malini Nagaraju, who took pain in editing the
draft of the thesis.
My friends Vibha, Geetanj al i, Dr. Benny,
Puttaswamy, Ramakrishna have been a reassuring presence
and of immense help during the course of my work. My
thanks are due to each one of them.
I am thankful to Mr. Krishna Chandran, for
rendering useful assistance in data processing. I
also thank Mr. K.S. Narayana for word processing and
editing of the thesis.
lowe a special place for my Father and Mother.
They gave me immense support in accomplishing this task
without which I would not have brought the study to
frui tion. I am beholder), to them both for ever .
.. il! ,Jj,:Aj,. (ANITHA K.J
CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
CERTIFICATE
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDG1ENTS
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
I
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
II
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
DPEP in Karnataka
Need for the study
The statement of the problem
Explanation of the terms
Research issues
Scope of the study
Limi ta tions of the study
Overview
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
2.2 Studies in the area of Economics
of education
2.3 Studies on disparities in education
2.4 Studies on a few aspects of planning
and implementation
1-22
1
8
9
12
12
20
23
23
24
25-65
25
26
31
36
2.5 Studies on educational administration 39
CHAPTER
2.5.1 Educational administration related to
universalisation of elementary
education
2.5.2 Status and problems of educational
40
administration at different levels 44
2.5.3 Practices of state educational
department related to specific
aspects of educational administration 48
2.5.4 Role of Zilla Panchayat and educa
tional departments in educational
progress 52
III METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 66-100
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Nature of the research study 67
3.3 Objective of the study 68
3.4.1 Qualitative analysis at the state
level 71
3.4.2 Statistical analysis 72
3.4.3 Quantitative analysis at the
district level 73
3.4.4 Qualitative data analysis 73
3.5 Operational definitions 73
3.5.1 Description of indication 76
CHAPTER
3.6 Sources of secondary data
3 . 6. 1 Method of analysis of secondary data
3.7 Sample selection of collecting
primary data
3.8.1 Steps involved during field work
3.8.2 Procedure followed in the collection
of information
83
83
93
94
97
3.8.3 Recording the information 98
3.9 Method of analysis of primary data 99
IV
4.1
4.2
SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
101-204
101
Analysis of State plan document
4.3 Distribution of plan outlays during
Five Year Plans
4.4 Analysis of statistical time series
data
4.5 Influence of plan expenditure on
access, retention and quality input
indicators
4.6 Effect of introduction of ZP on
education
4.7
4.8
Analysis using district as unit
Analysis of literacy rates
102
117
124
151
156
163
188
CHAPTER V
4.8.1 Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population 189
4.8.2 Gender-wise literacy gains of SC, ST
and General population 193
4.8.3 Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population ~n urban
and rural areas 196
4.8.4 Literacy changes in D~stricts during
5.1
5.2
5.3
Seventies and Eighties
ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS:
Introduction
Method of qualitative data analysis
Structure of educational planning
5.3.1 Initiation of planning process
5.4 Nature of plans
201
205-276
205
206
211
213
227
5.5 Plan procedure for different programme 229
5.6 Procedure of educational planning 242
5.7 Perception of officials related to UEE 252
5.8 Nature of Information and
Information Flow
5.10 Information base for the development of
the proposal
5.11 Reliability of the information
257
260
270
5.12 Outcomes of the Analysis
CHAPTER VI A VIEW OF PRIMARY EDUCATION AT THE FIELD LEVEL
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Educational planning at
field level functionaries
6.3 Dynamics of expansion of
schooling
6.4 Implementation of the scheme
6.5 Provision of additional teachers
6.6 Perception of local people
CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
APPENDX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
272
277-310
277
279
283
288
297
302
311-346
LIST OF TABLES
Table No Title Page No
3.1
3.2
Location selected for the field work at
the district level
Number of respondents at the state level
and designations
3.3 Number of respondents at the district
3.4
4. 1
4.2
4.3
4.4
level designation
Number of respondents at the block level
and designations
Distribution of outlays under various
categories of interventions under five year
plans starting from IV plan
General enrollment rate during 1971-1994
Comparison of enrollment rate between
SC/ST and non-SC/ST during 1971-1993
Gender equality in enrollment at primary
level during 1971-1994
4.5 Gender equality in SC/ST and non-SC/ST
94
96
96
97
120
127
130
133
enrollment at primary level during 1971-93 135
4.6 Gender wise general retention at lower
primary level during 1971-92 138
4.7
4.8
SC/ST and non-SC/ST retention
at lower primary level during 1971-94
Growth of school from 1971-1994
140
144
4.9 Growth of teachers at primary level from
1971-1994 147
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
Annual plan expenditure on Primary education 152
Results of linear regression obtained by
considering plan expenditure as indepen
dent variable
Results of linear regression with correc
tion for autocorrrelation obtained by
considering plan expenditure as indepen
dent variable
Enrollment per ten thousand
population before and after the change
in the educational administration
Gender equality index in
enrollment before and after the change in the
educational administration
Retention before and after the
154
155
157
159
change in the educational administration 160
Provision of schools before and after the
change in the educational administration 161
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
Quality input before and after the change
in the educational administration
District-wise total lower primary enrollment
rates at different plan periods
District wise Higher primary enrollment
rates at different plan periods
District wise gender equality ratio in
162
166
168
LPS enrollment at different plan periods 170
4.21 District-wise gender equality ratio in HPS
enrollment at di:ferent plan periods
4.22 District-wise LPS boys retention rate at
different plan periods
4.23 District-wise LPS girls retention rate at
different plan periods
4.24 District-wise primary schools per ten
4.25
4.26
4.27
thousand population at different plan
periods
District-wise primary school teachers per
ten thousand population at different plan
periods
District-wise pupil-teacher ratio at
different plan periods
District-wise standard-teacher ratio at
different plan periods
172
174
176
179
182
185
187
4.28
4.29
4.30
4.31
5.1
Comparative picture of Literacy ga1ns
of SC, ST and General population
Comparative picture of Male and Female
Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population
Comparative picture of Rural and Urban
Literacy gains of SC, ST and
General population
Comparison of growth of literacy rates
190
195
197
in different districts of Karnataka State 202
Grid representing the categorisation of
information from field notes 210
No.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
•
4.9
4.10
4.11
LIST OF FIGURES
Title
Plan outlays on Primary education
General enrollment rate as percent of
population during 1971-1994
Enrollment of SC/ST and non-SC/ST as
percent of population
Gender equality in enrollment during
1971-94
Gender equality in enrollment of SC/ST
and non-SC/ST at LPS & HPS levels
during 1971-93
General & Gender-wise retention at
lower primary level during 1971-92
Retention of SC/ST and non-SC/ST at
lower primary level during 1971-92
Growth of school as proportion to the
population from 1971-92
Teachers as per ten thousand population
Pupil-teacher ratio at primary level from
1971-94
Standard teacher ratio at primary level
from 1971-94
Page No
121
128
:31
134
136
139
141
145
148
149
150
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18,
4.18a
5.1
Enrollment before and after the
change in the educational administration 158
Gender equality in enrollment
before and after the change in
the educational administration
Retention before and after
the change in the educational
administration
Provision of school before and
after the change In the educational
administration
Quality input indicator before and after
the change in the educational administra
tion
Literacy of population categories
based on the census 1971, 1981, & 1991
Gender-wise literacy gains 71-81 & 81-91
within each population category
Rural & Urban literacy gains 71-81 & 81-91
within each population category
CHART
structure of educational planning for
primary education
159
160
161
163
191
195
198
212
U.K:
UNICEF:
DPEP:
NIEPPI.:
UNESCO:
GDP:
USA:
SC:
ST:
U.E.E. :
ZP:
DEO:
PEl:
LPS:
HPS:
:;:SEC:
SBC:
CPI:
DDPI:
AEO:
ABBREVIATIONS
United Kingdom
United Nations International children's Emergency Fund
Distr~ct Primary Education Programme
National Institute Of Educat~onal Planning and Administration.
United nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organisation
Gross Domestic product
United States of America
Scheduled Castes
Scheduled Tribes
Universalisation of primary Education
Zilla Panchayat
District Educational Officer
Panchayat Raj Institutions
Lower Primary School
Higher Primary School
Institute For Social and Economic Change
School Betterment Committee
Commissioner of Public Administration.
Deputy Director of Public Instruction
Assistant Educational Officer
BEO:
CEO:
MNP:
NFE:
lOS:
FDC:
SDC:
EMs:
MLA:
BDO:
MP:
OBB:
NGDO:
Block Educational Officer
Chief Executive officer
Minimum needs programme
Non-Formal Educatlon
Inspector of Schools.
First divlsion C:erk
Second Division Clerk
Headmasters
Member of Legislative Assembly.
Block Development officer
Member of parliament
Operation Black Board
Non-Governmental Development organisation.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
In recent years, a new found interest in planned
development of prlmary education lS prevalent in India.
This new interest originates from the changed policies
of the Government of India to gradually open up the
Indian economy to international market forces. The
opportunity to create a cultivable market has attracted
the attention of industrialised countries.
Even though India has a sizable population living
below poverty levels, the sheer absolute Slze of the
population having some purchasing power is quite large
and the potential size of the market lS promising enough
for the mult:national companies and industrialized
countries to show :nterest in asslsting the creation of
the market. They have realised that the first step in
this direction is to make the society literate and hence
many international agencies and governments of
industrialised west have corne forward to invest in basic
education through soft loans and grants.
1
In fact, the entire country is being parceled out
for the development of basic education to agencies like
World Bank, Overseas Development Agency of UK, European
Commission, GTNICEF, etc. The new strategy adopted in
post liberalisation period for the development of
prlmary education lS through the District Primary
Education Programme (DPEP).
The framers of the Indian constitution had
recognised the Primary education as the fount of energy
to realise the ideals of the new nation. The
Constitution directs the state to provide free and
compulsory primary education for all children below the
age of 14 years within a period of ten years from the
date of the commencement of the constitutional rule.
Since, school education was kept in the State list,
all state governments passed during sixties. Compulsory
prlmary education acts applicable to their respective
regions. At present, the school education is kept in the
concurrent list making the state government and the
central government jointly responsible through the
Constitutional amendment (Forty Second amendment) .
Education at all level has been an integral part of the
planned development right from the commencement of the
2
Constitutional rule in India. But. the progress achieved
in this direction, particularly at the prlmary education
stage is far from satisfactory. One readily available
indicator to come to such a conclusion is the literacy
level. The literacy rate has been crawling up very
slowly and has not caught up with the population growth
rate. Along with the lncrease In nillnber of literates,
the nillnber of illiterates have also increased over the
past four decades.
This failure is closely linked with the performance
of primary education in the constituent states of the
Indian Union. While education sector, particularly the
primary education, has been an aspect covered by all the
Five Year Plans, the disappointing outcomes have
remained under-analysed. National Council of Educational
Research and Training (1991) conducted a study on
achievement levels of students at the primary level In
different states of India. Result of the study reveals
that Karnataka has scored the lowest achievement level
compared to other states (World Bank report 1996). And
the sluggish growth rate of literacy has not attracted
the attention of the planners to identify the issues
which are embedded in the planning process i tsel f. The
failure of education 'system' is seen more as the
problem of economy and society and less as the problem
3
of educational system from within. While the collective
political will 1S un-disputably expressed the
Constitution, the plurality of political wills in real
world 1S working in counter direction. Very little
insight into the processes of educational growth is
available from the point of view of planning. If each of
the successive Five Year Plans had aimed at the
universalisation of primary education, then, Why 1S that
they have simply reiterated the same broad objectives?
Why is it that the disparities across states have
remained more or less similar over the years? Why is
that inspite of the successive Five Year Plans
concentrating on universal access, a large proportion of
the children have remained out of school? Why is it,
even those who enter the school, do not remain in school
and those who remain do not learn at the expected
levels?
A little knowledge that exists in the field of
education begs these questions. For example, poverty has
been blamed as the main cause of the failure of primary
education. But, the very rationale for planned
develcpment emerge out of the context 1n which large
proportion of the population live under poverty ln the
society. Similarly are the inequalities arising out of
gender and caste. Much of the literature in Sociology
4
of Education 1n the Indian context confirms the
persistence of disparities 1n educational indicators
across regional, gender and caste lines. This raises a
ser10US doubt about the role played by educational
planning in the past in changing the status quo as far
as educational disparities are concerned. A pr1me
example in this direction 1S the development of primary
education in Karnataka.
A larger part of present Karnataka was an
independent state of Mysore before independence and
merged with the Indian Union to obtain the status of a
constituent state in 1947. The princely state of Mysore
before independence was considered as a model welfare
state and became a show case example of the British
policy of autonomy to the princely states. Under the
reorganisation of the states of the Indian Union on
linguistic lines, the Mysore state gained territories
from erstwhile Bombay province, Madras Province and the
Hyderabad state ruled by Nizam in 1956 and was later
renamed as Karnataka, meaning the land of Kannada
speaking people. Except for the region added from the
state of Hyderabad, all other territories were under
direct British rule for more than 150 years before
independence. But, these parts formed the periphery of
the respective British provinces. Therefore, at the time
5
of reorganization of the states, many of these districts
were educationally backward. The most backward districts
were the ones added from the erstwhile state of
Hyderabad. The situation of Karnataka as a whole was not
very bad in educationa~ status as compared to other
major states of the Indian Union.
According to the Census of India 1971, literacy
rate of Karnataka was 31.52 per cent as against National
average of 29.45 per cent. During 1971 census, Karnataka
had 11th position in the literacy rate among 23 states,
excluding union territories. The literacy percentage
increased to 55.98 per cent as compared to all India
average of 52.11 per cent. But Karnataka declined to
14th position during 1991 census.
As is evident from the comparison of the inter
census figures of literacy, Karnataka state has declined
in position in relation to the major states and also the
intra-state disparities in literacy has remained more or
less same over the years. This observation raises the
question about the role played by the educational
planning during the past four and half decades.
6
Evaluation of the contribution of planning to the
realisation of the policy objectives 1S practically
absent 1n the context of Karnataka. A recent study
conducted by National Institute of Educational Planning
and Administration :NIEPA) focusing on the educational
administration does not st'Jdy planning as an input. The
policy makers in the Karnataka context have been relying
on educatlonal plans all these years without having any
evidence to indicate the contribution of planning 1n
realising the intended goals. \'lhatever growth is
observed periodically is taken as the indicator of the
effectiveness of planning by default.
There has been no systematic effort to account for
the earmarked outlays during the implementation. It is
suspected that the plans are totally forgotten as soon
as they are approved and sent for implementation. But, a
time has come ln the changed context when, such an
approach would prove dysfunctional. The centrally
sponsored programme of District Primary Education and
Planning (DPEP) expects accountability of both processes
and outcomes of district specific planning. Karnataka
has committed to join the DPEP states on a large scale.
7
1.2 Dl.stnct Pnmary Education and Planninc, (DPEP)
in Karnataka:
This centrally sponsored scheme expec:s each of the
selected district to prepare :he distrlC: specific
medium term perspect:ve plan for unlversalisi:;g ;:;rimary
education In 5 to 7 years keeplng a ce2.2.:ng 0: Rs. 400
million i:or each distri.ct. Any dlstr:et · ... 1 th female
literacy lower than the national average quallfies fo!"
the intervention. The funds for this plan is a!",
additionality to the allocations made by the stat~
government. The participatlon ln ;:ne scheme , c
conditional. The state goverrunent should agree to bear
15 per cent of the cost of the proJect and should agree
to continue financing the primary education at the
current level.
In other words, the funds from the centra':'
government cannot be substituted for state eornrni t:ne:;ts.
The project management .• 1 Wl..L~ be through an autonomous
registered society created f0r the purpose 1:; the state.
The districts are expected to trans2.ate the medlum term
plans into annual plans and i:npleme,.t them. The
implementation is subjec~ periodic superv1s1cn by
teams consisting of the representatlves of the
Government of India and representat:ves of donor
agencies (Ministry of Human Resource Deve:oprr.e:;t, 1995!.
8
Another important feature of this programme is that
the planning has to be done in a particlpative framework
within the district. The perspective plan thus prepared
is accepted for funding after due appraisal process. The
funds earmarked for the project is channelised to the
respectlve district through the registered society.
Currently, 10 districts in Karnataka have been
identified under the DPEP Programme out of 21 districts
which have lower female literacy rates as compared to
the national female literacy level based on 1991 census.
1.3 Need for the study:
The Government of Karnataka passed the Compulsory
Primary Education act in 1961. Each of the five year
plans from the Second Five Year Plan onwards, provided
for development of primary education. The priority In
allocations for prlmary education kept on increasing
through successive Five Year Plans.
The interventions initially took the form of
increasing schooling facilities during seventies. Large
scale efforts were made through varlOUS forms of
incentives to attract families to send their children to
school. Allocation to primary education was around
9
Rs. 9.5 crore fanning 47.7 per cent of the total plan
outlay on education ln Fourth Five Year Plan. This
reached to Rs 137.87 crore ln Eighth Five Year Plan
fonning 42.40 per cent. While educational statistics
reported by the Department of Public Inst.::-uction showed
steady increase in gross enrollment over the years, t~e
data on lite.::-acy from census indicated that the literacy
increased on an average by 0.7 per cent per year during
1971 to 1981 and by 0.82 per cent during 1981 to 1991.
In other words, the reported gross enrollments were not
processed effectively to result ln increased literacy.
This situation raises serlous doubts about the
effectiveness of plan process itself.
Educational planning as an issue for research has
remained neglected. A few studies that are available in
the field of educational administration and management,
more often, have focused on administrative structures
and procedures. Even such studies have not tried to
relate the adminlstrative processes to the objectives
using management perspectives. Instead, they use a
bureaucratic perspective akin to any other fonn of
public administration evolved to maintain social order.
10
Changed context of decentralised educational
planning and management considers primary education as
the foundation for all other development. Intensive
efforts with additional investments are being made
available to primary education. A large proportion of
such investments are in the form of long term loans and
hence a high degree of accountability is expected from
the pianners and managers. There are instances In the
past when considerable allocations went unutilised by
the system. Viewing educational planning and management
In a bureaucratic perspective may become dysfunctional
in those circumstances.
In order to develop necessary attitudes and
competence among the personnel, there exists a need to
understand the current structure and processes of
educational planning and management. There is a need to
take stock of the actual plan expenditure and its
relation to the changes in varlous educational
parameters over the years. The outcomes of such analysis
need to be examined from the point of view of the
objectives of successive Five Year Plans. The successes
and failures thus identified need to be related to the
planning structure and process currently practiced at
different levels of educational system in Karnataka.
11
1.4 Statement of the Problem:
Keeping the above concerns in mind the following
problem has been identified =or the study:
Educational Planning for School Education:
A study of Three Districts in Karnataka.
1.5 Explanation of the terms:
Educa tiona 1 planning: Planning for educational
development exists ln all kinds of states, be it
socialist or capitalist. But the purposes and thrusts
vary from ideology to ideology. In developing countries
like India, during the post independence era planning as
a major intervention by the state to achieve growth and
distribution received highest priority. It was also felt
right from the beginning of the planned development that
education plays a major role in the process of economic
growth and development and hence planned resource
allocation became a part of the Five Year Plans adopted
by the Government. Initially, the first few Five Year
Plans provided for investment in higher levels of
education in line with the policy of the State occupylng
the commanding heights of the economy. The economlC
growth model envisaged large scale direct participation
of the government ln industrial production through
12
public sector undertakings like steel and power. The
industrial path initially entered required trained
manpower and thus education became a variable in the
macro economic model. During sixties, the economists in
the west rediscovered the worth of education in the form
of human capital (Harbison and Myers, :964).
Impetus to educational planning was also given by
the international donor agenc~es like World Bank and
UNESCO when they considered a functional planning
mechanism as a precondition for assistance to developing
countries (Weiler 1990). These organizations joined
hands with the French Government and the Ford
Foundation, to establish the International Institute of
Educational Planning in 1964 in Paris as source of
training and expertise, particularly for planners in
developing countries. Thus the area of educational
planning is relatively a recent one to enter the domain
of the social science and policy disciplines.
The definitions have focused on the technical
aspect of planning. Educational planning is a process of
arriving at a set of decisions for future action
(Anderson, 1956) Coombs (1970) views
planning as "an application of rational,
educational
systematic
analysis to the process of educational development with
13
the aim of making education more effec~:ve and efficient
in responding to the needs and goa2.s sf ::s students and
society". This de finl tion cons ide r s educa t :onal plannlng
a continuous process. It assumes that an ongolng
educational system is already responclng to the needs of
its students and societj. Planning takes off from :he
current situation of educationa: jevelopment and alms at
making the processes more ef:ective and ef:ic:ent. But
Platt (1970) defines educational planning as "Tr:e
process of preparing set of actlons keeping In VleW the
priorities emerglng from the socio-economic goals. By
taking varlOUS constraints such as physica~, financlal
and technical, .. . n. This definition refers to a more
complex side of educational planning. Here educatlonal
planning seeks to relate developments of educatlonal
system to development of society at large. As We:ler
puts it the task of educational planning is to project
the future of educational system in such a way so as to
make it respond optlmally to a certaln set of
condi tions, demands or needs. This view of educatlsnal
planning makes education as an instrument in at :aining
broader socio-economic objectives in the societj.
The bulk of literature on educatior,al plannir.g
deals with the later notion of planning for max:::lisir,g
contribution of Educational systems to the achievement
of certain social objectives. Over the years and across
different countries, including India, various approaches
to planning have been developed. All these approaches
can be classified into five broad categories or models
as follows:
a. The intra-educational extrapolation model
b. Demographic projection model
c. The manpower model
d. The rate of return model
e. The social demand model
The above five models are not mutually exclusive
but each has its own prem1ses, procedural logic and
methodologies.
surfaced.
planning.
This
In recent years, a sixth model has
1S called school mapping or micro
For purposes of this study, which focuses on school
education, the logic procedures and methodology followed
under intra-educational extrapolation model, the social
demand mode I and micro planning model have been
considered as relevant.
, Intra-educational extrapolation model basically
consists of estimating quantitative implications. This
model 1S applied to the system as a whole for setting
1
the target of a particular characteristic in educational
system. Thus, if the target were to be achievement of
UEE upto a certain grade level by certain year, then the
educational planner would extrapolate the supply of
teachers, the construction of school buildings, the
production of text books etc. from this datum to prepare
the schedule to ensure the attainment of the target of
UEE.
The social demand model reflects the fact that
educational policy decisions would tend to be affected
by the expressed interests and needs of a given society.
These interests are necessarily guided by economlC or
manpower considerations. The methodology is eclectic and
depends upon the social context in which planning is
attempted.
Micro-planning model is also refereed as
educational mapplng initially starts from demographic
approach and extends into taklng other variables into
consideration determining optimum location of
schools. Thus approach becomes relevant when educational
planning is carried out to cater the regional and local
needs.
16
In the Indian context NIEPA has come out Wl th a
methodology for 'district educational planning'
consisting of the following stages.
1. Diagnostic Stage,
2. Plan formulation stage, and
3. Implementation stage.
In the Diagnostic Stage, educational development of
the districts is analysed. This helps in assessing the
requirements of the system to fulfill the educational
objectives. Based on this analysis, In the second stage,
educational targets are fixed by considering the
availabili ty of resources. In the third stage the plan
is implemented by constant monitoring and feedback.
In the present study the above methodology is used
as reference point to look into the secondary sources in
the form of plan documents and also while observing the
process of planning. Process of planning refers to
activities of persons performing different roles in the
organisational structure of educational planning and
their perception of their own work.
17
School education: The state 1S directed by the
Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory
education to all children of the age group of 6 to 14
years which corresponds to 7 to 8 years of schooling,
depending upon the educational ladder followed in the
state. Since the Directive Principles of the
Consti tution providing for compulsory primary educatlon
is not justifiable, most of the States of Indian unlon
have enacted compulsory primary education acts to cover
6 to 10 or 11 year old children at present. This
legislation has made it obligatory on the part of
various State Governments to ensure universalisation of
pr1mary education of four or five years in their
territorial jurisdiction. Beyond this level, the role of
Government is to facilitate the spread of education
through appropriate regulatory acts and interventions
for ensuring equality of educational opportunity.
In Karnataka school education spans ten years of
schooling divided into Lower primary (1-4 standards),
Higher primary (5-7 standards) and secondary schools (8-
10 standards). Karnataka compulsory primary education
Act covers 1 to 4 standards. But, administratively there
1S no separation between pr1mary and upper primary
levels. Primary schools have either 1 to 4 or 1 to 7
standards. Educational planning for purposes of
18
providing resources considers prlmary education of 1 to
7 standards as primary level. Keeping the above in focus
the present study confines to the study of plannlng
process at the primary and higher prlmary level of
school education.
District level Planning: Karnataka :s one of the
forerunners in establishing government at the district
level called Panchayat Raj in 1987. Earlier to this,
districts were administrative units. Educational
planning was done at the state level and districts were
considered only at the resource allocation stage. From
1987 onwards district governments were also glven some
autonomy and statutory resource base to plan educational
programmes under a broad framework decided at the state
level.
Recently, the Constitution of India through 73rd
amendment made it obligatory on the part of state
governments to establish district level governments.
Accordingly, the Government of Karnataka passed a
legislation for establishing Zilla Panchayat in 1992.
The responsibility of promoting primary education became
the joint responsibility of all three levels of
government namely center, state and the district.
19
The emphasis 1n the educat10nal planning sh1fted
from the state to the d1strict. Decentralised piann1:1g
at the district level for school education has assumed
greater importance from Seventh Plan onwards. Districts
have been prepar1ng the1r five year plans and annual
plans as a complement to the state and t~e central
educational plans. The present study pr1marL.y fc)Cuses
on the planning process operat1ng at the district level.
1.6 Research Issues of the present study:
In planned development model adopted by the Indian
Government on the Soviet model included education as an
important sector under five year plans. But education
system planted and nurtured by the colonial rule before
independence was allowed to continue even after
independence. The same system was supposed to serve the
diametrically
constitutional
opposite
self-rule.
philosophy
This change
of democratic
1n nor.native
dimension expects policy makers and educational planners
to examine the nature and processes at existential
dimensions of educational practice before workable
educational policies and plans are formulated. Suc~ an
attempt has not been made 1n the past. Educational
planning cannot bring about changes unless it counters
20
the status quo trends entrenched in an ongoing
educational system (Nagaraju 1993). In the light of the
experlences of educational planning In the context of
developing countries Weiler (1978) sumrnarlses the
criticisms leveled against educational planning as
follows:
a) Conservative bias: Educational planning has a tendency
to reproduce, on an expanded scale, the existing
educational system. In other words, a technically
sound educational plan maps out a pattern of linear
expansion of the status quo.
b) Educational planning operates in an hierarchical
process following from top to bottom.
c) Educational plans are pre-occupied with growth as
against educational development characterised by
distribution of educational opportunity and re-
orientation of educational system in both structural
and systematic terms.
d) Educational planning neglects implementation. The
evaluation of planning efforts has received less
21
attention than it deserves, thereby the benefits
gained by monitoring is lost.
e ) Educational
education
functions
planning
linked with
takes the
economic
of education are
narrow view
development.
relegated to
of
The
the
background. Most of the Educational plans assume an
over-simplified casual model of education influencing
individual and collective economic well-being and the
ability of educational systems to respond to the
educational plans.
The present study attempts to focus on the above
criticisms of educational planning in the Indian
context. The study aims at explaining the nature and
thrusts of plan intentions as reflected in documents and
through the analysis of allocations and juxtapose the
same with the actual developments that emerged during
the period in which successive plans were supposed to
have been implemented.
The study also aims at supplementing the secondary
data analysis with primary data on the process of
planning and implementation observed during the field
visits.
22
1.7 Scope of the study:
Firstly, the study covers the Five Year Plans and
annual plans pursued in Karnataka state during 1971 to
1994 using plan documents. Data on different aspects of
educational growth available in census and departmental
records is used to compare and contrast the intentions
of educational plans with outcomes.
Secondly, the study aims at capt'Jring the plan
process pursued by the officials in different roles at
the state, district and sub-district levels. This aspect
of the study employs the qualitative method to capture
the perceptions, the nature of information generated and
its utilisation in planning and implementation ..
1.8 Limitations of the study:
The study lS limited to the educational planning of
primary level and The secondary data analysis covers
Fourth Five Year Plan to Eighth Five year Plan. The
proc~dure followed for educational planning process is
studied in the context of Fourth Annual Plan of the
Eighth Five Year Plan.
23
1.9 OVerv~ew;
In the previous sections, the need and importance
of the study was presented. The review of related
literature is discussed in the second chapter. The third
chapter presents the methodology adopted to carry out
quali ta t: ve and quantitative analyses. The fourth
chapter deals with the analysis of secondary data at the
state and the district levels. Analysis of qualitative
data related to the process of planning at the state,
the district and below the district level is discussed
in the Fifth chapter. The Sixth chapter summarises the
study and discusses the findings in relation to the
policy and further research in the area of educational
planning.
24
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction:
A study cf educational planning in Karnataka was
proposed In the context of changes In socio economlC
policies of the government of India. The meaning of the
terms used in the statement, the scope of the study and
limi tations were discussed in the previous chapter. An
attempt lS made here to survey the available related
literature.
It has been pointed out that systematic researches
on educational planning in terms of its success,
failures and constraints are practically absent (Weiler,
1980). But, a large body of research literature in the
areas of economics of education, education and social
change, and educational administration indirectly shed
light on the issues related to the educational planning
and its outcomes. The review of related literature will
be discussed under the following categories for purposes
of clarity.
25
• Studies In the Area of Economics of Education,
• Studies on disparities in educational distribution,
• Studies on educational administration.
2.2 Studies in the Area of Economics of Education:
Solow (1957) examlned the contribution of human
capital and physical capital to economlC growth in
America. He calculated measurable inputs i. e. physical
capital from 1909 to 1947. He found that gross output
per man-hour doubled during 1909 to 1947. During this
period, 12.5 per cent increase in the economic growth
was due to physical capital and remaining 87.5 percent
was attributed to human capital.
Schultz ( 1960) using inter-temporal correlation
techniques, related GDP with some educational index over
a period of time in USA. He concluded that between 1929-
1957, the increase in education of labour accounted for
16.6 per cent to 32.2 per cent of the growth in income.
26
Denison (1962) using Cobb-Douglas production
function on tlme serles data tried to explain the
National Income of USA using the following equation.
Xt = fret, Kt, At, T]
where X = Nat~onal Income, K = capital, A = land,
T = residues and t = period. He separated capital,
labour and land factors and arrived at the residual
factors using data from 1972 to 1957. Average growth of
national income was found to be 2.92 per cent. The
residual factor accounted for 20 per cent of the
national lncome. He termed the residual factor as
technical improvement.
Harbison and Myers (1964) developed composite index
of human resource on the basis of (1) Educational
indicator, (2) Gross national product of the country and
(3) Percentage of people actively involved In
agriculture related occupations. Educational indicators
lnc1ude, (a) Enrollment ratio at first, second and third
levels. (b) Number of teachers per ten thousand
population at first and second levels. (c) Engineers,
scientists, physicians and dentists per ten thousand
population. Data was compiled from 75 countries which
27
included India also. The findings of the study indicated
slgnificant correlation between the indices of
enrollment and the GDP. These studies compelled policy
makers to shift their focus in development planning away
from physical capital formation and towards investment
In education (Psacharopoulos 1978).
Fur::her, elaborat::.on of human capital approach in
educational planning took the form of rate of returns
approach. Rate of returns approach examines the relative
returns accrued from different sectors of education.
Kothari (1956) calculated the social rate of return
on investment In education at different levels. He
constructed age earning profile for Bombay city with the
help of data available in economic survey of greater
Bombay. He found that technical education had higher
social rate of return of 25 per cent, while secondary
education had 20 per cent and college education had the
lowest social rate of return accounting for 13 per cent.
Mark Blaug, Layard and Woodhall in their study on
'Causes of educated unemployment in India' calculated
social and private rates of return which were adjusted
for wastage, unemployment and abil i ty factor. Findings
28
show that 13.7 per cent soclal rate of return and 16.5
per cent private rate of return are contributed from
prlmary education. ~his also shows that private rate of
returns from primary education lS more compared to
social rate of returns.
Psacharopoulos i 1973) analysed returns to
educat~onal investment us~ng cost-benefi t 22
developing countries. He considered primary, secondary
and higher levels of education to calculate private and
social rate of returns. He found that private rate of
returns were more than social rate of returns at all the
three levels of education namely primary, secondary and
higher education. Rate of prlmary education lS more
compared with secondary and higher education i.e. 29 per
cent (private) and 27 per cent (social). He also
calculated rate of returns from Physical and Human
capital. According to the cost benefit analysis he found
that in developing countries rate of return from human
capital lS 20 per cent and physical capital lS 15 per
cent.
Thus he concluded that the rate of returns to
primary education lS the highest compared to all levels
of education. He also showed that not only education is
29
profitable particularly in developing countries, but the
rate of return to education also exceeds the rate of
return to physical capital.
A World Bank (1983) study of 44 countries which
includes India computed the rates of return to
investment In education. The study revealed that the
rates of return to investment: at: any level of education
in developlng countrles is far above 10 per cent. The
rate of return to investment In primary education is
higher relative to investment In other levels. And
returns to education declines as the educational level
increases. The private returns to education is generally
higher than the social rate of return.
The estimates of rate of return from the investment
In education by Mark Blaug and Kothari showed that the
rate of return to education in India are substantially
higher than the rate of return on physical capital.
These estimates of social rate of returns from different
levels of education and rate of return from human
capital provided a powerful justification for
considering education as an input in economlC growth
(Panchamuki 1991).
30
2.3 Studies on Disparities in Education:
The studies related to the distribution of
educational opportunity with reference to soclal
structure of Indian society reveal that by and large
educatlonal opportunities are mostly open to the hlgher
strata of the society.
A study by Patel (1960) reveals that traditional
social structure is largely responsible for the spread
of secondary education ln Kaira district of GUJarat
State. The political and economic factors, the
traditional social structure like caste, educational
status of the guardian etc. are largely responsible for
the spread of secondary schooling in the district.
Desai (1962) ln his study on secondary school
students ln Baroda points out that though numerically
the upper castes are small in the district to the total
population, their representation in the school is very
high.
Chitms (1974) studied literacy and enrollment
among SCs of Maharastra with the help of data from
31
secondary sources. The author observed that, the
disparities l.n literacy between Scheduled Caste
population and total population, between males and
females were more marked in rural sector.
Pancharnuki (1981) identified the problems of
equali ty in educational opportunities by selecting 1050
students from primary and secondary sc~ools of Dharwad
city. He found that, participation l.n education was
severely constrained by socio-economic environment of
students. Parents' income had a significant positive
influence on the performance
investigation pointed out that
of
the
students.
access
The
and
participation in education was a function of several
SOCl.o-economl.C factors. Hence extension of educational
facilities did not necessarily ensure distributive
justices with respect to educational facilities.
The study conducted by Chitnis (1981) focused on
the concept of evaluating the status of the scheduled
castes through education. The study was conducted on SC
students studying at high school and college levels of
fifteen states of India coverl.ng all regions of the
country. The study observed that girls are relatively
more bacbvard and have much more restricted access to
32
education than boys. There are inter-caste disparities
across the states in access to educational facilities.
The study by Chitra (1982) pointed out that the
individuals from the upper strata of Mysore society had
greater opportunities compared to lower strata. Further,
~t was found that caste plays a dominant role and
Brahmins have access to better facilities for education.
Kundu and Rao (1985) conducted a study to measure
the dispan ties in educational development using
literacy as an indicator on a regional dimension.
Sopher's index was modified by the researchers and
disparities were studied across population sectors like
male/female, rural/urban, SCs and non-SCs etc. The data
was collected from census sources covering sixties. They
found that, the disparities in literacy rates between
SCs and non-SCs were higher in urban than in rural
areas. The under-privileged sections of the society,
such as female, the rural and SC/ST population in the
backward regions were having
deprivation as compared to those
regions.
relatively greater
in the advanced
33
Tilak
individuals
(1986)
with
explained income variations among
the help of their education,
experience and earning, eternal triangle of 3 Es. The
study was based on socio-economic sample survey of West
Godavari district in Andhra Pradesh. He explained the
var1ations in individual earnings of backward castes and
non-backward castes separately. The study revealed that
:mprovement in human capital enhanced the earning levels
of both backward and non-backward castes. while
relatively, the human capital enhanced the earnings more
in the case of backward cas:es. Hence he argues that for
economlC equality there 1S need for improving the
educational level of backward castes at a much higher
rate of improvement than non-backward castes.
Hemalatha (1986) studied educational disparities
across regions. She analyzed inter-taluk disparities
with the help of educational development indicator based
on the educational development. Taluks were grouped 1n
different categories rang1ng from extreme backward to
exceptionally highly developed taluks. She concluded
that educational opportunities to the children are
lesser in educationally backward regions. Hence there is
a need to promote educational development of backward
areas.
34
3'? I· Q U-"; oc,)s A,. -,
A!'·· .T
Aggarwal and Murlidhar (1986) analyzed disparity ~n
levels of literacy between SC and non-SC population In
Maharashtra. The study was concerned with the problem of
identification and measurement of disparity in literacy
rates between the scheduled castes and non scheduled
castes In 1971. It has been observed that the
dispari ties are high when the levels of literacy are
low. This analys~s shows persisting disparities in the
literacy levels between urban-rural areas, male and
female and scheduled caste and non scheduled castes.
Likewise, regional disparities have also continued.
Nagaraju and Ushadevi (1989) , examined the
development of literacy among school going age children
in Karnataka during sixties and seventies uSlng census
data. The literacy gains of the cohort of 5-14 age group
in two successive censuses were focused. Results showed
that disparities between male and female literacy were ,
ah.ays lower In urban than In rural areas. The urban
females have shown more literacy galns than rural
females. Similarly the urban males have shown more
literacy gains than rural males.
" , ,. G ' l ,)R E
.. - .. ,~, .- ..... I ,
35
2.4 StudQes on a few aspects of plann~ng and Lmplementat~on:
Some of the studies show that educat':'onal
backwardness 1S due to lack of appropr1ate method of
financing education.
Padmanabhan (19861 explained the inter and :ntra
state disparities in educational development ~n selected
states of India. According to him financial mechan:sm is
responsible, to a significant extent, in creating and
perpetuating these disparities. He complains that no
rational criteria is followed in financing ed'clcation in
different regions of the country and argues that certain
criteria like costs of educational development of the
region and fiscal capacity of the region etc., should
guide the formulation of financial policies. He
recommends that a critical minimum level should be
identified for per student expenditure. This
expenditure, in no region, should be allowed to fall.
Padmanabhan points out that so far 1n educational
planning, concern was given to macro data and the micro
level data was neglected. And the result is huge
backlogs 1n critical inputs for good quality education
like buildings, class rooms and equipment. The problems
36
related to education at the bottom level l.e. at the
district level have not come into purview of national
planners. This is due to major weakness of planning
process which lS top heavy.
Zaidi (1986) focusing on inter-state disparities in
educational development observed that economically
backward states are also backward with respect to
educational development. Therefore he argues that
inadequacy for finances forms an important constraint In
the development of educational levels of the people. He
comments that educational planners both at national and
state levels have not made efforts to reduce regional
disparities. Thus, backward regions have not received
proper attention for educational development and
remained backward even with the economic planning in the
country.
Josephine (1984) points out the drawbacks in the
procedure of planning In correcting reglon, community,
gender inequalities. She feels it can be corrected by
taking the field realities into consideration in the
planning process. These studies emphasise the role of
educa t,ion as an economlC and social equalizer.
37
Epstein et al. (1983) have examined how a few
political decisions have been translated into action and
also investigated how the poor are struggling to
surVlve. They interviewed politicians, government offi
cials and others who influence the formulation of
policy. They later collected abstracts from newspapers.
Finally they studied the ways In which some of ~he
specific programmes designed to help the weaker sections
of the society were implemented at the sub-district and
village level and then interviewed villagers to know
their living conditions. The investigation was carried
out with the help of structured and unstructured
interview schedules and questionnaires.
In the second part of the study, view from the
below' detailed description of the Chakrabhavi village
in terms of caste composition, land ownership, regional-
setting, village scene, administrative organisation,
credit availability In practice, educational facility
and politics of the caste has been provided. Eleven
profiles of the villagers were developed using the
respondents from small farmers, marginal farmers and
land-less labourers. These stUdies captured the living
condi t~ons of villagers and the inferences were drawn
based on the insights of the field work. The researchers
38
pointed out that the polIcies related to m':':1.:.mum needs
regard the poor as target groups for whom things have to
be done, instead of actively invclvIng them lD the
programmes. Based on the insights received from the
field, poor managed to surVIve under theIr
overwhelmIngly difficult circumstances '",ho can Improve
if the major obstacles in their path are removed.
On the basis of available eVIdence, they argued
that much of the funds meant for the poor never reached
them and that the taluk level polIticians stand to gaIn
the most, both poEtically and economically. In this
process, the dominant classes manage to survive, if not
to get rich. Thus, this study shows that for the success
of minimum needs programme (education being one of the
important need.) local participation and just resource
distribution without the interference of dominant groups
is necessary.
2.5 Studies on Educational AdnUnistration:
A few studies related to educational administration
deal with the aspects related to primarj education and
factor~ hindering the smooth functioning of primarj
39
education. Existing literature on educational
administration are classified into four categories.
1. Educational administration related to universalisation
of elementary education,
2. Status and problems of educational administration at
different levels,
3. Practices of state educational deparG~ents related
to specific aspects of educational administratlon, and
4. Role of Zilla Panchayat (ZP) and educational
departments in educational progress.
2.5.1 Educational administration related to universalisation
of elementary education.
The National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration conducted a study of administration in
relation to universalisation of elementary education.
This study was conducted in a few states of India
namely, Andhra Pradesh (1979), Assam (1979), Bihar
(1979), Orissa (1979), Uttar Pradesh (1979), Jammu and
Kashmir (1978), Madhya Pradesh (1979), Rajasthan (1979),
and West Bengal (1979).
40
The objectives of the study was to examine the
adequacy of the present administrative system of
elementary education with a view to suggest ways and
means of strengthening, streamlining and coordinating
the efforts of education department with other
development agencies for achieving UEE, and finally to
suggest a framework for the decentralisation of
administration to involve the community and to take spot
decisions.
Findings of the study reflected the present status
of the primary education. The study highlighted various
aspects hindering the achievement of UEE. The study
first focused on the procedure adopted to conduct census
to enroll children. In Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan
and West Bengal officials failed to conduct regular
census of children belonging to 6-14 age group. In Jammu
and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
incomplete information was collected and therefore the
accurate information about the enrolled and non enrolled
children were not recorded.
It is also observed that the girls' enrollment was
poor 'compared with boys' enrollment in Assam, Bihar, and
Jammu and Kashmir. Further, planned efforts to bring
41
non-enrolled children to schools were inadequate.
Teachers and officials were not concerned about the
organized and sustained effort for additional enrollment
and regular attendance.
In Assam, and Uttar Pradesh quality of school
building was found inadequate and maintenance was poor.
Facilities available in school were far from
satisfactory.
Incentives were distributed regularly and found
adequate in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya
Pradesh, West Bengal and Orissa but in Assam, Bihar and
Rajasthan, incentives were found inadequate and did not
reach the needy students.
Rigid school timings added to the problem of UEE in
Jammu and Kashmir, Assam and Bihar because parents found
it difficult to spare children for the entire day.
Inspection was found ineffective in Assam, Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Inspection was a routine
work and offered little professional guidance. In Madhya
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir officers couldn't inspect
42
all the schools in their jurisdiction due to excessive
administrative work.
These studies also looked into the administration
of primary education. Findings reveal that, in Assam ZP
authorities did not participate in the administration of
elementary education, because they were not glven any
responsibility for the implementation of l~E. Hence
there was no involvement of district level people in the
process of planning. In Bihar, Directorate of Primary
Education functioned separately but did not play any
role in planning. In Madhya Pradesh Directorate of
Public Instruction controlled the education. It was
suggested to delegate financial powers to Panchayats for
the development of education. In Orissa, there was no
coordination between education department and other
development departments. This led to the delay in
sanctioning of grants. Hence developmental activities of
the school got delayed. In Rajasthan there was no
coordination among the departments including DEO at
Zilla Panchayat level to achieve UEE. It was also found
that the secretariat was ill-equipped for the
development of programs in relation to universal
elementary education.
43
These studies examined the existing administrative
system in relation to the programmes of universalisation
of elementary education, suggested ways and means of
strengthening and streamlining the administrative system
and coordinating the efforts of the education department
with other developmental agencies. Gaps in the
administrative structure were identified by comparing
the functions performed by admlnistrat~ve personnel
with the job chart of administrative functionaries. The
studies suggested a framework for decentralised
educational administration.
2.5.2 Status and Problems of Educational AdDdnistration
at Different Levels:
Studies in this category deal with the educational
administration at the center, state and local bodies
and the nature of administration practiced.
Shah
problems
Australia.
(1951) made a comparative study of the
of educational administration in India and
The information was collected from books on
history and administration of education, government
reports on progress of education etc. The researcher
44
has reported the resultant advantages of centralised
administrat:on in Australia and the opposite results
ln India. The disastrous results of the centralised
approach in India led to the failure in the formation
of national system of education. Instead it led to
intolera~ce of criticism and demoralisation of teachers.
Sharma (1964) , aimed at analysing the present
practlces in educatlonal administration in the state of
Madhya Pradesh. Sample consisted of 1396 officers from
educational directorate, educational officers at the
district level inspectors of schools, Heads of the
insti tutions, lecturers and teachers. Questionnaire was
used as a tool to collect information. Investigation
revealed existence of centralisation of authority which
caused delay in decision-making process. Lack of
coordination was observed between the Head of the
department and secretariat. And uneven size of districts
caused disparity lD
officers.
Sinha (1976)
the work of the divisional
conducted descriptive-cum-critical
study of education system in Andhra Pradesh. The
objectives of the study were to describe and identify
the strengths of the existing educational administration
45
as well as the critical areas of concern at state,
district and Panchayat levels. The study was conducted
in three districts of Andhra Pradesh. Information was
collected from personnel engaged in various strata of
administration. Information collected uSlng
questionnaire and interview techniques.
According to the results of the study, more time
was spent ln the Directorate on issues of personnel
administration. Very little attention was paid to
planning, budgeting, financial control and academic
administration. Districts and block level offices faced
problems at the time of planning and budgeting due to
lack of pertinent information from the field level.
The deputy secretaries ln ZP and the extension officers
ln Panchayat Samitis had not been able to identify
themsel ves with the local bodies. The local bodies
also viewed them as just another level for doing a
routine work. Inspection as a controlling device faced
a major setback when
transferred to local
the administrative powers were
bodies. The state educational
administration system was concerned with the expansion
of education.
46
( 1976) ln Punjab examl~ed the existing Gupta
educational administratlon with a v:ew to mirrorlng
aspects such as administrative ro':'es, functions,
rigidi ties, indi vidua':' idiosyncrasies, hold-ups, which
tend to slow down,
affect the process
deteriorate or ln any way adverse':'y
of ",ducation. The st'Jdy also tried
to dig out the factors which underl:ne the
existing educational administration.
naivete of
The sample consisted of Heads of higher secondary
schools, divisional/district officers, assistant/deputy
directors of education, trained teachers and lecturers.
According to the findings of the study, educational
administration was not distinct from the general
administration. The study observed that the educational
administration was bureaucratic nature and
communication was from top to bottom. There was no
communication from teacher to the administration.
Normal process of educational administration hampered by
political influence and the administration failed to
serve the emerging social order.
47
2.5.3 Practices of state educational department related
to specific aspects of educational administration.
Rao (1981) attempted to find alternate
to lmprove the educational management with
organisation, decision-making processes,
solutions
regard to
budgetary
al~ocation, planning of resources and control. The study
team visited four districts, Tumkur, Shimoga, Mangalore
and Bangalore. Interviews were conducted with various
officials of the
on the relevant
education department and institutions
lssues. According to the study, the
office of the Commissioner for Public Instruction was
responsible for policy formulation, planning,
implementation and monitoring and control of educational
administration in Karnataka. Rao observes that there is
no separate planning cell, there is lack of
decentralisation within the existing structure and
faulty approach followed in decision making.
Trivedi (1974) studied the dynamics of pressures
on certain practices in educational administration. The
study was conducted in Banswar and Udaipur districts of
Rajasthan. The study involved a total stratified sample
48
of 123 persons which included administrators such as
officers, Head Masters, inspectors of schools and
teachers working at various levels. Findings of the
study revealed that transfers, postings, deputations,
appointments and selection of personnel, opening of
schools, introducing new subjects, examinations and
tests were affected by pressures. The top level officers
of the administra~ive hierarchy and top leaders of
poll tical party in power also got involved in
pressurising vulnerable sections of administrative
machinery and schools.
Govindaraj (1970) conducted a study to examine
administrative procedure followed in the DEO's office in
Bangalore City, with the main objective of identifying
administrati ve problems. Questionnaire and interviews
were used as tools to collect data from the offices and
officials. The sample for the study consisted of 10 to
20 case workers and 40 randomly selected case files.
The study revealed some of the administrative problems
such as slow movements of the papers in the office,
heavy work load, lack of power to take action, lack of
quick two-way communication, and non-availability of
trained officials.
49
Ramashesha (1972) examined the declsion making
process in the offices of the Joint Director of Public
Instruction, Bangalore Division, to identify the
bottlenecks in the decision making process and to find
out the extent of delegation of powers utilised by the
concerned officers. The study revealed the prevailing
bottlenecks at various stages of decision making process
such as locating the problems, locating and contacting
the sources of information and getting the required
information, processing the information and finding out
the solution. The researcher found that the final
decision was not always taken by the top officers. The
recommendations of lower offices also played a very
important role in decision making process.
Ushadevi (1989) studied communication process in
relation to decision making in the offices of the
department of education in Karnataka. Important
objectives of the study were (1) to examine the decision
making process in the context of delegated power, (2) to
examine the volume of communication and the pattern of
behaviour both wi thin the offices and between offices.
Information was collected from official files available
In the education department. Some of the important
findings of the study were: (1) The pattern of message
50
flow during decision making
complicated and inefficient with
trends become more
the increase in level
of hierarchy for decision making. (2) The cases
relating to prlmary education were found to be more
complicated in terms of generating higher quantum of
messages during the process of decision making.
3aldev Maha]an and others (1994 ) studied
educatlonal administration In Karnataka. The objectives
of the study were: (1) to understand the present status
of educational administration in terms of its
structures, systems and processes at various levels;
(2) to study the experiments, innovation and changes;
and (3) to identify the major issues and future tasks of
educational planning and management.
Methodology of the survey included collection of
information from the state education department, its
different directorates and divisional, regional,
district, block and institutional organisations on the
basis of a representative sample. Two districts, four
blocks and 161 institutions were selected for intensive
study. The study presented an elaborate picture of
educat·ional administration with special reference to its
structure, organisation, processes and functions. It
51
also included the system of personnel management,
planning, finance, information and inspection and
supervision. The section related to educational planning
dealt with the admlnlstrati ve set up and the planning
process.
According to the authors, decentralised system of
planning in the state is working well and there is scope
for involving the grassroots level functionaries like
Head Masters in the planning process.
2.5.4 Role of Zilla Panchayat and educational departments in
educational progress.
Vartak (1971 ) studied educational organisation,
administration and problems in the state of Maharastra.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
educational administration of local authorities and
revlew whether the democratic decentralisation of
educational administration, as envisaged by Balvantrai
Mehta Committee has come to stay and whether it has
helped rural educational development In the state of
Maharastra. 23 districts of Maharastra were selected for
the study. Information was collected from government
52
educational authorities, officers, elected representa-
tives and teachers and also from other related
documents. Results revealed that decentralisation of
educational administration helped in the spread of
education 1n rural areas and this type of administrative
set up 1S beneficial to the state. Education has become
common man's interest and because of thlS, it has
gained momentum. Number of elected members in education
committees of ZP 1S inadequate to undertake the
educational responsibilities of the whole district.
Local authorities were successful in spreading education
but solving the educational problems through local
participation was limited. The young local leadership
proved to be useful for the education ln the rural
areas.
The administration of primary education at block or
taluk level helped to avoid delay in the administrative
procedure to some extent. Long term planning was not
undertaken in districts of Maharastra. The participation
of people's representatives in the administration
improved and lessened the lethargy in educational
administration. Due to the present structural
limitations of educational administration, it is found
53
that education has not reached people to the
level.
expected
Inamdar (1971) studied educational administration
In Maharastra. He examined the effects of ZP on
education particularly on primary education by assessing
the role of rural leadershlp in promoting the cause of
primary educa~ion. The study was conducted In Haveli
taluk of Poona district. This district represents
average type of ZP in relation to educational
performance. Data was gathered through questionnaire,
interview schedule, pro forma and also by attending the
meetings. Information was collected from primary school
teachers, block development officers, assistant deputy
educational inspectors, chief
education officers and members
executive
of ZP.
officer,
Informal
discussions and visits to few schools were also carried
out to
Official
understand local situation and problems.
records, Annual reports of ZP and relevant
government resolutions and directives were also used to
test the hypotheses.
Findings revealed that there was expansion of
primary education. But the quality of education had
suffered. Elected office bearers and other popular
54
elements In educational administration influenced
matters like teachers I transfer etc. The ZP was found
to be slack with regard to the inspection and
supervision arrangements. The identity of educational
officials was completely lost due to the dominance of
the elected members. Financially ZP was found to be
solely dependent on r:he state government. The author
concluded that the pattern of educational administration
under the control of ZP IS defective and researcher
suggested that radical change should be brought about
In the pattern to improve the quality of primary
education in the rural areas.
Joshi (1973) has studied problems of administration
and finance in primary education with special reference
to the role of Panchayat Raj bodies in southern Gujarat.
The main objective of the study was to find out the
extent to which democratic decentralised administration
of primary education has been realised SInce the
operation of Panchayat Act 1961. The maJor findings of
the study indicate lack of proper training for Panchayat
leaders to involve the local community to participate in
educational activities. The administration of primary
educat'ion had not improved to any significant extent.
Village leadership was based on consideration of caste
55
and/or political affiliation. The administration of
prlmary education was becoming increasingly complex.
Iqbal Narain, et a1. (1974) conducted a study on
management of prlmary schools under Panchayat Raj
administration ln Rajasthan. The study focused on
aspects related to direction of change ln terms of
improvement or deterioration of teaching standards and
functloning of schools. The promotional role of
Panchayat Raj functionaries helped in specific areas
like provision of school buildings and other facilities,
and overcoming the reluctance of the rural people ln
sending their children to primary schools and the extent
of politicization of management of prlmary schools.
Sample was drawn from five districts which consisted of
teachers, Panchayat Raj functionaries, parents and
government officials. Questionnaire, observation and
interview
from this,
buildings,
schedules were the tools of research. Apart
study records, general conditions of school
cleanliness, attendance etc. Results of the
study show that, under the management of Panchayat Raj
leaders quantitative aspects such as school building,
students going to school and regular functioning of the
school. improved. Qualitative aspects like discipline,
56
morale of teachers and teaching methods failed to
improve.
Patel (1975) studied impact of Panchayat Raj on
administration of primary education. The main objective
of the study was to find out how far the introduction
of Panchayat Raj succeeded in expanding and improving
the programme of primary education. The total sample
covered ten per cent of total Gram Panchayats in Mehsana
district of West Gujarat. Information was collected
from government documents, official and non-official
members of PR bodies. The data was collected from pro
forma, rating scales, opinionnaire and data sheets. The
study revealed that the Panchayat Raj was working
fairly well in the case of advanced, progressive and
effective Panchayats.
democratic ways and
benevolent leadership
Service minded, committed to
means, less politicised and
proved to be successful. The
weaker sections of the people boosted up by government
and politicians played a dominant role in the decision
making process The factors of caste and economic status
had an impact on the decision making of leaders at
village, block and district levels. The PR appeared to
have impact on the expansion of primary education while
57
much appeared to be desirable in
school quality, expanding schools.
terms of improving
Bhouraskar (1964) has recommended a new approach to
the philosophy of educational administration. He
analysed the policies and practices of educational
administration and assessed their democratic nature of
functioning at different levels. The study was
conducted in the state of Madhya Pradesh. Questionnaire
and interviews were carried out to have a clear picture
of the philosophy of educational administration and to
know how administrators
established conventions
interpreted the policies and
for the development of
democratic setup. Findings revealed that the majority of
the administrators were dissatisfied as they were not
involved in decision making. Administrators believed
that the institution runs smoothly if they were endowed
with more powers. All were favourable towards the
democratic decentralisation of the power structure. They
believed that mutual discussions and sharing of opinions
on certain matters was good for efficient
administration. Administrators, in many respects, had
not yet adopted the democratic way of approach to the
problems.
58
Krishnarnurthy (1968) studied reforms in educational
administration In Andhra Pradesh to present a
comprehensi ve picture about the reforms and to suggest
varlOUS measures for the future educational
administration. Information was collected from the
proceedings
published
acts and
of the Directorate of Public Instruction,
government literature containing policies,
vlews expressed by educationists.
Questionnaire, information inventories, score cards and
opinionnaire
officers of
were used to collect information from the
education department, teachers and the
legislators. Findings of the study revealed that the
reforms were aimed at bringing efficiency In
administration, economy in finance and development and
spread of education.
progressl ve measures as
the latest thinking In
The reforms introduced were
they were In accordance wi th
the field of educational
administration. Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) failed
to improve the quality of teaching.
In the light of these findings researcher suggested
that there was a need to define clearly the powers of
education In Zilla Panchayats. Education secretary of
Zilla, Panchayats should be trained graduate with
teaching experience. Experienced educationists and
59
retired educational administrators should be associated
wi th education under Panchayat Raj by taking them into
study committees and other bodies connected with
education. There should be special inspection under the
control of department to inspect schools in Zilla
Panchayats. An evaluation officer should be attached to
strengthen the examination system in each district.
Kaul (1969) studied the role of local authorities
in Indian education in all historical perspectives with
particular reference to the cause of education. The
objective was to find out how democratic
power helped decentralisation of
educational patterns and growth. The
to shape the
state of Uttar
Pradesh was taken as the sample of the study as it
represented all shades of cultural and economic
patterns. Nature of the study being historical normative
survey, information was collected from documents in
government and local bodies. Besides this, officials
connected with local bodies were interviewed. Researcher
has concluded that local bodies worked more efficiently
and profitably than other agencies in India.
Shinde (1975) studied role of the Panchayat Raj
leadership ln expansion and improvement of prlmary
60
education. One of the objectives of the investigation
was to find out the relationship between Panchayat Raj
leadership and the success achieved in the development
of primary education. The sample consists of hundred
Panchayats of eleven taluks of Panchmahals district of
Gujarat. Tools employed In the investigation were
questionnaire, rating scale and data sheet. According
to findings of the investigation, Panchayat Raj bodies
did not achieve expected level of improvement In
primary education. Gram Panchayat education committees
were relatively more effective than taluk Panchayat
education committees.
Dabholkar and Gadgil (1982) enquired into the
nature of integration of educational plan with overall
plan and studied formulation, methods and techniques of
evaluation of educational plans at the district level.
Based on the level of economic and educational
development four districts namely Bhir, Wardha,
Ratnagiri and Pune were selected. Findings of the study
revealed that there had hardly been any integration of
educational plan with overall plan at the district
levels. The data available was not strong enough for any
detail~d overall integrated plan at the district or the
block levels. Expertise required for planning was not
61
readily ava1lable at the local leve:. There ~as no
decentral1sat1on of adm1nlstrat1on
integrated plan to be effec~lve.
required fer ~he
Radhakrishan (1984 ) studied educatlona1
administration in the state of Tami~ Nadu with reference
to decentralisation. One ef the ob~ectlves ~as to
present a comprehensive picture of decentrallsat1cr. sc
as to effect other changes better suited to the present
trend in education and to suggest various measures f::n
future educational admin1stration. Quest1onna1re and
interview schedules were used to collect infermation
from district educational officers, inspectors of
schools, Head Masters and teachers. The study suggested
that the District education officers should have powers
to frame curriculum, enter into contracts and
for transactions within the educational agreements
district. Chief educational officers should have powers
to approve the location of the school. Every head of
office 1ncluding Head Masters, should have the power to
sanction contingent expenditure without the
countersignature of higher authorities.
The review of studies indicates the functior.ing of
educational system 1n a given socio-economic and
62
polltical contexts, especially in India. And the st~dies
have also emphasised on public administration Vls-a-'llS
educational system. They perceive educatlonal str'..lcture
as a department In Government and focus on the
procedural and power dimensions of the departmental
functioning. Very few studies have taken the frame'Nork
of management which emphasizes the achie~lement of tr~e
objectives. In other words, education was viewed as
administration like any other government department and
not as an enterprise. Such an approach looks at various
developments and interventions in isolation with one
another. It does not look inside the structures to see
what is happening in institutions
procedural dimensions.
to capture the
From the review it appears that though notionally
education was considered as a sector included under five
year plans in India right from the inception of planned
development by the state, educational Planning remained
marginal. Educational growth/development took place by
default. This may be because education was viewed as an
input to economlC growth In the models adopted in
earlier plans, and the constitutional model of
democratic, secular and socialist society which accords
an independent causal role to education was often
63
relegated to low priority area and at the most the
Constitutional theme made a parallel noise In plan
theories.
Only in recent years mass education has assumed
greater importance for varlous politico-economic
reasons, mostly emerglng from the inter:1ational scene.
This scenario lS the result of new policies sweeplng
the developing countries under the structural adjustment
policy. Basic education has assumed greater importance
from mid eighties onwards in India. There is greater
need for studies focusing on the past performance of
education and the capacity to plan both long term
perspective plans and short term action plans. The
present study lS one such attempt to address the
following issues:
• What are the effects of plan investments made in the
past on varlOUS parameters of educational development
at primary educational level?
• What is the nature of the process of educational
planning pursued by the state apparatus?
64
Fourth All India Educational Survey (1988) reports
that the research is too meager to generate any
subs tan ti ve lear:ling regarding the proces s of planning
of education at macro, micro and :..nsti t'Jt:..onal levels.
Besides, none of the studies deal wi t!l the process of
educational plan formulation at the district level.
The effectiveness of district level planning for
development of education also depends on the procedure
of plan formulation.
district educational
Hence to validate the approach of
planning in relation to the
objectives of the such plans. It is necessary to study
the procedure of educational plan formulation practiced
at the district level. Keeping this researc!l gap in
view, the present study has been proposed.
6S
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
3.1 Introduction:
Discussion in the previous chapters dealt with the
need for studying educational planning focusing on
primary education and review of related literature. It
was pointed out that the primary education has assumed
a greater importance in the context of changes in socio
economJ.c and political spheres. It was envisaged that
educational planning under five year plans in Karnataka
state J.n the past might have been too general,
centralized and weak in its foundations.
In the present chapter, first the methodology for
analyzing the performance of the past plans starting
from 1971 to 1994 spanning roughly the duration of
twenty four years from the Fourth Five Year Plan to
Eighth Five Year Plan is discussed. Secondly, this
chapter also discusses the methodology for studying the
process of educational planning
districts.
J.n three selected
66
3.2 Nature of the research study
The study has three dimensions. The first dimension
concentrates on the analysis of the changes in the
educational parameters and the effect of plan
expenditure on each of the parameters represented by
indicators.
The second dimension concentrates on the changes of
educational parameters at the district level over the
intervening plan periods during 1971-1994.
The third dimension looks into the understanding,
functions and activities that are taking place in the
planning processes at the state, the district and below
district levels and the processes of implementation.
Thus the study lS partly analytical and partly
descriptive In nature. In the analytical part, the
secondary data collected from published and unpublished
sources is utilised. This is used to describe the
educational progress and relate the same with the plan
intentions and implementations at the state level. The
descriptive part deals with the planning process as
67
unraveled '::hrougn seml strClctured ir.terviews and
observation of '::he meet~ngs that were taking place
during the field VlSltS.
3.3 Objectives of the Study:
I The obJectives for the State level analysis are,
1. ~o examlne the Karnataka State Plan documents to
ascertain the methodology and priorities of
educational sectoral plans ~n IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII
Five Year Plans.
2. To develop indicators of educationa::' parameters and
exam~ne the changes in those indicators over the
period of time from 1971-1994.
3. To compare the distribution of educational access,
retention and quality input indicators (educational
parameters) across different population segments over
twenty four years.
68
4. To understand the changes ln the above indicators
during each successive Five Year Plans starting from
IV to VIII.
5. To compare the performance of prlmary education as
reflected in the values of various indicators before
and after the introduction of Panchayat Raj system in
1987.
6. To Examine the effect of plan expenditure on selected
educational indicators.
7. To examine the changes of educational indicators ln
the light of changes in literacy as indicated in
census of 1971, 1981 and 1991.
II The objectives proposed for district level analysis
are,
1. To compare the changes inter-district disparities
through educational indicators after each
successive Five Year Plans.
69
III The objectives for the study of the planning
process are:
1. To identify the functional linkages wi thin the
bureaucratlc structure of the department of public
instruction with respect to educational planning at
state, district sub-district levels.
2. To study the roles played by various personnel in the
process of planning.
3. To obtain the qualitative aspects of planning like
information flow, information analysis during the
preparation of educational plans.
4. To understand the perceptions involved in educational
planning at various levels.
5. To Know the perceptions of people at the grass roots
level related to primary education.
70
3.4.1 Quantitative analysis at the state level:
Hypotheses: The maJor hypotheses formulated for the
study are,
1. The plan investment has no significant determining
ef:ect on the performance of prlmary education in
Kar:1ataka.
The above general hypothesis lS tested for each of the
seven variables at the state level as follows:
a) The plan investment has no significant determining
effect on the enrollment per ten thousand population
of primary education in Karnataka.
b) The plan investment has no significant determining
effect on the annual retention rate at lower primary
of LPS level in Karnataka.
c) The plan investment has no significant determining
effect on the gender equality in enrollment of
primary education in Karnataka.
71
d) The plan investment has no significant determining
effec~ on the primary schools per ten thousand
population in Karnataka.
el The plan investment has no significant determining
effect on the teachers per ten thousand population in
primary schools in Karnataka.
f) The plan investment has no significant determining
effect on pupil-teacher ratio at primary school level
in Karnataka.
g! The plan investment has no significant determining
effect on standard-teacher ratio at prlmary school
level in Karnataka.
3.4.2 Statistical analyses
Both descriptive and inferential statistics are
utllised at the state level analysis. The descriptive
statistics are given in the form of tables and graphs to
obtain the trend of changes ln the indicator values.
Inferential statistics are used to test the following
hypotheses.
72
3.4.3 Quantitative analysis at the district level:
Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard
deviation and coefficient of variation are used to
compare the changes in the indicators of educational
growth across districts, at different points of time
coterminous with the ending of Five Year Plans during
the period under consideration.
3.4.4 Qualitative data analysis:
A detailed description of the method of qualitative
data analysis is given in the Chapter V along with the
analysis and findings. The method adopted for
qualitative plan process follows the procedures of
content analysis of the notes recorded during
interviews, observations and encounters.
3.5 Operational definitions:
Plan expenditure: This term refers to the annual
plan expenditure on primary education by the state in
Karnataka. The variable is measured In the form of plan
expenditure at constant prlces.
73
Indicators of primary Education Performance The
term refers to the aspects which indicate the status of
access, retention and quality aspects of primary
education. These aspects are measured by defining the
indicators as mentioned below.
I Access indicators :
1. Enrollment In ~PS per ten thousand population,
2. Enrollment In HPS per ten thousand population,
3. Enrollment in Primary stage per ten thousand
population,
5. SC/ST enrollment in LPS per ten thousand population
of SC/ST,
6. SC/ST enrollment In HPS per ten thousand population
of SC/ST,
7. SC/ST enrollment In Primary stage per ten thousand
population of SC/ST,
8. Non-SC/ST enrollment in LPS per ten thousand
population of Non-SC/ST,
9. Non-SC/ST enrollment in HPS per ten thousand
population of Non-SC/ST,
10. Non-SC/ST enrollment in primary stage per ten
thousand population of Non-SC/ST,
11.' Gender equality in enrollment at LPS stage,
74
12. Gender equality in enrollment at HPS stage,
13. Gender equality in enrollment at Primary school
stage,
14. SC/ST gender equallty in enrollment at LPS stage,
15. SC/ST gender equality ln enrollment at HPS stage,
16. SC/ST gender equality in enrollment at Primary
school stage,
17. Non-SC/ST gender equality in enrollment at LPS
stage,
18. Non-SC/ST gender equality in enrollment at HPS
stage and
19. Non-SC/ST gender equality in enrollment Primary
school stage.
II Annual retention :
20. Annual Retention at LPS level,
21. Annual Retention of SC/ST at LPS level and
22. Annual Retention of Non SC/ST at LPS level.
III Quality input indicators:
23. Lower primary schools per ten thousand population,
24. Higher primary schools per ten thousand population,
25. Primary schools per ten thousand population,
75
26. Primary school teachers per ten thousand population,
27. Pupil-teacher ratio and
28. Standard-teacher ratio.
3.5.1 Description of indicators:
A. ~ Access to Pr~mary education: (Enrollment)
This variable refers to the demand met by providing
the access or creating demand through supply. Most of
the plans have had schemes for providing incentives and
subsidies in addition to opening of schools to attract
children to the schools. These measures are expected to
increase the enrollments of children. Ideally the
measure to indicate the school enrollment rate would be
to compute Net Enrollment Ratio, i.e. the proportion of
relevant age group population enrolled in school. Such
information lS being gathered through All India
Educational surveys in the past. But, the base
population of the relevant age group needs to be
projected for inter census years. When such exercise lS
done at the district and below, the estimated age
76
population may not be accurate as the age structure
varies from place to place.
Another variable normally used while reporting the
progress of education is Gross Enrollment Ratio. But
this requires the same base figures of the relevant age
population. In order to avoid such errors arising out of
estimates of the age population both on time dimensions
and across districts, the enrollment rate was obtained
as proportion enrolled to total population of the
relevant categories like males, females, persons etc.
However the population figures for the inter census
years were estimated by using the actual compound growth
rates observed during the decades of seventies,
eighties and nineties. For spill-over years beyond
nineties same growth rate' observed during eighties.
ii Access to Primary education:
enrollment)
(Gender equality in
Gender
proportion
equality in
of representation
enrollment
of girls
measures the
and boys in
primary schools to their respective population groups.
In 'other words this indicator measures the gap between
77
girls and boys enrollment. This 1S computed with the
help of the formula given below,
( AE I AP
Gender equality in enrollment = ------ X 100 - 100
BEl BP )
whe!:e,
AE = Enrollment of A category, A stands for General
glrls, SC/ST Girls and Non SC/ST girls.
AP = Female population of respective categories.
BE = Enrollment of B category, B stands for General
boys, SC/ST boys and Non SC/ST boys.
BP Male population of respective categories.
B. Annual retention rate.
Annual retention rate measures the number of
students continuing their studies after LPS level.
Annual retention of students enrolled
obtained by using the formula,
at LPS stage is
(X1+X2+X3+X4) - (y2+Y3+Y4+Y5)
Annual Retention rate = 100 - X 100
( X1+X2+X3+X4)
Where Xl, X2, X3, X4 represent I, II, II, IV standards
of'LPS in a given year and Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5 represent II,
III, IV, V standards of subsequent year.
78
c. Inputs for Quality of primary education:
Three parameters have been utilised for assessing
the changes in the quality of primary education. They
are,
1) Availability of schools,
2) Availability of teachers and
3) Teaching learning context.
1) Availability of schools are measured by using three
indicators. This indicator refers to the provision of
lower primary schools having classes I to IV standards
in relation to population and calculated by finding
number of lower primary schools per ten thousand
population. The second indicator denotes access to
primary education beyond IV standards. It is measured by
calculating higher primary schools per ten thousand
population. In Karnataka all higher primary schools have
I to VIr standards. Therefore increase in higher primary
schools also contributes to the increase in access to
lower level of education. This has been captured by the
third indicator by calculating
ten thousand population.
primary schools per
79
in active instruction. This is measured by finding out·
the average ~umber of standards taught by a teacher.
(Number of LPS x 4) + (Number of HPS x 7)
Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools = ------------
Number of teachers in pnmary schools
The above indicator also represents the degree of
multi-grade teaching prevalent In the region under
consideration. Further this indicator calculated at the
desegregated levels like districts represents the
disparities in the teaching learning context.
Educational outcome: This term refers to the aspect
which indicate the achievement of educational efforts.
This is measured by literacy levels. Literacy rate
indicators are measured by considering the proportion of
literate to the respective population groups. The
indicators computed are,
1. Total literacy rates,
2. SC literacy rates,
3.' ST literacy rates,
4. Male literacy rates,
81
5. Female literacy rates,
6. Urban literacy rates and
7. Rural literacy rates.
These literacy rates are computed by taking total
population of respective groups as denominator in order
to ~ake ~t comparable across census years.
Number of literate in a segment of population
Literacy rates :: X 100
Population of that segment
Educational planning processes: This term refers
to the activities carried out during the preparation of
educational plans. This involves the basis for arriving
at developmental programmes, rationale for allotting the
financial and phys ical targets and the procedure
followed to arrive at the educational plan.
Structure of educational planning processes: The
preparation of the educational plan involves different
departments at the state, the district and below
district levels. The Structure of educational planning
processes describes the different departments involved
82
In the planning process at all levels with their key
roles.
The source of data, sampling procedure and analysis
of data are given separately for secondary and primary
data.
3.6 Source of secondary data:
Year wise data starting from 1971 to 1994 related
to standard wise enrollment, primary school teachers and
prlmary schools were collected from the office of
Commissioner of Public Instruction, Government of
Karnataka. This data was collected using district as a
unit in addition to State level information. PopUlation
figures of 1971, 1981, 1991 were collected from census
reports namely primary census abstract, socio-cul tural
tables and Special tables for SC/ST. 1995 estimated
figure was collected from the report 'Population
Estimates' (ISEC, Population Research Center) .
3.6.1 Method of Analysis of secondary data:
Based on the nature of data and the purpose of
analysis descriptive and quantitative techniques were
83
adopted to analyse secondary data. The details of the
analyses are as follows:
A. Estimation of population figures:
Population for the years other than 1971, 1981,
1991 and 1995 were estimated by using compound growth
rate formula using the actual growth of population
between two successive censuses of 1971, 1981 and 1991.
In the case of growt~ beyond 1991, popUlation projection
made by ISEC Population Researc~ center was used for the
year 1995. Compound growth rate was used to arrive at
year wise population. This exercise was done separately
for state and the districts. Formula of Compound growth
rate is given below,
1 It
Compound growth rate (r) = {[ ( y I a) 1 -1} X 100
where ,
y = Final year's value,
a = Initial year value,
t = Number of years.
Year-wise population was estimated by using the formula
given below,
Estimated population of each subsequent year = P [ 1 + r]
84
where,
P = Population of the previous year,
r = compound growth rate,
B. Analysis of Five year plan documents:
The nature of educational planning was inferred by
analysing Five Year Plan documents of Karnataka state.
Five-Year plan documents from Fourth Five year plan to
Eighth Five year plan were analysed to collect the
information related to the educational objectives,
programmes selected and norms followed to fix the
physical target were noted.
C. Distribution of plan outlays:
Financial allocation for varlOUS programs In the
Five year plans were analysed to know the plan
priorities. Programmes related to prlmary education
sector under different departments namely general
education, 5C welfare, 5T welfare, Other Backward Castes
welfare, women and child welfare etc. were noted and
cor~esponding financial allotment in each Five year plan
from Fourth to Eighth Five year plan were also noted.
85
Various programs were grouped into different categories
based on the nature of intervention and the allocations
for different progranunes under each category were added
to obtain the relative priority under each plan.
D. Analysis of time series data of educational
indicators:
Time series data was computed from 1971 to 1994 to
know the trend in the changes of the indicator values.
Indicators considered for this purpose are,
1. Total enrollment as percent of population at LPS, HPS
and Primary stage,
2. SC/ST enrollment as percent of SC/ST population at
LPS, HPS and Primary stage,
3. Gender wise enrollment as percent of population at
LPS, HPS and Primary Stage,
4. Gender wise SC/ST and Non-SC/ST enrollment as percent
of SC/ST and non-SC/ST population,
S. Gender equality in general enrollment at LPS, HPS and
primary schools,
6. Retention of boys and girls at LPS stage,
7. LPS schools per ten thousand population,
86
8. HPS schools per ten thousand population,
9. Primary schools per ten thousand population,
10. Teacher of prlmary schools per ten thousand
population,
11. Pupil-teacher ratio at prlmary schools and
12. Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools.
E. Progress of educational indicators across Five Year
plans:
The above mentioned indicators which were computed
from 1971-1994, covers various plan periods starting
from 1971-1994. These years were grouped under different
plan periods. Thus three years of IV Five Year Plan and
five years of V, VI, VII plan periods were considered
for obtalning average. Only initial three years were
considered for VIII plan. In between there were three
annual plans, not forming part of Five Year plans. Hence
these years were excluded. The average values of the
indicators thus obtained at different plan periods were
considered to compare the progress of indicators during
five year plans.
87
F. Influence of plan expenditure on various educational
indicators.
Plan expenditure on primary education was regressed
on educational progress indicators to know the effect of
plan expenditure. Dependent variables considered for
th~s purpose are,
(a) Enrollment per ten thousand population at primary
school,
(b) Annual retention rate at lower primary state,
(c) Gender equality index of enrollment at primary
stage,
(d) Primary schools per ten thousand population,
(e) Teacher of primary schools per ten thousand
population,
(fl Pupil-teacher ratio at prlmary schools and
(g) Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools.
Plan expenditure on prlmary education was
considered as independent variable. Plan expenditure on
primary education from 1971-1993 was obtained from
central government documents 'Expenditure on Education'
and 'Economic Survey of Karnataka'. The information
88
available on expenditure was in current prices which
were converted to constant prices which GDP deflators,
wi th 1990 as the base year. Thus, plan expenditure at
constant prices for a period of 24 years from 1971 to
1994 was obtained. Indicator values of other dependent
variables were computed for each year from 1971 to 1994.
The value thus obtained, is used for regression analysis
based on the followi~g equation separately for each
dependent variable.
y= a+bX+Ut
where,
Y = depended variable as mentioned above,
x = Plan expenditure at constant prices,
a = Constant,
b = Regression coefficient.
Ut = Error term.
Maximum likely-hood estimation was used to correct
for the presence of auto-correlation in the time series
analysis carried out under the present study.
89
G. Comparl.son in the progress of educational indicators
during pre-Zilla Panchayat and post-Zilla Panchayat
scenarl.o.
In the year 1987 district level insti tutions were
established In Karnataka and were glven powers to
administer primary education. The study intends to see
whether there was any change In primary education after
the introduction of the new structure. In order to do
this comparative study, average values of some selected
indicators for seven years before 1987 and after 1987
',.;ere calculated separately and compared.
considered are as follows,
Indicators
1. Total enrollment as percent of population at LPS, HPS
and Primary stage,
2. Gender equality in general enrollment at LPS, HPS and
primary schools,
3. Retention of boys and girls at LPS stage,
4. Primary schools per ten thousand population,
S. Teacher of primary schools per ten thousand
population,
6. Pupil-teacher ratio at primary schools and
7. Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools.
90
H. Analysis of educational indicators using district as
the unit:
District wise analysis was carried out with the
help of indicators mentioned below.
1. Total ~nroll~ent as percent of population at LPS, HPS
and Pr:mary stage,
2. Gender equallty :n general enrollment at LPS, HPS and
primary schools,
3. Retention of boys and girls at LPS stage,
4. Primary schools per ten thousand population,
5. Teacher of primary schools per ten thousand
population,
6. Pupil-teacher ratio at primary schools, and
7. Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools.
The values of these indicators were grouped under
IV, V, VI, VII and VIII Five Year Plans. The Mean values
of the lndicators thus obtained to analyse district wise
progress of indicators during five year plans. These
scores were considered to group the districts into Good,
Average and Poor districts. Before computing the
educational i!1dicators, the year wise data was
smoothened by using three years moving averages from
91
second year onwards for each variables. The new ser1es
thus arrived was used to compute the indicator value
for each year. The analysis used the mean values of each
indicator arrived by averaging the individual value for
different years under different Five Year Plans for each
district. The districts were grouped as Good, Average
and Poor using Mean (X) and Standard dev:'ation (lS"") of the
scores. The details of the analysis are elaborated in
the chapter presenting the secondary data analysis.
I. Analysis of Literacy rates of Karnataka State and
Districts:
Literacy rates for the census years namely 1961,
1971, 1981, 1991 were computed for males and females of
rural and urban areas. These rates were calculated for
general, SC and ST categories. For the calculation of
literacy rates, population and literacy numbers of the
above categories were collected. At the district level
only general and SC categories were considered. Because
ST population in the state was very small and 1S
concentrated in few districts. Intra-district variation
was computed with the help of coefficient of variation.
92
3.7 Sample Selection for collecting Primary data:
Since different regions of Karnataka had different
history, it was decided to concentrate on the districts
of the same region. Hence, districts of old Mysore area
were selected. Three districts were proposed for the
study of planning process. The districts identified for
the study were Chickffiagalore, Mysore and Mandya.
Chickffiagalore was selected from malnad hilly region,
Myso~e was selected from maidan plane region and Mandya
was selected to study the changes In the planning
processes due to the intervention of District Primary
Educational Planning (DPEP). These districts share the
common historical past. Two taluks, one backward and
advanced from each of the four blocks were selected
based on DDPIs and EOs suggestions. Two villages having
concentration of scheduled castes/scheduled tribes or
more number of dropouts were selected from each taluk.
Selection of taluks and villages depended upon the
suggestion of block level officer. The places selected
and the period of visit are mentioned below:
93
Table 3.1 Location selected for the field work at the
district level:
District Taluk Village
Chickmagalur Kadur Tangalitandya l( .n.oondanahali
Mudigere Lokavali Herernangalore
\1vsore Heggada Devana Kote Lakshmipura Mahadevnagar
Nanjangudu Sindhuvalipura A1ambur
Mandva Maddur Soligarakaloni Athgur
Srirangapattana Ganiam Mogarhalli
3.8.1 Steps involved In field work:
Field work commenced form June 1993 and extended
till August 1995. And elected members were interviewed
in august 1996. Data collection involved three steps.
In the first step offices and personnel involved in
the planning of primary education were identified at the
state, the district, the taluk and the village levels.
In the second step, state officers, district
officers, and other personnel involved in the planning
94
were interviewed. Plan related meetings were observed.
Factual information, opinions and the information from
events were collected to understand the procedure
practiced for the progress of primary education.
In the third step Block level offices were visited
and officials were interviewed. Villages were visited to
know the reflections of the people at grassroot level.
Teachers, villagers, SBC members and Gram Panchayat
members were interviewed to know the success of planning
efforts.
Following sources of information were used,
• Issues based unstructured discussion focused with the
personnel involved in the planning and implementation
at all levels,
• Proceedings of the plan related meeting through non
participant observation,
• Interaction of officials with the public and
representatives of the people In the offices during
the visits, and
• Informal discussion with the officials accompanying
the investigator in the villages.
95
Tables 2,3 and 4 provide details of the offices and
personnel identified at different levels who formed the
sample for collecting qualitative data.
Table 3.2 : Number of respondents at the state level and
des~gnat~ons.
Office Desienation Number
State Planning Board Charroerson One
Education Department Deputy Secretary One Section Officer Two Senior Assistant Three
CPfs office DDPI (Planning) One Asst. Director of Planning One
Case Worker (statistics) One
Table 3.3 : Number of respondents at the district level and designations.
Level Office Desienation Number
District Zilla Panchayat Chief Executive Officer Three (3) ( 3) Asst. Secretary Development Three
Chief Planning Officer Two Asst. Statistical Officer One Asst. Planning Officer One
DDPI's office DDPI Three (3 ) Educational Officer Five
Subiect Inspector Five First Division Clerk Four Second Division Ten
ZP Members Six (3)
Figures in parenthesis represent number of offices.
96
Table 3.4 : Number of respondents at the block level and designations.
Level Office Designation Number
Block AEO's office" AEO Six (6) (6) Inspector of school Thirteen
First Division clerk Five Second Division Ten
Vilhw:e School Teacher Sixteen (12) ( I I ) Parents Fifty
SBe member Twenty four SBe president Ten GP President Four GP members N'me
Figures in parenthesis represent number of offices. *AEO's office is renamed as BEO's office at present.
3.8.2 Procedure followed in Collecting the information:
Permission for collecting the information was
obtained from officials by posting bonafide certificate,
a letter containing the details of the research topic,
nature of data required with an assumption that the
information collected will be kept confidential. In the
ZP office, CEO was informed about the purpose of visit
and requested permission to carry out interviews. DDPI
was requested to inform other officials of DDPI's office
and BEOs about the purpose of the visit and sought
permission to collect the information.
97
3.B.3 Recording the Information:
Interviews were unstructured but focused on the
specific plan/implementation related lssues.
Interviewees were allowed to talk freely and express
what they felt was relevant. During the interview,
factual information given by the respondent was taken
down. Respondents expressed their oplnions related to
the functioning of planning mechanism. And there were
few incidental discussions with other officials and
visitors which also threw light on few planning
practices. In such a situation researcher recorded only
key words and phrases, with the help which detailed
notes were prepared later. This approach reduced
inference in the nature of flow of events.
Researcher also attended meeting at ZP and DDPI' s
offices and draft plan preparation meeting. Here
researcher adopted non-participant observer's role to
collect the information and recorded detailed notes of
the proceedings of the meetings, topics debated and the
consensus arrived at by the officials.
98
3.9 Method of Analysis of Primary data:
Once the information from the field was collected,
each encounter was entered on computer. Each paragraph
was read and coded based on the themes. Later paragraphs
were grouped into different categories such as planning,
perception, information and feedback. The printouts were
read and re-read several times to identify the recurrent
themes related to educational planning. The field notes
were deconstructed to obtain the picture of following
aspects.
1. Planning procedure and methodology at the state, the
district and the block level,
2. Information flow and processing,
3. Implementation administration, monitoring and
feedback aspects, and
4. Perception of officials, elected members of Panchayat
institutions, teachers, SBC members and parents.
At the next stage, each encounter recorded were
grouped under the above themes. Since the field notes
were based on the discussion and observation that were
99
taking place ln real world, same encounter often
contained several themes and such instances were
repeated under each of the related classifications.
After obtaining different categories of the
observations and notes, they were further ordered
according ~o the level from which they emerged. At the
third stage, the data classified under each theme was
read and reconstructed to answer the following
questions:
1 What is the meaning of planning?
2 What are the perceptions of the individuals
involved?
3 What 1S the methodology/technique used ln
educational planning?
Using these questions an attempt was made to
construct various aspects of planning process observed
in the field. The abstracted answers are presented on
different aspects and illustrated by the facts obtained
from observations and interview responses etc.
100
CHAPTER IV
Secondary Data Analysis
4.1 Introduction:
A methodology to analyse the secondary data with
a view to infer the influence of planning on education
was presented in the previous chapter. It also dealt
with the methodology of the analysis of qualitative
data to understand the planning process and
implementation.
In the present chapter, the results of the
analysis of secondary data are presented under the
following headlines:
• Analysis of Five year plan and distribution of
Plan outlays.
• Analysis of State-level time-series data.
• Influence of Plan expenditure on access,
retention and quality input indicators.
• Change in the trend of educational indicators
after the change in administrative system.
101
• District-wise and plan-wise analysis of
educational indicators.
• Li teracy rates of various categories
Karnataka.
4.2 Analysis of the State plan documents
:n ::his section an attempt 1S made to identify
the rationale followed in selecting the progranunes,
fixing the physical and financial targets through the
analysis of Five Year Plan documents of Karnataka
state (Fourth Five Year Plan through Eighth Five Year
Plan) .
Fourth Plan : In the Fourth plan, an attempt was
made to identify backward districts using two sets of
criteria: (1) per capita income; (2) composite index
developed based on indicators arrived at by uS1ng mean
weighted ranking of a set of variables. The purpose
behind the development of index was to identify
backward districts with a view to formulate district
specific plans. But the rationale for the selection of
variables for ranking weights, and mean ranking is not
clear. The variables include literacy, technology,
training, hospitals, corrununication and transportation
102
on one hand and on the other, a set of variables
related to agricultural production. It 1S not clear
whether the values like percentage of workers in
agriculture to total workers is considered as negative
or posit::.ve variable in relation to the development.
The first set of variables ment10ned above relate to
urban::.sation and industrial development. It is nor:
clear whether these variables are weighted positively
or negatively in the development of the index.
The document does claim that education is a
causal factor in bringing about social change but this
statement remains at the rhetoric level and it has not
been followed up by working out the details of such
linkages.
As far as primary education is concerned, the
Fourth plan uses gross enrollment ratio for fixing up
the target. It appears that the concept of net
enrollment ratio is not either understood or utilised
for examining past achievements and projecting future
targets. The plan proposes to reach cent per cent
enrollment at the lower primary standard i.e. those in
the age group of 6-11 years in school and also
estimate requirements of teachers as 20,000 during the
103
Fourth Plan. However, due to financial limitations,
the plan proposed an addition of 4000 teachers. The
plan proposes investments and improvement of secondary
education and university education in order to produce
good teachers for primary and secondary level.
Thus, the plan emphasises qualitative
improvement both at higher and lower levels of
education. In other words, a sort of trickle down
approach has been adopted for prlmary education
flowlng from improved quality at higher levels.
Notwi ths tanding rhetorics used in the plan, actual
achievements at the end of the Fourth Plan were, the
number of primary schools having Lower Primary classes
rose from 32090 to 32222 showing an increase of only
132 schools. Higher primary schools rose from 10,422
to 11,200 registering an up gradation of 778 schools
and in the case of secondary schools the number
increased from 1838 to 2180 registering an increase of
342 schools.
The gross enrollment ratio at the lower primary
level actually declined from 107 per cent to 97 per
cent and almost stagnated at HPS(Higher primary level)
level.
104
In the case of teachers, there was negligible
increase from 33917 to 33932 at the end of the plan
period ln LPS. The teachers appointed during the plan
period at senlor prlmary or HPS level showed an
increase from 58804 to 66030, registering an increase
of 7226 ~eachers.
Fifth Plan: The overall objective of the Fifth
Plan was to provide maximum nutritious food, housing
for the poor, drinking water, prlmary education and
medical facilities to lmprove the quality of life
(Minimum needs programme). The sectoral chapter, on
education reiterated some of the objectives of the
Fourth Plan. For the first time, the Fifth Plan
specified the need for improving access to vulnerable
sections like girls, SC/ST and other weaker sections.
The Fifth Plan proposed to achieve gross enrollment
ratio of 113 at LPS. During the Plan periods,
educational enrollment of 7.57 lakhs of children at
LPS level was expected and 3.28 lakhs at HPS level.
It is interesting to note that the estimation of
the' required number of teachers for educational
enrollment was arithmetically calculated as 18925
105
In the case of teachers, there was negligible
increase from 33917 to 33932 at the end of the plan
period in LPS. The teachers appointed during the plan
period at senior primary or HPS level showed an
increase from 58804 to 66030, registering an increase
of 7226 teachers.
Fifth Plan: The overall objective of the Fifth
Plan was to provide maximum nutritious food, housing
for the poor, drinking water, primary education and
medical facilities to improve the quality of life
(Minimum needs programme). The sectoral chapter, on
education reiterated some of the objectives of the
Fourth Plan. For the first time, the Fifth Plan
specified the need for improving access to vulnerable
sections like girls, SC/ST and other weaker sections.
The Fifth Plan proposed to achieve gross enrollment
ratio of 113 at LPS. During the Plan periods,
educat;.onal enrollment of 7.57 lakhs of children at
LPS level was expected and 3.28 lakhs at HPS level.
It is interesting to note that the estimation of
the' required nwnber of teachers for educational
enrollment was arithmetically calculated as 18925
105
teachers by dividing additional enrollment by 40
keeping the norm of pupil-teacher ratio at 40:1.
Similar calculation was made to arrive at additional
teacher requirement of 8200 for HPS.
The plan also recognised the fact that most of
the children enrolled drop out before completing
primary stage. The plan proposed to develop continuing
and part time education for the benefit of school
dropouts. But surprisingly, teachers' requirement for
the above scheme was worked out by using teacher-pupil
ratio as 1:15 and thus proposed 1240 full time
teachers.
The Plan recognised the fact that due attention
should be glven to weaker sections of the society
namely SC, ST and girls to accelerate their
enrollment. It was estimated that 40 per cent of the
students belonged to backward sections of the society.
Hence the plan decided to give incentives to 40 per
cent of the children in the school which would cover
SC, ST and girls. Text books and attendance
scholarship were proposed as incentives to LPS and HPS
children to facilitate the retention of children in
school and help in reducing the wastage.
106
It was argued that the problem of accommodation
comes ln the way of females taking up the job ln
interior places. Therefore, quarters for women
teachers ln rural areas were proposed. Instead of
conducting need based assessment of required number of
quarters, plan document assumed that 40 Der cent of
teachers recruited during the Fifth Plan would be
female teachers and 20 per cent of them would require
quarters. Hence money was provided to construct the
quarters for 20 per cent of the female teachers.
At the end of Fourth Plan around 10,000 schools
were without proper accommodation. And it had proposed
to appoint 27,125 teachers though only a few teachers
were appointed. Because of these factors, the Fifth
Plan proposed construction of 13,550 class rooms. In
the Fifth Plan number of teachers appointed formed the
rationale for construction of class rooms but not the
number of schools which decided the provlslon of
additional teachers. ThUS, planning was ad hoc.
In the beginning of the Fifth Plan the number of
primary schools were 32,840 and by the end of the plan
it increased to 34,431 showing an increase of 1591
107
schools. The number of secondary schools increased by
294 from 2203 to 2497 during the plan period. Thus,
the efforts made during the Fifth Plan did not reach
the expected level of the achievement.
Enrol:ment at prlmary level ln the beginning of
the plan was 42.12 lakhs and it increased to 48.6 by
the end of the plan period. This accounts to an
increase by 6.48 lakhs. In the case of secondary
school, the enrollment increased from 5.36 to 6.56
lakhs showing an increase of 1.2 lakhs.
Sixth Plan: While the Fifth Plan emphasized on
Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) which included primary
educat::'on as one of the components, the Sixth Plan
mentions a 20-point programme which includes
elementary and adult education. The primary objective
of these two educational approaches are to improve
literacj status of the population. The MNP adopted in
the 6th plan stipulates that by the end of the plan
the targeted coverage of the age group 6-13 would be
82 per cent.
108
For the first time net enrollment target was
fixed. While reiterating importance of education in
economic growth and social trans formation, the
rationale for improving primary education followed the
same footsteps as that of the prevlous plans.
Resources were allocated to the same kinds of
programmes as pursued In t~e previous plans :or e.g.
the plan proposed to concentrate on selected HPS
schools to improve retention at the lower primary
school. The logic behind such an approach is unclear
especially in the case of expansion of teaching staff.
Aggregate additional enrollment of 4.01 lakhs was
considered to ·propose 10,000 primary school teachers
in the ratio of 1:40.
Incentive schemes in the form of free text
books, attendance scholarships and mid day meals took
away a large portion of plan outlays. An attempt was
made in the Plan to regulate school supervision. The
preamble of the draft plan dealt with the approach of
the plan In which the importance of projection of
populatlon and demographic distribution was
recognised. But the educational plan did not indicate
taking inputs from such analysis.
109
Seventh P.lan: Even after observing such
inadequacies of data base used in the past, Seventh
Plan did not env1.sage any effort to develop reliable
and robust data base which is s~ne qua non for
ratlonal
expressed
enrollment
planning. Instead, the plan document
helplessness and arbitrar:ly fixed
targets and additional teacher
requirements. During the Seventh plan period Karnataka
saw the emergence of ZP structure.
The plan documents provided lists of schemes and
programmes to be implemented separately by the state
and district level administration. The rhetorics of
Seventh Plan talks much about decentralisation of
development planning which includs education also. But
there was no mention of the role of district level
machinery in the planning process itself. What lS
explained In the plan is decentralised educational
administratio~ and not decentralised planning. The
pursue of the plan document did not reveal the inter
and intra sectoral linkages with other developmental
issues.
110
The plan did not envisage any sort of mechanism
to coordinate the efforts of various departments
incl~ding the mainstay of education namely Department
of Public Instruction. The Seventh Plan continued
with its demand for resources for ed~cation uSlng
premlses of addltlonal enrollments and reduction of
wastage w:thout working out the ratlonale and details.
Inspite of the technical sophistication of the overall
Seventh plan as compared to earlier planning, the
educational sector plans remained crude in their
methodologies.
The weakness of the Seventh Plan came up when
the Eighth plan document was reviewed. It indicated
that the achievements of enrollment target at lower
prlmary level fell short by more than 5 lakh children
and the net enrollment ratio attained was only 70 per
cent. The proposed target was achieved at higher
primary stage ·.vi th a net enrollment ratio of 80 per
cent. But such estimations were based on unreliable
calculations as the age distribution of children in
school was not utilised in assessing the achievement.
In the case of appointment of teachers, the increase
ln teachers' strength was a mere 2000 in the entire
111
state as against the targeted 13,500 teachers at
primary school. The increased number included the
addition of 1611 primary school teachers under
centrally sponsored scheme initiated in the middle of
the Seventh Plan at LPS and also 1000 Hindi teachers
appointed under another centrally sponsored scheme at
HPS.
Eighth Plan: Eighth plan draft document provided
much more technical sophistication as far as overall
planning was concerned. But the planning of
educational sectors suffered from old malady of crude
arithmetical manipulation and crude targeting. The
plan rhetoric gave more importance to
decentralisation.
However, the understanding of decentralisation
in planning and development was limited to mere
transfer of centrally decided programmes to be
administered by district official machinery. The
Eighth Plan document admitted the failure of the Non
Formal Education during Seventh Plan but again reposed
its confidence on Non Formal Education. The HPS level
was 'targeted for improvement and expansion ostensibly
to improve the retention power at LPS stage in earlier
112
Plans. Further, more and more incentive schemes were
proposed to augment the retention power at LPS stage.
But successive plan documents have noted the inability
of such programmes in improvlng enrollment and
retention of children at Lower Primary stage during
the previous plans. The Eighth plan is no exception to
this. The only difference In the Eighth Plan was that
the development of Lower Primary Schools was left to
the centrally sponsored schemes and the state schemes
concentrated on Higher Primary Schools. The Eighth
Plan emphasised more on the construction of class
rooms In addition to the conventional emphasis on
enrollment and creation of teaching positions.
For the first time, there was a mention of the
need for systematic and scientific evaluation of
programmes, importance of educational performance and
use of school mapping as a device to locate new
institutions. A small amount was earmarked for school
mapping.
During the eighth
development at the national
plan period another
level took place in the
form of district primary education programme (DPEP).
It is interesting to note that the proposed centrally
113
sponsored scheme was an experiment in decentralised
planning to be undertaken by the districts identified
as backward using the criteria of female literacy.
This educational planning exercise runs parallel to
the educational planning at the state level, under the
Five Year Plans. In other words, the districts where
DPEP is proposed, ~he state government is required to
continue its own plan interventions to speed up the
growth and distribution of primary education at lower
primary level.
It is clear, however, that enrollment captures
inadequately the extent to which there is
participation in elementary education. It is difficult
to reliably estimate the magnitude of drop outs from
the formal schooling system, but on an impressionistic
basis this is known to be high. Indeed, the department
of education estimated an average wastage and
stagnation rate of 44 per cent for children between 6
to 13 years. Wastage and stagnation are particularly
high for girls in the age group of 11 to 13 years. It
is a matter of surprise that MNP targets for
elementary education have always been phrased by the
Gove'rnment of India in terms of enrollment coverage
rather than attendance coverage. With enrollment
114
determined at the beginning of the academic year,
there is at present a procedural bias inherent in the
existing reporting system which needs to be removed.
Attendance for two-thirds of the academic year may,
for instance, be taken as an indicator of a child's
partic~pation In schooling. Data on the number of
such children in schools is not available. As a
consequence, Karnataka's Eighth Plan continued to set
its objectives in terms of enrollment coverage.
The Eighth five Year plan was under
implementation at the time of the present study. In
order to realise decentralised decision making in
planning and development and to ensure effective
participation of the local people the development
activities under social sectors have been transferred
to Zilla Parishads and MandaI Panchayats for planning
and implementation of the same. But the plan
strategies with component programmes are decided at
the state level for uniform application in all the
districts.
In the Eighth Plan Rs. 2060 crore has been
provided for the district sector programmes and the
amount has been distributed among the districts based
11S
on an objective criteria 1n which backwardness 1S
strongly built into. Thus, the backward districts are
allocated with larger plan outlay. The Zilla Parishads
and Mandai Panchayats work out the details of their
programme wi thin the amount provided. At the state
level, Annual Plan emerge out of the compilation of
all district proposals.
The programmes pertaining to rural development,
primary and secondary education, rural roads, rural
water supply, housing etc. which are the basic needs
of the local people, have received high investment
priorities under the district plan. Further,
decentralisation is also to be realised by involvement
of large number of voluntary organisations at various
levels. This is possible largely in the social sectors
like education, health, youth services, art, culture
etc. Similarly local organisations will also be
encouraged to take up a variety of services in the
sectors like education, health, family welfare,
ecology, environment etc. The extent to which these
proposals have been implemented is to be learned only
after the term of the current Five Year Plan comes to
an end. The brief outlining of strategies and
programmes proposed under each Five Year Plan staring
116
from the Fourth and the assessment of programmes
during each of these Five Year Plans upto the Seventh
Five Year Plans indicates the following:
• A high priority objective of all Five Year Plar.s
under consideration was improvement of access and
second was to ~mprove the retention capac:. ty of
formal schools. A very low prior~ty is accorded to
educational processes leading to measurable
educational outcomes.
• Succeeding plans starting from the Fourth claims
Plan considerable achievement in the form of gross
enrollment ratio achieved through improving
physical access. These claims will be further
analysed in the succeeding sections.
4.3 Distribution of plan outlays during Five Year Plans:
The nature of interventions and priority areas
can be ascertained when the outlays are analysed in
terms of their components. An attempt is made here
to analyse the
Five Year Plan
plan outlays
through Eighth
starting from Fourth
Fi ve Year Plan by
117
categorising
intervention.
them according to the nature of
These outlays include allocations under General
education, Women and child welfare and Social
welfare sectors which are directly or indirectly
facultative of primary education.
The following categories were derived to
combine allocations under various programmes:
Civil works: This category includes all
construction activities related to school buildings,
hostels, additional rooms to existing schools,
Ashram schools and repairs.
Maintenance of Hostels: This category includes
the outlays for maintaining government hostels for
various special focused groups like girls, SC, ST,
Denotified Tribes, Nomadic and Semi-nomadic Tribes,
Other Backward classes and also grants given to
private agencies to maintain hostels for the same.
Ashram School: This includes all types of
residential schools run by government. Any
118
allocations for constructing ~es~dential schools a~e
not included in this category. 'Chey are accounted
unde~ civ~l works.
Salaries of teachers: Salary component of all
the proposed additional teachers and up-gradation of
teacher's posts to that of Head masters, new posts
of Headmasters, Hindi teachers etc. are included in
this category
Incentives: This category includes mid-day
meals, scholarships, free supply of textbooks and
stationary, uniforms and monitory incentives for
attendance.
Equipment and Library: Allocations made for
the supply of library books, teaching aids,
furniture etc. are included under this label.
Administration: This includes allocations made
for expansion and streamlining of administrative
machinery.
119
In-service training of teachers: Allocation
made for in-service training and supply of teacher
support materials are included under this category.
Others: Residuals wh:ch could not be classified
under any of the above groups corne under this
category.
Table 4.1 provides the distribution of the
outlays (in per cent) across different categories
and the total plan outlays for Fourth, Fifth, Sixth,
Seventh and Eighth Five Year Plans.
Table 4.1 Distribution of outlays under various categories of interventions
under Five Year Plans starting from IV Plan:
120
Fig.4.1 Plan Outlays on Primary Education: Foc.rth f\ot. '!'ear Plan
0In •• 3.88
Tr Trg ~ee
Inotrnh .. " 0.e7
Hottol t12
SlxII FM ' ..... Ptan o.:..t II'1I01Ia\ III> e
.....,1gII.o.e
T .. o ..... SalarV T.44 EqU"""" 0.13
In","", r-... 2Q 7
Karnataka
A ....... F1w .... Plan
II108f'It StS4
Tr TrUllng 0.2Q
0INr. :/..1
Flfth Flve Year Plan
OIlIftII'tr ... ,
0ItI .... \7'1 Tt' "It'III.--'1'" ~,..tAt
"""'* .... tt01
EIgh1h FI \1& Year Plan
000".7161
Other, 0.3
rnalna_ SQ24
It may be noted from Table 4.1 that the dominating
categories of allocations in most of the Plans are
Incentives, Construction and Salaries.
Incentives category was accorded the highest
priority in the Fifth (52%), the Seventh (31%) and
the Eighth (39 96) Plans. It was accorded the second
priority in the Sixth Plan (30%)
Construction was accorded first priority in the
Fourth (30%) and the Sixth (51%) Plans while it was
given the third place in the Seventh and Eight Plan.
This category receded to the fourth place in Fifth
Five Year Plan.
Salaries have been accorded with the second
priority claiming around quarter to one fifth of the
total allocation in all the Plans except the Sixth
Plan.
Pre-school category has gained higher
importance in recent plans. An allocation of around
122
2 per cent ln the Fourth plan increased to 19 per
cent in Eighth Plan. The focus under the pre-school
programme is more on feeding.
Ashram School category had an allocation of
around 9 per cent ln the Fourth plan. But its
priori ty came down drastically from the Fifth Plan
onwards.
Thus, a lions share of allocations has gone for
incentives, construction and teacher's salary from
the Fifth Plan onwards and the fourth category was
added in the form of the Pre School category of
intervention in the Seventh and Eighth
(graph 4.1) .
Plans
The strategic plan at the state-level as
reflected ln the plan document indicates more or
less unchanging character from plan to plan.
Compulsions of electoral politics is reflected in
outlays for incentives in all the plans excepting
the Fourth Five Year Plan. Outlays on incentives
have ranged from 30 per cent to 51 per cent. Effects
of such a strategy on educational parameters are
examined ln the subsequent paragraphs.
123
4.4 Analysis of the State level time series data:
For the purpose of examining the effor:s of plan
outlays, three sets of indicators representing access
retention and quali ty inputs are computed for each year
and the trend in changes in their values are observed.
Access indicators considered are 1. enrollment rate
representing enrollment as per cent of total population.
2. Gender equality in enrollment which explains the gap
in the coverage of boys and girls. These two indicators
are computed for general population and separately for
SC/ST and non SC/ST population.
Retention rates are calculated for each year from
1971 to 1993 for boys and girls at LPS, and also for
SC/ST and non SC/ST groups. Retention rate is computed
by considering enrollment of I-IV standard of first year
and II-V standard of subsequent year. Hence it is called
Annual retention rate.
124
Quality iDput indicators
follows,
considered are as
1. Schools per ten thousand population. Changes in
this indicator represents the provision of schools
in response to the population increase.
2. Teacher per ten thousand population. Changes in the
index reflects the supply of teachers.
3. Pupil-teacher ratio, a negative indicator affects
the quality of education.
4. Standard-teacher ratio also a negative indicator
indicates the number of standards taught by the
teacher simultaneously. In other words, it
represents multi-grade teaching.
Tables 4.2 to 4.9 deal with the trend in the
progress of these indicators.
125
Enrollment: Annual changes in enrollment rates
from 1971 to 1994 at lower primary level, Higher
primary level and at the entire primary stage are
presented in the table 4.2 along with the
corresponding graph 4.2 shows almost constant
enrollment rate during 1971 to 1986 at lower primary
stage.
In 1987 there is a sudden spurt in the enrollment
almost by 1.per cent. This jump coincides with the
devolution of developmental responsibilities to the
District level.
The National policy on education 1986 supported
the decentralization of educational administration.
Accordingly,
educational
Government of
administration
Karnataka transferred
to Panchayat Raj
Insti tutions. But after a spurt by 1 per cent, the
enrollment rate remained stable after 1987 at slightly
above 11 percent.
126
On the other hand, enrollment rate at HPS stage showed
improvement by increasing from 2.94 per cent in 1971
to 5.25 per cent (graph 4.2). The increase In the
enrollment rate at the primary stage was due to the
performance at HPS level.
Tables 4.2 General enrollment rate· during 1971-1994:
Year LPS HPS Primary Per cent Number Per cent Number Percent Number
1971 10.46 3065806 2.94 860003 13.4 3925809 1972 10.54 3161111 3.06 917830 13.6 4078941 1973 10.58 3250229 3.13 962188 13.71 4212417 1974 10.34 3251558 3.04 956722 13.38 4208280 1975 10.38 3343341 3.14 1012657 13.52 4355998 1976 10.5 3464003 3.23 1066744 13.74 4530747 1977 10.59 3575524 3.24 1093767 13.82 4669291 1978 10.56 3651725 3.35 1160211 13.91 4811936 1979 10.61 3759246 3.36 1190029 13.97 4949275 1980 10.37 3761504 3.37 1223113 13.74 4984617 1981 10.45 3880719 3.48 1292907 13.93 5173626 1982 10.35 3916996 3.56 1346501 13.9 5263497 1983 10.59 4086591 3.63 1400934 14.22 5487525 1984 10.38 4081470 3.72 1464530 14.1 5546000 1985 10.34 4144537 3.77 1512454 14.11 5656991 1986 10.4 4249197 4.05 1653259 14.44 5902456 1987 1l. 22 4675961 4.39 1830410 15.62 6506371 1988 11.38 4832880 4.19 1777723 15.57 6610603 1989 1l.16 4832094 4.46 1932024 15.63 6764118 1990 11.27 4974629 4.49 1980100 15.76 6954729 1991 11. 26 5064304 4.73 2126659 15.99 7190963 1992 11 . 14 5117081 5.14 2361309 16.28 7478390 1993 11.38 5340973 5.14 2411541 16.52 7752514 1994 11.18 5361451 5.25 2515298 16.43 7876749
* Enrollment as percent of population
127
0 1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
19n
1978
1979
1~~ 1961
(""I ;>J 1963
I 1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1900 '
1931
1E132
1933
1994
IV
I
\ I
I , t I
...
I
\ I
I I
\ I
I I I , \ \ \ \ , , I J I , \ I I
\ \ \ \ \ I I I I I ,
0>
PERCENT
a> o
m I I 1"'tJ :r: r I -. "'tI 11 I, ~ (JJ ((J I 1.:1 I
'" ... f I , i t , t r
./. i t \ t t I '. + i I + ! J
t \ +
+ I \
+ i
r + 1 \
'\'"
0>
+ , ! +
+
+
+
t
t +-
~
a>
C) rn z rn ~ r rn z :u o r r 3: rn z -I » CIJ 'lJ rn :u o rn z -I o "TI
'lJ o 'lJ C
~ -I 5 z c c ~ z C) -'" ..... -, -'" '" ....
G'l iil "0 :::T
.... '"
Table 4.3 along with the corresponding graph 4.3
reveals some interesting information about the growth
of enrollment of SC/ST population as compared to
others. Enrollment rate has increased and overtaken
the rate of Non-SC/ST over the period under
consideration. At lower primary level, the coverage of
SCI ST increased from 6.04 per cent to 13.4 per cent
whereas it was 11 per cent initially and remained more
or less constant through out for non SC/ST. At the
HPS stage, non SC/ST enrollment rate was higher than
the SC/ST enrollment rate during 1971. Both the
categories showed increase in the coverage but the
coverage of SC/ST accelerated to catch-up with the
non- SC/ST enrollment rate by 1988 and surpassed the
non- SC/ST enrollment rate afterwards. This has
resulted in the increase of enrollment rate at primary
stage. This shows that SC/ST category was lagging
behind non SC/ST during 1971 but coverage accelerated
from 1975 onwards as compared to non SC/ST category.
The analysis of the plan documents in terms of
the priority In investments showed that a greater
attention was given to access increasing measures in
the form of incentives for SC/ST children. Such
efforts have worked favorably.
129
Table 4 3 Comparison of enrollment rate between SCIST and Non SCIST During 1971 to 1993
I I I I I I LPS sclst LPS nonsclst HPS sclot HPS nonocl.t Primary Iclot Primary nonoelot
Year Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Numbef Per cent Number Per cenl Number 1971 604 246553 11 18 2780663 1.32 54009 3.2 805994 731 298491 1438 3627318 1972 6.34 265147 11.21 2854464 1.43 59554 332 858276 773 323238 1454 3755703 1973 666 285143 11.21 2912996 1.53 65668 3.39 896570 818 350037 1461 38623BO 1974 7 306647 1066 2806367 1.65 72410 327 884312 865 379057 1414 3829223 1975 7.52 337233 1064 2864576 1.74 77970 3.37 934687 925 415203 14.21 3940795 1976 9.69 445191 10.63 2868317 1.99 91645 3.43 975099 1147 527177 14.1 4003570 1977 10.18 478765 10.65 3032437 2.1 98682 3.42 995085 12.27 577447 1408 4091844 1978 954 595686 1078 3026999 1.91 119083 3.67 1041128 11.45 714769 14.46 4097167 1979 8.5 543087 11.08 3138944 2.06 131545 3.65 1058484 10.55 674632 14.73 4274843 1980 658 624726 1082 3049745 2.07 150781 37 1072332 1066 775507 1452 4209110 1981 6.36 620302 10.97 3168867 2.19 162450 3.8 113Q.457 1055 782752 1478 4390874 1982 941 711759 10.58 3157998 22 166580 39 1179941 11.61 878319 1448 4385178 1983 9.23 712052 10.93 3301362 222 170915 39B 1230019 11.45 882987 1491 4604558 1984 9.66 758998 10.56 3286347 2.4 188543 405 1275987 1206 947541 1461 4598459 1985 9.8 785209 1047 3284761 304 243486 398 1268968 12.84 1028595 14.43 4628296 1986 9.74 795123 10.56 3300620 304 248459 43 1404800 12.78 1043582 1488 4858874 1987 10.33 859776 1145 3649258 322 268142 4.69 1562268 13.55 1127918 1613 5378453 1988 11.18 948577 11.43 3775999 3.43 290806 4.38 1486917 14.61 1239383 1581 5371220 1989 11.87 1026703 1099 3711671 3.69 319037 4.86 1612987 15.56 1345740 1584 5418378 1990 1199 1056881 111 3832962 431 380272 4.53 1599828 163 1437153 1563 5517576 1991 1207 1120423 1105 3766500 4.23 392779 488 1733880 163 1513202 1591 5677761 1992 12.04 1141667 10.9 5117081 5.25 497774 5.11 1863535 17.29 1639441 1601 5838949 1993 13.4 1297804 1066 5340973 5.03 487250 5.17 1924291 1842 1785054 1602 5967460
130
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Gender equality: A similar presentation of
equality index is presented in the table 4.4.
The gender equality index of enrollment at lower
and hlgher primary levels of education. The trend in
the equali ty index shows improvement reflecting the
reduction in the gap between boys I
enrollment.
and girls I
The equality ratio of enrollment at LPS stage was
77.85 In 1971 and it increased to 93.27 in 1994.
Similarly at HPS, the value shows improvement from
57.48 in 1971 to 89.79 in 1994.
Plan efforts appear to be successful In reducing
the gap between enrollment of girls and boys though
they failed to remove the disparity that exists
between the sexes completely. The inequality lS more
at HPS level as compared to LPS. From the graph 4.4 it
is evident that the equality index lS increasing
constantly throughout the period under consideration.
132
The difference in equality indicators at LPS and HPS lS
also narrowing down over the years.
Table 4.4 Gender equality in enrollment at primary level during
1971-1994:
Year LPS HPS Primary
1971 77.85 57.43 72.94 1972 78.18 58.48 73.34 1973 78.12 58.78 73.31 1974 79.5 59.98 74.67 1975 79.47 61. 4 74.93 1976 79.71 61. 49 75.07 1977 80.23 62.52 75.75 1978 81.18 63 76.44 1979 81. 44 63.35 76.74 1980 83.79 65.99 79.09 1981 87.06 63.5 80.57 1982 86.5 64.91 80.47 1983 84.5 67.63 79.88 1984 83.08 69.9 79.41 1985 83.81 68.35 79.41 1986 85.73 73.37 82.1 1987 87.56 73.62 83.42 1988 87.85 74.82 84.16 1989 90.53 76.08 86.18 1990 88.23 75.69 84.48 1991 93.06 80.65 89.22 1992 88.18 76.37 84.29 1993 90.52 82.97 88.ll 1994 93.21 89.79 92.1
133
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X C66l
X 600l
..... X BOOl ."
." .... , .... X L86l "-
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X 986l Z ii: ::l C X S86l I-Z W X t>il6l ..... ~
..... ...I
.t:: ...I a. 0 X £86l <Il iii:: II: ~
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X LL6l
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Table 4.5 compares the gender equality In
enrollment in SC/ST and Non SC/ST groups. At LPS
stage, the value for SC/ST was 63.03 and non SC/ST was
79.27 during 1971. In 1993 the values for SC/ST and
Non SC/ST were 85.32 and 92.24 respectively.
Table 4.5 Gender equality in SC/ST and Non SC/ST enrollment at level
primary level during 1971-1993 :
LPS HPS Primary Year
SC/ST non SC/ST non SC/ST non SC/ST SC/ST SC/ST
1971 63.03 79.27 47.17 58.01 57.66 74.08 1972 63.85 79.62 47.9 59.1 58.43 74.49 1973 64.68 79.53 48.64 59.4 59.21 74.43 1974 65.53 81.09 49.39 60.7 60 75.95 1975 65.76 81.15 49.61 62.25 60.26 76.29 1976 69.04 81.4 48.23 62.62 63.19 76.34 1977 69.94 81.94 48.44 63.8 63.47 77.18 1978 73.26 82.8 51 64.19 66.62 77.73 1979 72 .16 83.11 51.48 64.62 65.33 78.2 1980 70.53 86.73 55 67.46 65.54 81.43 1981 73.04 90.02 59.4 63.86 68.26 82.54 1982 75.55 89.13 59.33 65.49 70.36 82.14 1983 69.16 88.11 52.03 69.81 63.86 82.86 1984 77.95 84.31 55.78 71. 93 71.18 80.7 1985 78.52 85.1 56.77 70.38 71.07 80.82 1986 79.59 87.21 56.77 76.31 71.79 83.92 1987 82.29 88.8 58.76 76.09 74.23 84.93 1988 82.5 89.2 64.43 76.56 76.02 85.53 1989 86.28 91.71 61.59 78.81 77.83 87.68 1990 83.62 89.5 78.13 74.55 80.22 84.91 1991 83.7 95.89 67.67 83.17 76.99 91.83 1992 86.18 88.76 72.85 76.54 79.72 84.68 1993 85.32 92.24 70.77 85.51 78.84 90.02
135
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1961
-< ~19B2 ;%)
1983
1964
1965
1 EllS
1967
1968
1~
1900
1991
15Q2
1993
0 o ~ ~ &
PERCENT
11) B
. I I
\ \ . \ I
I I
I \
C!
. \
g;
I
I , I \
\
I
I I
\ , \ t
\
8
\ \
1( i \
\
\ I
I
f \
'. \
, I I I
\ \
I
I
\ I
\. I l (
\ \ + \ \ '----.' ) ~ I
/ ' -- \
8
j " "
\ . I
.. _ .. --_ .•.. _ ... _ .... - (,. // -""-"-'''--''- ". \ -- --_ ... _' \ __ ,.-.J
r~ t .- .-I:r"'U"'tJ "'U"'O(f)(n cn(()~m
I:::J ., 0 0 o 0 :::J ii"" :::Jiir~_ 1: - <> ;~ !l i_
G') m z c m ;U
m D c l> r =i -< z m z ;U 0 r r s: m z -I
0 " CI) G)
0 ~
- '" CI)
-0 :T
-I ~
l> U'I Z C Z 0 Z CI)
0 -CI)
-I
C C ;U
Z G') -<D .... -, -<D <D Co>
The trend shows that the Non SC/ST group has
higher gender equality than SC/ST group (Graph 4.5).
This result lS reflected at all levels of primary
education. In both the groups inequality of enrollment
lS found to exist at both lower and higher primary
levels.
The lower values of the index at HPS level as
compared to LPS level imply that girls tend to
discontinue their schooling after lower primary stage.
The gender gap in the case of SC/ST is getting bridged
at a higher rate at the LPS. But the gender gap in the
case of non SC/ST is getting bridged at higher rate at
HPS level.
Annual Retention Rate:
According to the table 4.6 annual retention rate
at LPS shows improvement over 24 years. Both girls and
boys retention rates show improvement. The retention
rate of boys was higher than girls in 1971. This
dif~erence has been reduced and the retention rates of
137
both boys and girls became almost equal 1992 (graph
4 . 6 ).
Table 4.6 General and gender wise retention
at lower primary level during 1971-1992
Year Total Boys Girls
1971 75.59 77.94 72.43 1972 75.45 77.94 72 .12 1973 73.61 75.7 70.82 1974 75.95 78.51 72.57 1975 75.82 78.49 72.3 1976 76.79 79.47 73.28 1977 78.76 81.18 75.62 1978 79.98 82.69 76.49 1979 78.85 80.11 77.23 1980 80.75 83.22 77.66 1981 79.3 83.48 74.32 1982 83.26 88.38 77.11 1983 82.65 85.24 79.47 1984 84.68 86.74 82.11 1985 86.27 87.68 84.53 1986 92.28 93.56 90.73 1987 86.97 89.33 84.18 1988 85.51 85.89 85.07 1989 88.12 90.5 85.38 1990 89.28 88.97 89.65 1991 90.86 94.95 86.27 1992 92.81 92.86 92.76
138
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In table 4.7 SC/ST and Non SC/ST retention rates
are compared. In 1971, Non SC/ST retention was more than
SC/ST. There was more fluctuation in the retention rate
of SC/ST as compared to non SC/ST during 1970' s. The
situation got stabilised during 1980's for SC/ST. In
recent years the retention rates of both SC/ST and non
SC/ST are tending towards the same level (Graph 4.7).
Table 4.7 SC-ST & Non-SC/ST retention at lower
pr1mary level during 1971-1992 :
Year SC/ST Non-SC/ST 1971 72.22 75.88 1972 72.45 75.72 1973 72.68 73.70 1974 73.34 76.22 1975 86.96 74.57 1976 71. 07 77.64 1977 83.68 78.00 1978 64.87 82.93 1979 83.56 78.05 1980 74.04 82.09 1981 80.75 79.02 1982 70.87 86.01 1983 79.65 83.28 1984 80.85 85.55 1985 78.97 87.98 1986 84.32 94.11 1987 86.49 87.08 1988 84.32 85.81 1989 83.28 89.42 1990 86.88 89.93 1991 88.96 91.40 1992 96.13 91.85
140
Growth of schools
Number of schools per ten thousand population
indicates the basic facility for quality education. The
changes in this indicator from 1971 to 1994 are examined
in this section. In Karnataka all primary schools have
Lower Primary classes. Whether they are called Lower
Primary school or Higher Primary schools. Classes V, VI
and VII are taught In addition to I to IV classes in
Higher Primary schools.
From table 4.8 it is found that schools with lower
primary stage per ten thousand population has been
decreasing over a period of time. The index value of
primary schools decreased by 2.6. But the index value of
HPS remained almost constant during the period under
consideration.
In absolute number schools with lower primary
classes is increasing but the growth of such schools in
relation to the growth of population is found to be
142
inadequate. But the HPS school per ten thousand
population is found to be constant(Graph 4.8).
This shows that HPS schools have kept pace with
increasing population throughout the perlod. It lS
interesting to note that at HPS level the enrollment
rate has kept pace wlth the increase in population
through out (table 4.2) .
The demand for HPS by the population has been met.
The provision of LPS and its expansion is a supply issue
on the part of the State Government, whereas the
provision of HPS is a demand issue which the State has
to respond. The demand has been positively responded by
the State while the supply side has been lacking at LPS
level. While the Primary schools per ten thousand
popUlation has slowly declined through-out the period
under consideration, nwnber of HPS per ten thousand
population has been increasing.
It lS also likely that the opening of schools in
viable localities has been saturated reSUlting in very
143
few new schools opened. During the period the existing
lower primary schools are increasingly being expanded
to higher primary schools. In other words schools with
only one to fourth standards are being up-graded to
include Fifth to Seventh standards also.
Table 4.8 GROWTH OF SCHOOLS FROM 1971-1994:
Year HPS per HPS Schools per Schools ten ten
thousand thousand population population
1971 3.76 llO06 11.16 32692 1972 3.71 lll32 10.95 32840 1973 3.62 lll32 10.69 32840 1974 3.52 ll069 10.44 32840 1975 3.51 ll300 10.26 33054 1976 3.49 ll497 10.15 33474 1977 3.45 ll666 10.01 33826 1978 3.44 ll914 9.96 34442 1979 3.44 12174 9.8 34706 1980 3.5 12704 9.69 35143 1981 3.47 12897 9.57 35549 1982 3.43 12997 9.6 36353 1983 3.58 13821 9.75 37634 1984 3.54 13933 9.6 37776 1985 3.68 14747 9.69 38855 1986 3.61 14747 9.53 38933 1987 3.77 15725 9.32 38831 1988 3.75 15905 9.18 38983 1989 3.77 16318 9.21 39857 1990 3.74 16512 9.ll 40207 1991 3.79 17062 9.06 40768 1992 3.76 17268 8.82 40540 1993 4.03 18916 8.69 40776 1994 3.97 19038 8.69 41684
144
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Indicators of quality inputs:
Table 4.9 gives the indicators representing quality
inputs. Supply of teachers has exhibited fluctuating
trend over the plan periods. Graph 4.9 reflects a
cyclical trend in the provision of teachers in relation
to population. The initial peak in 1971 decreased and
reached a lowest level in 1979 and suddenly picked up
to touch another peak in 1984. Immediately there was a
steep fall and touched another low between 1984 and
1989. The situation is improving from 1989 onwards. By
and large, the position has not changed drastically as a
whole. Enrollment has, however, been showing increasing
trend at HPS. This has resulted In the gradual increase
in pupil-teacher ratio during the period under study
(Graph 4.10).
Finally, the standard-teacher ratio has marginally
decreased but one teacher handling more than one class
at a time persists (Graph 4.11). In other words, the
situation has worsened as far as quality inputs are
considered during the period under study. The change in
the Pupil-teacher ratio indicates that the supply of
146
teachers has not been adequate in relation to changes
in enrollment. There has been a sudden jump In
enrollment at LPS stage in 1987. The enrollment rate lS
constantly increasing at HPS stage through out. But the
supply of teachers is lagging behind.
Table 4.9 Growth of teachers at primary level from 1971-1994:
Year Teachers Teachers per Pupil- Standard-Teacher ten thousand Teacher ratio
population ratio
1971 103612 35.36 37.89 1. 58 1972 99022 33.01 41.19 1. 66 1973 100222 32.62 42.03 1. 64 1974 99261 31. 55 42.4 1. 66 1975 100778 31. 29 43.22 1. 65 1976 102648 31.12 44.14 1. 64 1977 104105 30.82 44.85 1. 64 1978 106601 30.82 45.14 1. 63 1979 108360 30.6 45.67 1. 62 1980 112839 31.11 44.17 1. 58 1981 117686 31.69 43.96 1. 54 1982 126234 33.35 41. 7 1. 46 1983 127682 33.09 42.98 1.5 1984 135075 34.34 41.06 1. 43 1985 135362 33.76 41.79 1. 48 1986 135362 33.12 43.6 1. 48 1987 127699 30.65 50.95 1. 59 1988 131093 30.87 50.43 1. 55 1989 132311 30.57 51.12 1. 57 1990 135724 30.76 51. 24 1. 55 1991 140530 31. 24 51.17 1. 52 1992 142921 31.11 52.33 1.5 1993 147921 31.52 52.41 1. 49 1994 162795 33.96 48.38 1. 39
147
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4.5 Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention
and quality input indicators.
In the previous exercise, the trend in the
progress of access, retention and quality input
indicators were examined. In this section, the
influence of plan expenditure on these
indicators are analyzed from 1971 to 1993.
selected
Table 4.10 shows that Plan expenditure on Primary
education from 1971-1993. The expenditure collected
from the Government Documents was in current prices. To
account for the changes in the inflation of prices,
these expenditure values were converted to constant
prlces by using GDP (Gross domestic product) deflators.
It is clear that expenditure on education has increased
from 1971 to 1993 both at constant and current prices.
The expenditure has increased by 8923.1 lakh during
1993 from the initial expenditure 562.44 lakh. It is
observed that
distributed to
the
all
expenditure
the Annual
is not uniformly
Plans, there is
fluctuation in the expenditure of Annual plans which
151
account under same five Year Plan. But it lS eVlde:1t
that the expenditure on Primary education has increased
during successive plan periods. Thls lncrease In
expenditure is expected to influence the development of
primary education.
Table 4.10 Annual plan expenditure on Pr~mary Educat~on
in constant and current prices. (fig. l.n LUthI
Plan Expenditure Year Current prices Constant prices 1971 115.3 562.44 1972 211.54 931.89 1973 154.92 580.22 1974 132.13 419.46 1975 167.22 542.92 1976 377.47 115434 1977 449.41 131406 1978 620.21 1782.21 1979 440.42 1095.57 1980 277.27 617.53 1981 373.23 754.00 1982 684.64 1289.34 1983 1116.13 1934.37 1984 1588.61 2562.27 1985 889.57 1335.69 1986 701.37 989.24 1987 1686.23 2189.91 1988 1326.8 1594.71 1989 1893.53 2101.59 1990 3335.77 3335.77 1991 5789.8 5056.59 1992 13515.2 10820.82 1993 12805.48 9485.54
152
The variation in access, retention, quality input
indicators are likely to be influenced by plan
expenditure. Hence to know the influence of plan
expenditure if any, on the above selected indicators,
linear regression technique was adopted. The Plan
expenditure was considered as independent variable and
selected access, retention and quality input indicators
were considered as dependent variables.
The access indicators namely total enrollment at
primary level and gender equality in enrollment, Annual
retention rate and quality input indicators such as
school per ten thousand population, teachers per ten
thousand population, pupil-teacher ratio and standard
teacher ratio were considered. To know the influence of
Expenditure on development of Primary Education Linear
regression technique. Table 4.11 shows the values of
constant, slope coefficient, Durbin-watson (D.W) and
centered R-square values.
153
Table 4.11 Results of Linear regression obtained by considering
plan expenditure as Independent Variable:
Dependent Variables
1 Total enrollment at primary level
2 Retention at LPS
3 Gender equality in enrollment
4 Schools pre ten thousand Ipopulation
5 Teachers pre ten thousand population
6 Pupi I-teacher ratio
7 Standard-teacher ratio
* 1% level of significance **5% level of significance
Constant slope coefficient
13.79 0.00029
(7845)* 1591 )**
79411 0.0014 (6237)* (403)* 77.11 -0.001 ;(7335)* 113.82)* 10.11 -0.0001
1(74.69)* 11-4.08)* 32.17 -00001
(85 78)* (-0.32) 42.96 0.001 .(48.07)* (-4.26) 1.58 -00001 1(8705)* (-2.17)
D.W
0.467
0417
0.698
0.233
0.503
049
0.493
Centere dR2 0.625
0436
0411
0.44
0.045
0453
0.184
From the Table 4.11 it lS found that in linear
regression, Durbin-Watson(D.W) values show the presence
of auto-correlation in all the cases. In the presence
of auto-correlation, variance of coefficient value will
te biased. And to obtain an unbiased variance of
154
coeffic1ent values, correction for the presence of
auto-correlation 1S required. Hence, the 'Maximum
likelyhood' estimation was used to correct for the
presence of auto correlation. The corrected results are
glven in the table 4.12
Table 4.12 Results of Linear regression with correction for autocorrelation. obtained by considering plan expenditure as Independent Variable:
I Dependent Variables Constant slope RHO Center coeffi cient edR2
1 Total enrollment at 1441 0.000092 0.957 0.915 Ipnmary level
1(1603) 1(203) "10401 )* 2 Retention at LPS 8115 0.00047 0.889 0.839
1(2095) 1(-130) 1/8128)* 3 Gender equality in 82.87 -0.00055 0.979 0.854
enrollment 11945) 1(-193) 1'11439)*
4 Schools pre ten 10.07 -0.000035 0.989 0.946 thousand Ipopulatlon
1(984) )(-153) 1/24743)* 5 Teachers pre ten 32.53 -0.00007 0791 0.542
thousand loooulation
1(3507) 1(-057) 115961 )*
6 PUOII-teacher ratio 43.76 0.00046 0.882 0.799 [(1472) -1.58 1/7.369)*
7 Standard-teacher 1.57 -00000057 0.754 0.661 ratio
1142.35621 ) 1/-097146) 1(528363)*
• 1\ level of signlficance,
155
The results reveal that the coefficient of
regression lS positive and significant at 0.5% level
for total enrollment per ten thousand population. And
equality indicator of enrollment with respect of gender
shows negative results but it lS not significant.
Further, the retention of primary school children shows
positlve value but the result is not significant.
Results obtalned with respect to quality input
indicators such as schools per ten thousand population,
teachers per ten thousand population, show negative
results but they are also not significant.
If at all the plan investment has worked, it has
resulted In overcrowding of schools. But the
corresponding requirement of teachers and schools have
not been taken care. This situation would result in
the decline in quality of education.
4.6 Effect of the introduction of ZP on education:
Since the responsibility for primary education was
transferred to the district government from 1987
onwards In Karnataka, an attempt is made here to
156
compare the performance of education during seven years
after the change with the performance during seven
years prior to it. Towards this end, mean values of all
the indicators were calculated separately for the
period before and after the introduction of Zilla
Panchayat system and compared.
Table 4.13 shows the mean enrollment rate. The
average enrollment rate at primary level both at LPS
and HPS markedly increased after the introduction of ZP
(Graph 4.12).
Table 4.13 Enrollment per ten thousand population before and after the
change in the educational administration:
YEARS LPS HPS
Before ZP 10.4358 3.61789 (1979-1986)
AfterZP 11.2505 4J23 (1987 -1994)
157
Graph 4.12 Enrollment before and after the change
12
10
8
!Z III U S II:
~ 4
2
o
in the educational administration.
LPS
YEARS
liPS
iii Before ZP (1171-1.) o An. zp (1 .. 7-1 .... )
Table 4.14 shows the gender equality index both at
LPS and HPS reflecting an increasing the
representat:on of girls at both the levels of primary
school (Graph 4.13)
158
Table 4.14 Gender equality index in enrollment before and after the
change in the educational administration:
Years LPS HPS
Before ZP 84.48 67.12 (1979-1986)
AfterZP 89.89 78.74 (1987-1994)
Graph 4.13 Gender equality index in enrollment before and after the
change in the educational administration:
90
80
70
I- 60 z
50 w (J
II: 40 w "- 30
20
10
0 LPS HPS
YEAR
El Before ZP 11979-1986)
_After ZP 11987-1994)
159
Mean values of Annual re~ention :ndicators of boys
and girls are shown in the table 4.15 The annual
retention rate for both boys and girls :ncreased after
the introduction of the change in the administration of
education. (Graph 4.14)
Table 4.15 Retention indicators before and after the change in the
educational administration:
Years Total Boys Girts
Before ZP 89.09 90.27 87.74 (1979-1986)
After ZP 98.68 101.72 94.69 (1987 -1994)
Graph 4.14 Retention indicators before and after the change in the
educational administration:
105
100
... Z95 w u 0:: 90 w Cl.
85
80 Total Boys Girls
YEAR
m Before ZP 11979-1986)
• Aller ZP 11987-1994)
160
Mean values of LPS, HPS and total schools per ten
thousand population are represented in the table 4.16
Primary schools per ten thousand population decreased
mainly because of the decrease in lower prlmary
schools. Provision of HPS slightly increased after the
introduction of ZP. (Graph 4.15)
Table 4.16 Provision of Schools before and after the change in the
educational administration:
Year LPS per ten HPS per ten Schools per thousand thousand ten thousand
population population population
Before ZP 6.12 3.53 9.66 11979-1986)
After ZP 5.21 3.82 9.01 11987-1994)
Table 4.15 Provision of Schools before and after the change in the
educational administration:
10 9~----------------------8~----------------------7~----------------------o 6 +--,---1-----------
~ ! 3 2 1 0+--...1--
LPS per ten thousand
population
HPS per ten thousand population
YEARS
Schools per ten thousand population
Ell Before ZP (1979-1986)
gAller ZP (1987-1994)
161
The quality indicators such as teachers per ten
thousand population, pupil-teacher ratio and standard-
teacher ratio are represented in table 4.17 The
proportion of teachers in the population has decreased
during the new system of educational administration.
The pupil-teacher ratio increased while Standard-
teacher ratio remained same (Graph 4.16).
The above analysis shows that the introduction of
ZP did not make any marked difference to the provision
of quality education, while it improved access and
retention of children in schools.
Table 4.17 Quality input indicators before and after the change in the
educational administration:
Year Teachers per ten Pupil- Standard thousand teacher -teacher
population
Before ZP 32.63 43.12 1.51 (1979-1986)
AfterZP 31.33 51.00 1.52 (1987 -1 994)
162
Graph 4.16 Quality input indicators before and after the change in
the educational administration:
60
60
40 Q f- lO ~
20
10
0
Teacher Pupil- Slandar a per teacher d-ten teacher
thousan
YEAR
4.7 Analysis using District as unit
Educational planning aims
II Before ZP (1979-1986)
_After ZP (1987-1914)
at reducing the
dispari ties across districts on educational parameters.
One way of looking at the effectiveness of planning is
to see whether such thing has occurred on each of the
parameters in Karnataka by using the secondary data on
different parameters and the distribution of the Average
values of the indicators at the end of each plan. By
grouping the years under plans, Average and standard •
163
deviation of the districts were obtained at the end of
each plan. The districts were classified as Poor,
Average and Good as follows.
Poor = Values below standard deviation - mean
Average = Values between standard deviation + mean
and standard deviation - mean
Good = Values above standard deviation + mean.
The parameters considered for the analysis are.
• Lower Primary Enrollment,
• Higher Primary Enrollment,
• Gender Equality at Lower Primary stage,
• Gender Equality at Higher Primary Stage,
• Primary Retention Rate of Boys at LPS,
• Primary Retention Rate of Girls at LPS,
• Total primary schools per ten thousand population,
• Primary teachers per ten thousand population,
• Pupil-teacher ratio and
• Standard-Teacher ratio.
I. Lower Primary Enrollment:
The indicator used for lower primary enrollment is
lower primary children as per cent of popUlation. Total
population was taken as denominator to overcome the
problem of variations in the school going population in
164
the districts. Table 4.18 glves the placement of
districts at the end of each plan period with the
indicator value. The mean value of the indicator has
increased through out. Among the eighteen districts,
fourteen were placed as Average and Raichur, Gulbarga
and Bidar (all in Hyderabad-Karnataka region) were under
the Poor category at the end of IV Plan. Dakshinakannada
remained in Good category :n all the Plan periods. And
the other districts remained in the Average category
Kodagu and chickamaglore. Kodagu was in Good category
till VI Plan periods and declined its position and moved
to Average category in the VIII Plan and Chickmagalore
showed erratic movement. Among them, Raichur district
stayed under the Poor category at the end of each Plan
period. Bidar which was placed as Poor at the end of the
IV Plan shifted to the category of Good district at the
end of the VI Plan and continues to show highest
enrollment rate through out. Shimoga was the only
district which was classified as Good at the end of IV
Plan. The coefficient of variation at the end of each
Plan has gradually decreased till VII Plan period
indicating the narrowlng down of inter-district
variation. Only during the VIII Plan period coefficient
of variation has slightly increased.
165
Table 4.18 DISTRICTWISE TOTAL LOWER PRIMARY ENROLMENT RATES AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
Category IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score
POOR RAICHUR 7.41 RAICHUR 7.59 KODAGU 7.85 RAiCHUR 8.35 RAiCHUR 9.87 GULBARGA 7.71 GULBARGA 8.80 RAlCHUR 8.53 BIDAR 8.55 MYSORE 9.42 MYSORE 9.39
AVERAGE MYSORE 9.41 KODAGU 9.71 GULBARGA 10.01 KODAGU 1007 TUMKUR 10.34 BELLARY 9.88 BELLARY 10.27 MANDYA 10.17 GULBARGA 10 11 KODAGU 10.35 KODAGU 10.23 BIDAR 10.57 BELLARY 10.21 MYSORE 10.15 MYSORE 10.36 MANDYA 10.68 MANDYA 10.58 SOUTHKANARA 10.28 KOLAR 10.25 MANDYA 10.53 KOLAR 11.08 BIJAPUR 10.70 DHARWAD 10.35 CHITRADURGA 10.46 CHITRADURGA 10.88 BELGAUM 11.17 CHITRADURGA 10.73 NORTH KANARA 10.38 BELGAUM 10.72 BELGAUM 11.11 BIJAPUR 11.20 TUMKUR 10.77 CHITRADURGA 10.45 TUMKUR 10.85 GULBARGA 11.16 CHITRADURGA 11.25 KOLAR 10.83 SHIMOGA 10.69 MANDYA 10.87 SHIMOGA 11.29 TUMKUR 11.42 NORTH KANARA 11.01 BIJAPUR 10.77 DHARWAD 11.13 NORTH KANARA 11.37 CHICKMAGLORE 11.44 BELGAUM 11.03 BELGAUM 10.81 NORTH KANARA 11.18 HASSAN 11.41 HASSAN 11.50 DHARWAD 11.09 CHICKMAGLORE 10.95 SHIMOGA 11.24 SOUTHKANARA 11.80 NORTH KANARA 11.70 CHICKMAGLORE 11.31 HASSAN 11.14 BELLARY 11.38 BELLARY 11.88 SOUTHKANARA 11.73 TUMKUR 11.32 CHICKMAGLORE 11.62 BIJAPUR 12.18 DHARWAD 11.92 BIJAPUR 11.75 KOLAR 12.29
HASSAN 11.87 CHICKMAGLORE 12.49
GOOD SHIMOGA 12.12 SOUTHKANARA 11.67 KOLAR 12.27 SOUTHKANARA 12.42 DHARWAD 12.95 HASSAN 11.76 BIDAR 12.78 BIDAR 13.45 BIDAR 15.56 SHIMOGA 12.16
IV Plan VPlan ------- V1Plim VII Plan VIII Plan Mean 10.49 10.56 10.46 10.99 11.54 Standared deviation 1.42 1.10 1.15 1.09 1.31 Coefficient of variation 13.56 10.46 10.98 9.95 11.33 Mean+Standard deviation 11.91 11.66 11.61 12.09 12.85 Mean-Standard deviation 9.06 9.45 9.31 9.90 1024
II. Higher Primary Enrollment:
This indicator is also calculated by taking higher
primary enrollment as per cent of population. According
to the ~able 4.19, the mean
considerably from Plan to Plan.
Gulbarga occupied Poor category
value has increased
Ini tially Raichur and
and continued through
out the period under consideration. Dakshinakannada and
Kodagu obtained the classification as Good district out
of which Dakshinakannada continued to occupy the same
position through out.
The Average of all districts increased through out
from Plan to Plan. The standard deviation came down at
the end of V Plan and increased at the end of VII Plan
and came down at the end of VIII Plan.
Most of the districts have remained Average through
out in the HPS enrollment. Bidar which showed abnormal
movement from Poor category to Good with respect to
lower primary enrollment, remained steady at the Average
category through out in the HPS enrollment.
167
Table 4.19 DISTRICTWISE TOTAL HIGHER PRIMARY ENROLMENT RATES AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971·1973) V Plan(1974·1978) VI Plan( 1980·1984) VII Plan(1985·1989) VIII Plan(1992·1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 1.52 RAICHUR 1.63 RAICHUR 1 86 RAICHUR 2.27 RAICHUR 284
GULBARGA 1.70 GULBARGA 1.82 GULBARGA 2.38 GULBARGA 2.74 GULBARGA 4.03 BIJAPUR 4.06
AVERAGE BIDAR 2.10 BIDAR 2.33 BIJAPUR 2.80 BELLARY 3.16 BELLARY 4.41 BIJAPUR 2.42 BIJAPUR 2.37 BELLARY 2.86 BELGAUM 3.28 BELGAUM 479 BELLARY 2.46 BELLARY 2.38 MYSORE 303 BIJAPUR 3.36 DHARWAD 5.05 MYSORE 2.47 MYSORE 2.55 BIDAR 3.24 KOLAR 3.42 CHITRADURGA 5.12 MANDYA 2.82 MANDYA 2.98 DHARWAD 3.28 MYSORE 3.54 MYSORE 5.37 KOLAR 2.90 DHARWAD 3.04 BELGAUM 339 BIDAR 3.74 BIDAR 5.47 BELGAUM 2.93 BELGAUM 3.10 CHITRADURGA 3.53 DHARWAD 4.07 MANDYA 5A9 DHARWAD 3.02 CHITRADURGA 3.19 KOLAR 3.68 HASSAN 4.24 NORTH KANARA 5.50 CHITRADURGA 3.07 KOLAR 3.28 MANDYA 3.87 NORTH KANARA 4.41 KODAGU 5.62 HASSAN 3.18 HASSAN 3.40 HASSAN 3.94 CHITRADURGA 4.42 HASSAN 5.73 CHICKMAGLORE 3.29 TUMKUR 3.46 NORTH KANARA 4.13 MANDYA 4.65 TUMKUR 5.73 TUMKUR 3.31 CHICKMAGLORE 3.89 SHIMOGA 4.28 TUMKUR 4.79 SHIMOGA 5.85 SHIMOGA 3.63 SHIMOGA 3.91 TUMKUR 4.35 SHIMOGA 4.88 KOLAR 6.04 NORTH KANARA 3.90 NORTH KANARA 4.01 CHICKMAGLORE 4.91 CHICKMAGLORE 6.10
KODAGU 5.11
GOOD SOUTHKANARA 5.14 KODAGU 5.09 KODAGU 4.50 SOUTHKANARA 7.59 SOUTHKANARA 7 13 KODAGU 5.48 SOUTHKANARA 5.37 CHICKMAGLORE 465
SOUTHKANARA 483
IVPI VPL VI PL VII PL VIII PL Mean 3.08 3.21 3.59 4.14 5.24 Standared deviation 1.02 1.00 0.81 118 0.96 Coefficient of variation 33.17 31.19 22.65 28.45 18.33 Mean+Standard deviation 4.10 4.21 4.40 5.32 6.20 Mean·Standard deviation 2.06 221 278 296 428
III Gender Equality at Lower Primary Stage:
The mean value Gender Equality Index at LPS
decreased from 81.85 at the end of Fourth Plan to 80.13
at the end of Fi~th Plan (Table 4.20). The indicator
shows considerable variation with respect to Shimoga,
Raichur and Kodagu during different Plan periods.
Initially, Raichur, Gulbarga and Bellary were classified
as Poor districts and Shimoga, Chitradurga and Kodagu
were placed as Good districts at the end of IV Plan.
The coefficient of variation at different points
under consideration shows reduction of inter district
variation at the end of VI Plan and increased from the
VIr Plan onwards. What is to be noted here is that
Raichur and Gulbarga remain Poor districts throughout
the period. Shimoga and Kodagu carne down to Average
category and while most of the other districts remained
under Average category through out.
169
Table 4.20 DISTRICTWISE GENDER EQUALITY RATIO IN LPS ENROLLMENT AT DiffERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-197B) VI Plan(19BO-19B4) VII Plan(19B5-19B9) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score Dlslrlc1 Score Dlstrlc1 Score District Score District Score POOR RAlCHUR 58.66 RAiCHUR 56.12 SHIMOGA 74.22 SHIMOGA 66.22 RAICHUR 66.95
GULBARGA 68.88 GULBARGA 56.43 GULBARGA 77.79 GULBARGA 66.79 GULBARGA 7508 BELLARY 70.78 KODAGU 78.91 BELLARY 72.97
~ BIJAPUR 79.14 BIDAR 73.12
AVERAGE BIDAR 71.97 BELLARY 70.12 BELLARY 81.34 BIJAPUR 78.79 DHMWM 82.29 BIJAPUR 75.34 BIJAPUR 72.46 MANDYA 84.32 KODAGU 84.17 BELLARY 83.10 KOLAR 77.44 BELGAUM 77.61 BELGAUM 84.34 BELGAUM 87.48 BIJAPUR 83.51 BELGAUM 80.51 MANDYA 78.22 MYSORE 84.86 MANDYA 88.12 SOUTH KANARA 87.38 SOUTH KANARA 83.57 KOLAR 79.30 HASSAN 85.43 CHITRADURGA 89.25 BIDM 87.43 MYSORE 84.21 SOUTH KANARA 82.66 NORTH KANARA 85.60 NORTH KANARA 89.31 BELGAUM 87.71 DHMWAR 84.90 BIDM 83.91 TUMKUR 86.50 MYSORE 89.93 KOLAR 90.37 HASSAN 87.36 DHARWM 84.60 BIDM 86.64 CHIKMAGALUR 90.89 MYSORE 91.21 CHIKMAGALUR 87.37 MYSORE 85.02 DHARWAR 86.78 DHARWAR 91.10 KODAGU 91.34 NORTH KANARA 88.37 CHITRADURGA 85.55 RAICHUR 86.86 HASSAN 91.82 SHIMOGA 93.27 TUMKUR 88.54 TUMKUR 86.40 CHITRADURGA 86.86 RAICHUR 93.00 MANDYA 94.54 MANDYA 89.03 HASSAN 86.83 SOUTH KANARA 87.74 TUMKUR 93.31 HASSAN 94.75
NORTH KANARA 88.69 KOLAR 88.05 KOLAR 94.28 CHITRADURGA 95.46 CHIKMAGALUR 88.75 NORTH KANARA 96.04 SHIMOGA 88.83
GOOD SHIMOGA 91.73 KODAGU 90.90 CHIKMAGALUR 89.62 SOUTH KANARA 95.47 CHIKMAGALUR 96.94 CHITRADURGA 92.14 TUMKUR 97.23 KODAGU 92.43
IVPI VPL VIPL vwpr-- VIII PL Mean 81.85 80.13 84.17 85.33 88.59 Standared deviation 9.46 10.36 4.17 9.49 8.08 Coefficient of variation 11.56 12.93 4.95 11.12 9.12 Mean+Standard deviation 91.31 90.50 88.33 94.83 96.67 Mean-Standard devlallon 72.38 69.77 80.00 75.84 80.51
IV Gender Equali ty at Higher Primary Stage:
In table 4.21 mean value of gender equality index
at Higher Primary stage decreased from 65.46 at the end
of Fourth Plan to 58.27 at the end of Fifth Plan. Later
on, the mean value has increased throughout to reach
79.46 at the end of the three years of Eighth Plan. It
:luctuates with respect to Dakshinakannada and Bidar
districts. Gulbarga and Raichur districts have remained
the Poor category in all the Plan periods.
Dakshinakannada in the initial periods was classified in
Average category but declined to Poor category during V
Plan, and gained the initial position during the
subsequent Plan periods. Kodagu remained in the Good
category in all the Plan periods except during VII Plan.
Chickmagalore which was grouped in Good category in
the V, VI, VII Plans, moved to Average category during
VIII Plan. Uttarakannada and Chitradurga have moved from
Average to Good category in the VIII Plan.
Rest of the districts remained grouped under the
Average category. The coefficient of variation shows
reduct:ion in the inter district variation across
districts after VI Plan onwards till VIII Plan.
171
Table 4.21 DISTRICTWISE GENDER EQUALITY RATIO IN HPS ENROLLMENT AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan( 1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score Dlstrlc1 Score Di>trlct Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 39.25 RAICHUR 32.97 RAICHUR 44.88 GULBARGA 5103 RAICHUR 6201
BIJAPUR 46.65 GULBARGA 33.71 GULBARGA 46.48 RAtCHUR 51.91 GULBARGA 63.32 BIDAR 47.32 BIJAPUR 42.69 BIJAPUR 48.84 BIJAPUR 56.71 BIJAPUR 66.50
BIDAR 52.28 BIDAR 57.11 BELLARY 67.16 DHARWAR 67.85
AVERAGE GULBARGA 53.58 BIDAR 45.19 BELLARY 56.12 BELLARY 59.82 BELGAUM 7405 KOLAR 55.89 BELLARY 47.06 TUMKUR 60.98 HASSAN 67.86 BIDAR 76.05 BELLARY 56.76 MANDYA 51.24 MANDYA 62.20 MYSORE 69.23 SOUTH KANARA 81.07 BELGAUM 65.89 TUMKUR 54.50 HASSAN 62.51 SOUTH KANARA 69.39 KOLAR 81.12 DHARWAR 66.20 BELGAUM 56.07 BELGAUM 62.52 MANDYA 69.77 MYSORE 81.15 MYSORE 66.95 KOLAR 56.41 KOLAR 63.02 TUMKUR 70.57 MANDYA 84.79 CHITRADURGA 68.37 HASSAN 56.77 CHITRADURGA 64.96 CHITRADURGA 72.44 SHIMOGA 85.34 TUMKUR 71.46 CHITRADURGA 58.72 DHARWAR 65.33 KOLAR 72.61 TUMKUR 86.60 CHIKMAGALUR 72.33 DHARWAR 60.20 SOUTH KANARA 65.95 BELGAUM 72.89 CHITRADURGA 87.36 NORTH KANARA 72.47 MYSORE 68.17 MYSORE 66.87 DHARWAR 74.02 KODAGU 88.51 MANDYA 74.97 CHIKMAGALUR 72.14 SHIMOGA 71.68 HASSAN 76.55 SHIMOGA 72.41 SOUTH KANARA 77.27 SHIMOGA 77.69
GOOD KODAGU 88.64 NORTH KANARA 74.46 NORTH KANARA 73.35 NORTH KANARA 80.83 NORTH KANARA 90.44 SOUTH KANARA 75.64 CHIKMAGALUR 74.37 CHIKMAGALUR 84.87 HASSAN 91.88 KODAGU 90.46 KODAGU 82.71 SHIMOGA 85.05 CHIKMAGALUR 95.12
KODAGU 8643 --------
IVPI - -- ----_.
VPL VI PL --VII PL VIIIPL Mean 65.46 58.27 62.50 69.59 79.46 Standared deviation 12.98 15.25 9.99 10.87 10.42 Coefficient of variation 19.82 26.16 15.99 15.62 13.12 Mean+Standard deviation 78.43 73.51 72.50 80.45 89.88 Mean-Standard deviation 5248 4302 5251 5872 6904
V Primary Retention Rate of Boys at LPS:
The mean retention rate of boys increased from Plan
to Plan. The lncrease was greater during the Fourth
Plan. (Table 4.22) Disparities across districts
represented by the coefficient of variation initially at
8.01 during Seventh Plan decreased to 7.89 during Fifth
Plan, increased to 8.77 during Sixth Plan drastically
decreased during the next two Five Year Plans to reach
4.56 during Eighth Plan. This indicates that inter
district differences have narrowed down over the Plan
periods. Relatively speaking, Bidar has shown low
retention, amongst the districts at the end of each Plan
period. Similarly, Gulbarga remained Poor till VII Plan
and improved to move up one step during VIII Plan.
At the other end Dakshinakannada remained under
Good category followed by Kodagu which was categorised
as Good district till VII Plan and became Average during
VIII Plan. Raichur district after remaining under the
Average category for most of the period shifted to Good
category during Eighth Plan. Most of the other districts
remaln clustered under Average category through out.
Both Kodagu and Dakshinakannada show the annual
retehtion rate above 100 per cent at the end of VI Plan
indicating high rate of grade repetition.
173
Table 4.22 DISTRICTWISE LPS BOYS RETENTION RATE OF AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score
POOR GULBARGA 64.03 BIDAR 65.75 GULBARGA 74.04 GULBARGA 77.33 BElGAUM 83.54 BIDAR 65.15 GULBARGA 66.05 BIDAR 74.21 BIDAR 80.85 BELLARY 84.63
BIDAR 86.13
AVERAGE RAICHUR 73.12 RAlCHUR 74.14 RAICHUR 79.88 RAICHUR 84.73 BIJAPUR 87.93 MYSORE 73.89 MYSORE 76.48 KOLAR 81.30 BELGAUM 8720 CHICKMAGLORE 88.08 MANDYA 73.92 MANDYA 76.53 CHITRADURGA 82.62 KOLAR 87.26 CHITRADURGA 88.96 HASSAN 75.94 SHIMOGA 77.01 BELLARY 83.99 BIJAPUR 88.53 KODAGU 89.93 CHITRADURGA 76.45 BIJAPUR 77.25 TUMKUR 83.99 NORTH KANARA 89.05 DHARWAD 91.14 TUMKUR 76.48 CHITRADURGA 77.68 HASSAN 84.48 MYSORE 89.17 GULBARGA 92.28 CHICKMAGLORE 76.50 TUMKUR 78.33 MYSORE 84.58 TUMKUR 89.96 HASSAN 92.74 DHARWAD 76.72 HASSAN 79.98 BIJAPUR 85.05 SHIMOGA 90.14 KOLAR 92.93 KOLAR 77.75 CHICKMAGLORE 80.11 CHICKMAGLORE 85.16 HASSAN 90.43 MANDYA 93.16 BIJAPUR 78.15 DHARWAD 80.85 BELGAUM 85.23 DHARWAD 90.61 MYSORE 93.29 SHIMOGA 78.53 BELLARY 81.10 SHIMOGA 87.06 BELLARY 90.76 NORTH KANARA 95.50 BELGAUM 78.54 BELGAUM 81.15 MANDYA 88.14 MANDYA 91.34 NORTH KANARA 78.57 KOLAR 82.17 DHARWAD 88.82 CHITRADURGA 94.16 BELLARY 82.35 NORTH KANARA 83.88 NORTH KANARA 89.49 CHICKMAGLORE 94.46
GOOD KODAGU 85.05 KODAGU 85.71 SOUTHKANARA 101.39 KODAGU 95.08 RAICHUR 95.78 SOUTHKANARA 91.01 SOUTHKANARA 92.23 KODAGU 104.21 SOUTHKANARA 98.96 SHIMOGA 96.22
SOUTHKANARA 9662 TUMKUR 96.92
IVPI -- -- -------
VPL - - -- -- -\.lfF'L VII PL VIII Pl Mean 76.79 78.69 85.76 89,45 91.43 Standared deviation 6.15 6.21 7.52 5.04 4.17 Coefficient of variation 8.01 7.89 8.77 5.63 4.56 Mean+Standard deviation 82.94 84.90 93.28 94,49 95.60 Mean-Standard deviation 70.64 7248 7824 84.41 8726
VI Pr~ Retention Rate of girls at LPS:
The mean retention rate of girls shows constant
increase from IV Plan to VIII Plan and decreased in the
value of the coefficient of variation (table 4.23) .
This indicates that the inter district disparities
are reducing. Gulbarga from the Poor category moved to
Average category in the VIII Plan.
Shimoga and Dharwad shifted from Average category
to Good category and Hassan receded to Poor category
from Average during Eighth Plan.
Kodagu stayed under the Good category till Seventh
Plan but declined to Average category ln the Eighth
Plan. Dakshinakannada stayed in the Good category in all
the Plan periods under consideration.
175
Table 4.23 DISTRICTWISE LPS GIRLS RETENTION RATE OF AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan( 1974-197B) VI Plan{19BO-1984) VII Plan{1985-1989) VIII Plan{1992-1994) Cate ory District Score District Score District Score Dlslrlct Score District Score POOR BIDAR 53.88 BIDAR 55.17 BIDAR 62.57 GULBARGA 73.68 CHICKMAGLORE 76.50
GULBARGA 54.71 GULBARGA 57.29 GULBARGA 65.45 HASSAN 82.57 BIDAR 8260
AVERAGE MANDYA 63.78 TUMKUR 67.20 RAlCHUR 71.23 BIDAR 81.73 RAlCHUR 8579 RAlCHUR 65.07 MANDYA 68.33 CHITRADURGA 75.01 RAICHUR 82.88 NORTH KANARA 86.43 TUMKUR 65.61 RAiCHUR 68.64 KOLAIR 75.41 BIJAPUR 8295 BELGAUM 86.46 HASSAN 6592 HASSAN 70.01 TUMKUR 76.21 TUMKUR 83.43 BIJAPUR 87.75 CHITRADURGA 68.35 BIJAPUR 70.05 HASSAN 76.46 MYSORE 84.02 BELLARY 88.19 BIJAPUR 70.30 CHITRADURGA 70.17 BIJAPUR 76.69 BELGAUM 84.16 TUMKUR 89.59 BELGAUM 70.99 MYSORE 71.39 BELLARY 76.70 KOLAR 84.60 GULBARGA 9006 MYSORE 71.00 SHIMOGA 72.50 MYSORE 78.09 HASSAN 84.69 CHITRADURGA 90.48 KOLAIR 72.04 DHARWAD 74.47 BELGAUM 78.67 NORTH KANARA 85.73 KOLAR 91.59 CHICKMAGLORE 72.18 KOLAR 74.90 CHICKMAGLORE 79.14 BELLARY 86.13 MANDYA 91.71 SHIMOGA 73.04 CHICKMAGLORE 75.08 SHIMOGA 79.30 DHARWAD 87.33 MYSORE 94.53 DHARWAD 73.43 BELGAUM 75.94 MANDYA 79.59 MANDYA 8803 KODAGU 94.87 NORTH KANARA 74.19 BELLAIRY 76.54 NORTH KANARA 82.35 SHIMOGA 89.39 BELLARY 78.49 NORTH KANARA 77.46 DHARWAD 82.46 CHITRADURGA 9105
GOOD KODAGU 83_95 KODAGU 85.17 SOUTHKANARA 95.55 CHICKMAGLORE 92.51 SHIMOGA 94.94 SOUTHKANARA 89.80 SOUTHKANARA 90.28 KODAGU 99.82 KODAGU 9492 SOUTHKANARA 96.93
SOUTHKANARA 9780 DHARWAD 9765 ------------------ ---- ------------
IVPI VPL VI PL VII PL VIII PL Mean 70.37 72.25 78.37 86.39 89.37 Standared deviation 8.75 8.24 8.72 5.47 5.52 Coefficient of variation 12.43 11.41 1113 6.33 6.17 Mean+Standard deviation 79.12 BO.50 87.09 91.86 94.89 Mean-Standard deviation 6163 64.01 6965 8092 8385
VII Pr1mary schools per ten thousand population:
In the table 4.24, The prov1sion of school has
steadily decreased from 11.62 to schools per ten
thousand populatlon In Four-:l1 Plan to 9.95 1n Eighth
Plan. Pattern of distribution of the districts on the
variables under each of the Plans indicate that the
supply of schools is closely associated with the Average
size of population of rural habitations and the number
of rural habitations.
For example according to Second All India Survey,
Belagum district has relatively fewer
habitation i.e. 1628 as compared
number of
to 3458
rural
rural
habitation 1n Tumkur. Belagum district has higher
population than Tumkur. Population of Belgaum was
1904630 and that of Tumkur was 1413093. Since the norm
followed to open new schools 1S the population size and
walk-able distance of one kilometer, districts like
Belgaum and Dharwad obtain schools in each village at an
early date compared to districts like Tumkur, Hassan
Which have larger number of small habitations gradually
becoming eligible for schools at a later date.
177
The gradual decline of the number of schools per
ten thousand population indicates that all districts had
attained the normative criterion for physical access by
the end of Fourth Plan. Therefore opening of new schools
were few and the population served by each of the old
schools increased resulting In fewer schools per ten
thousand popu:ation.
There is a marginal and gradual increase in coefficient
of variation value from Fourth Plan to Eighth Plan. By
and large, most of the districts have retained their
initial classifications of Poor, Average and Good.
Dakshinakannada and Dharwad have Poor position of
prlmary education whereas Tumkur, Hassan and
Uttarakannada have had Good position through out.
Belgaum district moved from Poor category to
Average category at the end of VI Plan. Raichur moved
down from Average to Poor category at the end of VIn
Plan. Kolar improved its position from Average to Good
at the end of VII Plan and continued in the same
category.
178
Table 4.24 DISTRICTWISE PRIMARY SCHOOLS PER TEN THOUSAND POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(I9.71-1973) V Plan(1974-197B) VI Plan(19BO-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992- 994) Cal ory District Score District Score District Score Dlslrlct Score Dlslricl Score POOR SOUTHKANARA 7.30 DHARWAD 7.34 DHARWAD 6.68 DHARWAD 6.53 DHARWAD 6.18
DHARWAD 7.7B SOUTHKANARA 7.73 SOUTHKANARA 7.29 SOUTHKANARA 7.16 RAICHUR 6.57 BELGAUM 8.07 BELGAUM 7.86 SOUTHKANARA 6.81
AVERAGE BIDAR 8.53 BIDAR 8.04 BELGAUM 7.49 BELGAUM 7.21 BELLARY 7.01 GULBARGA 8.82 GULBARGA 8.29 BIDAR 8.06 RAlCHUR 7.50 BELGAUM 7.09 KODAGU 9.46 KODAGU 8.82 RAICHUR B.16 BELLARY 7.82 BIDAR 7.35 BIJAPUR 9.67 RAlCHUR 903 BIJAPUR B.25 BIDAR 7.99 GULBARGA 7.60 RAICHUR 9.80 BIJAPUR 9.08 KODAGU 8.39 BIJAPUR 8.14 BIJAPUR 7.71 BELLARY 10.44 BELLARY 9.45 BELLARY 8.42 GULBARGA 8.27 KODAGU 9.12 MYSORE 10.52 MYSORE 9.73 GULBARGA 8.52 KODAGU 8.69 CHITRADURGA 10.11 CHITRADURGA 11.68 CHITRADURGA 10.94 MYSORE 9.44 MYSORE 9.14 MYSORE 10.84 MANDYA 12.74 MANDYA 11.97 CHITRADURGA 10.82 CHITRADURGA 10.22 MANDYA 11.10 KOLAR 14.09 SHIMOGA 1306 MANDYA 11.50 MANDYA 11.28 SHIMOGA 12.08 SHIMOGA 14.11 KOLAR 13.44 SHIMOGA 1219 SHIMOGA 12.28
KOLAR 13.42
GOOD TUMKUR 15.69 TUMKUR 14.69 TUMKUR 13.78 KOLAR 13.56 TUMKUR 13.23 HASSAN 16.56 CHICKMAGLORE 15.39 CHICKMAGLORE 14.45 TUMKUR 13.62 KOLAR 13.43 CHICKMAGLORE 16.71 HASSAN 15.79 NORTH KANARA 15.06 CHICKMAGLORE • 14.04 CHICKMAGLORE 13.59 NORTH KANARA 17.19 NORTH KANARA 16.26 HASSAN 16.29 NORTH KANARA 14.21 NORTH KANARA 14.17
HASSAN 15 97 HASSAN 15.1B
IVPI VPL VIPL VIIPC-- VIII PL Mean 11.62 10.94 10.46 10.20 9.95 Siandared devlallon 3.34 3.0B 3.04 3.00 3.05 Coefficient of variation 28.71 28.13 29.10 29.44 30.66 Mean+Slandard deviation 14.96 14.01 13.50 13.21 13.01 Mean-Standard deviation 8.28 7.86 741 7.20 690
~II Primary teachers per ten thousand population:
The mean value of teachers per ten thousand . population has fluctuated In an narrow range form Plan
to Plan (Table 4.25), it was 33.78 in the Fourth Plan
and came down to 31.19 in the Fifth Plan and increased
to 33.34 in the Sixth Plan and again decreased to 32.72
in the Seventh Plan and finally increased to the 33.84
in Eighth Plan. the coefficient of variation remained
constant at 18 from Sixth Plan onwards.
Districts were distributed in an narrow range
though out. Uttarakannada remained in the Good category
through out the period under consideration. Chickamglore
was In Good category in IV and V Plans and moved to
Average category In VI and VII Plan and again moved back
to Good category In VIII Plan.
Kodagu was categorised as Good in IV Plan and moved
back to Average in V and VI Plan and again became Good
category district in VII Plan and became Average
180
district l.n VIII Plan. Hassan moved to Good category
from Average category in VIII Plan.
Among the districts at the lower end Raichur
remained as Poor district throughout. Bidar which was
classified as Poor till V Plan moved to Average category
from VII Plan onwards.
Gulbarga moved to Average from Poor category agal.n
moved back to Poor category in VIII Plan. Mysore stayed
l.n Average category till V Plan and moved to Poor
category l.n VI and VII Plan and again moved to Average
category in the VII Plan. Dharwad was in Average
category till VII Plan and became Poor in VIII Plan.
All other districts which were not mentioned
remained l.n Average category through out. As far as
supply of teachers is concerned there is not much
variation across districts and it has caught up with
increase in enrollment over a period of time this gets
confirmed when the changing pupil-teacher ratio from
pla~ to plan are examined.
181
Table 4.25 DISTRICYWISE PRIMARY TEACHERS PER TEN THOUSAND POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan( 1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Cale 0 Dlslrlcl Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 21.56 RAICHUR 19.26 BELGAUM 33.86 RAICHUR 2050 RAICHUR 22.45
GULBARGA 22.07 GULBARGA 23.08 MYSORE 2402 DHARWAD 2721 BIDAR 25.88 BIDAR 25.80 GULBARGA 2753
AVERAGE SHIMOGA 29.59 MYSORE 26.81 BELLARY 28.00 BELLARY 27.31 BELLARY 2806 MYSORE 31.25 BELLARY 27.05 BIDAR 34.76 GULBARGA 27.62 MYSORE 2884 BELLARY 32.02 DHARWAD 29.76 BIJAPUR 32.36 DHARWAD 29.22 BIJAPUR 29.43 BELGAUM 32.04 CHITRADURGA 30.14 CHICKMAGLORE 38.94 BELGAUM 29.58 BELGAUM 29.57 DHARWAD 32.15 MANDYA 31.15 CHITRADURGA 31.81 MANDYA 30.43 BIDAR 32.63 MANDYA 32.86 BELGAUM 31.44 SOURH KANARA 36.56 BIJAPUR 30.88 CHITRADURGA 3308 CHITRADURGA 33.57 BIJAPUR 31.90 DHARWAD 30.51 CHITRADURGA 32 13 MANDYA 33.19 SOURH KANARA 35.95 KOLAR 32.32 GULBARGA 29.41 SHIMOGA 3394 KODAGU 3606 KOLAR 35.09 SOURH KANARA 32.20 HASSAN 37.19 BIDAR 34.54 SOURH KANARA 36.08 BIJAPUR 36.64 HASSAN 34.25 KODAGU 39.80 KOLAR 3605 TUMKUR 3753 TUMKUR 38.19 TUMKUR 34.88 KOLAR 36.57 SOURH KANARA 3651 KOLAR 3876
KODAGU 35.39 MANDYA 31.28 CHICKMAGIORE 37.50 SHIMOGA 3937 MYSORE 2007 HASSAN 37.52 RAICHUR 21.46 TUMKUR 38.26 SHIMOGA 36.18 TUMKUR 3778
GOOD CHICKMAGLORE 40.45 SHIMOGA 37.59 NORTHKANARA 43.6 KODAGU 40.03 CHICKMAGLORE 4069 KODAGU 41.36 CHICKMAGLORE 37.85 NORTHKANARA 4288 NORTHKANARA 4253 NORTHKANARA 42.88 NORTHKANARA 40.33 HASSAN 46 16 HASSAN 45.41
IVPI VPL VIPL VIIPL VIII PI Mean 33.78 31.18 3334 32.20 3384 Standared deviation 6.156 5.36 6.04 5.81 6250 Coefficient of variation 19.44 17.20 18.12 17 71 1847 Mean+Standard devlallon 4035 36.55 3938 3853 4009 Mean-SIandard devlallon 27 21 2581 2729 2690 U ~8
IX Pupil-teacher ratio:
Table 4.26 shows an ~ncrease In pupil-teacher
ratio over plan and also inter-district variation was
relatively very high during VI Plan.
Considerable fluctuations is observed in the
relative positions of the district under different
plans. Initially Dharwad classified as Poor had high
pupil-teacher ratio till fifth plan and showed
improvement improved in the VI and VII Plan to shift to
the Average category and again came back to the Poor
category at the end of VIII Plan.
Similar thing has happened in the case of Raichur
and Bidar. In the case of Mysore, the pupil-teacher
ratio became unfavorable during VI and VII Plan
resulting in the district moving from Average to Poor.
Dakshinakannada was showing unfavorable pupil
teacher ratio at the end of IV Plan and improved till
183
the end of V Plan to be placed under Average category
and declined to Poor category in the VI Plan and aga~n
moved back to Average category in the VIII Plan.
In the case of Bijapur the teacher-pupil ratio was
favourable and district was classified as Good category
at the end of IV Plan. It moved down to Average category
at the end of V Plan and it further moved down to Poor
category at the end of VI Plan. Its position improved
under VII Plan and remained so in VIII Plan.
Chickmagalore classified in Good category at the
end of VI Plan and stayed in the same category through
out.
Tumkur and Kodagu has fluctuated between Average
and Good under different Plan periods.
Uttarakannada was the only district to remain in
the Good category throughout the Plan periods.
184
Table 4.26 DISTRICTWISE PUPIL-TEACHER RATIO AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Cate ory District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR DHARWAD 4657 BIDAR 49.77 BIJAPUR 83.29 MYSORE 55.50 DHARWAD 6618
SOUTHKANARA 44.08 DHARWAD 47.34 MYSORE 62.14 SOUTHKANARA 54.03 RAICHUR 6542 BELGAUM 43.86 RAICHUR 47.14 BIDAR 6338
AVERAGE SHIMOGA 42.84 SHIMOGA 46.86 RAICHUR 48.33 DHARWAD 52.17 BELLARY 59.26 GULBARGA 42.81 BELLARY 46.39 BELLARY 46.77 RAICHUR 51.84 GULBARGA 56.25 CHITRADURGA 42.63 GULBARGA 45.63 BIDAR 46.64 MANDYA 51 08 BIJAPUR 55.39 RAlCHUR 41.78 MYSORE 45.49 MANDYA 44.96 BELGAUM 50.68 BELGAUM 54.06 HASSAN 41.64 BELGAUM 44.98 DHARWAD 44.65 BIDAR 4926 SOUTHKANARA 51.52 MANDYA 41.59 KOLAR 43.56 KOLAR 44.05 BELLARY 48.98 CHITRADURGA 4970 BIDAR 41.20 CHITRADURGA 43.50 CHITRADURGA 43.99 BIJAPUR 48.84 MANDYA 49.07 KOLAR 40.32 MANDYA 43.46 SHIMOGA 43.41 CHITRADURGA 47.86 MYSORE 48.50 MYSORE 39.88 HASSAN 43.26 GULBARGA 42.48 SHIMOGA 47.12 KOLAR 48.18 BELLARY 39.03 SOUTHKANARA 43.23 BELGAUM 42.14 GULBARGA 46.76 SHIMOGA 46.52 TUMKUR 38.67 KODAGU 41.62 TUMKUR 41.60 HASSAN 43.35 CHICKMAGLORE 45.73 KODAGU 38.25 BIJAPUR 40.97 HASSAN 4072 CHICKMAGLORE 43.21 KODAGU 4438
CHICKMAGLORE 40.10 SOUTHKANARA 39.54
GOOD BIJAPUR 37.31 TUMKUR 40.56 NORTH KANARA 33.43 TUMKUR 40.47 TUMKUR 42 13 CHICKMAGLORE 36.64 CHICKMAGLORE 40.06 KODAGU 3131 KODAGU 38.24 NORTH KANARA 40 12 NORTH KANARA 36.57 NORTH KANARA 37.11 KOLAR 37.78 HASSAN 39.50
NORTH KANARA 3639
IVPI V PL VIPL VII PL VIIIPL Mean 40.87 43.94 45.53 46.86 51 41 Standared deviation 2.76 3.12 11.37 5.74 8.24 Coefficient of variation 6.77 7.10 24.96 12.24 1603 Mean+Standard deviation 43.64 47.06 56.90 52.60 5965 Mean-Standard deviation 38 11 4082 3417 41 13 43 t 7
X Standard-Teacher ratio:
The mean value of standard teacher ratio shows
decline from Plan to Plan (table 4.27). The coefficient
of variation shows fluctuations at different Plan
periods under consideration. But the coefficient of
variation has declined after the VI Plan showing
declining trend in the disparities among districts.
Hassan remained in the Poor category except during
VI Plan. Uttarakannada has showed improvement In the
position by movIng from Poor to Average category during
VI Plan and continued In the same position during VII
and VIII Plan periods, Dakshinakannada and Dharwad,
remained in the Good category and moved to Average
during VIII Plan.
Bidar has shown improvement from V Plan onwards.
Most of the other districts remained In the Average
category.
186
Table 4.27 DISTRICTWISE STANDARED-TEACHER RATIO AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS
IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(197 4-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR HASSAN 2.19 RAICHUR 2.20 BIJAPUR 2.74 HASSAN 2.08 HASSAN 1.77
RAlCHUR 2.16 HASSAN 2.12 MYSORE 2.28 CHICKMAGLORE 1.86 NORTH KANARA 2.03 NORTH KANARA 2.04
AVERAGE CHICKMAGLORE 2.00 TUMKUR 1.99 HASSAN 2.10 SHIMOGA 1 84 NORTH KANARA 1 76 TUMKUR 1.92 CHICKMAGLORE 1.98 CHICKMAGLORE 1.86 MANDYA 1 83 KOLAR 1 75 KOLAR 1.90 KOLAR 1.96 RAICHUR 1.84 MYSORE 1.83 TUMKUR 1 74 SHIMOGA 1.88 SHIMOGA 1.89 NORTH KANARA 1.80 KOLAR 1.82 CHICKMAGLORE 1 74 GULBARGA 1.86 MANDYA 1.80 MANDYA 1.79 RAICHUR 1.80 RAICHUR 1 72 MANDYA 1.83 BELLARY 1.76 SHIMOGA 1 78 NORTH KANARA 1.75 MANDYA 1 71 BELLARY 1.80 MYSORE 1.76 TUMKUR 1.77 TUMKUR 175 SHIMOGA 1 .71 CHITRAOURGA 1.70 CHITRAOURGA 1.69 KOLAR 1 76 CHITRADURGA 1.69 MYSORE 1.68 BIDAR 1.68 GULBARGA 1.67 CHITRAOURGA 1.73 GULBARGA 1.46 CHITRADURGA 1 68 MYSORE 1.66 BIJAPUR 1.55 BELLARY 1.54 BELLARY 1.44 BIJAPUR 1 45 BIJAPUR 1.46 BIDAR 1.52 GULBARGA 1.40 BIJAPUR 1.44 KODAGU 145
BELGAUM 1.43 GULBARGA 1 42 BELLARY 140
GOOD BELGAUM 1.40 BELGAUM 1.39 DHARWAD 1.24 DHARWAD 1.27 BELGAUM 1 33 DHARWAD 1.33 KODAGU 1.36 BELGAUM 1.23 KODAGU 1.24 DHARWAD 1 31 KODAGU 1.28 DHARWAD 1.35 BIDAR 118 BIDAR 1.21 BIDAR 1.24 SOUTHKANARA 1.15 SOUTHKANARA 1.20 KODAGU 1.18 SOUTHKANARA 1.16 SOUTHKANARA 1 11
SOUTHKANARA 1 16
IVPI VPL VIPL VII PL VIII PL Mean 1.74 1.73 1.69 1.61 1.55 Standared deviation 0.30 0.29 0.42 0.28 0.21 Coefficient of variation 17.57 16.82 25.07 17.24 13.76 Mean+Standard deviation 2.04 2.03 2.11 1.88 177 Mean-Standard deviation 1.43 1 44 126 1 33 1 34
4.8 Analysis of Literacy Rates
Published data on educational development do not
provide information on educational outcomes. In the
absence of such data, changes in literacy rates can be
used as a proxy for educational outcomes as functional
literacy measured by the census is presumed to be equal
to four years of schooling.
The data on educational development analysed in
the present study belong to seventies and eighties
covered by the Censuses of India carried out in 1981
and 1991 with the information from the Census of 1971
serving as the bench mark. In this section an attempt
is made to examine the changes in the literacy rates of
variOUS segments of popUlation at the state and the
district level to obtain the indirect measure of the
effectiveness of the planed development of primary
education in Karnataka. The literacy rates published
by the Census of India, 1991 is not comparable with the
earlier Censuses carried out during 1971 and 1981. The
popul a t ion 0 f the 0 to 4 Age group was excluded in
earlier censuses while reporting the literacy
188
information where as the population of 0 to b Age group
was excluded in 1991. In order to make the literacy
rates comparable for the present study, the numbers of
llterates have been divided by the total population
reported in each of the Censuses.
One of the main objective of all Five Year Plans
of Karnataka considered in this study was to reduce
social and geographical inequalities in the development
indicators like education, health, etc. Therefore, the
education sector Plans are expected to bridge the gaps
in the literacy levels of various population segments
and differences across districts. In the present
analysis the literacy gains of some of the important
population categories and districts will be examined to
draw inferences about the effectiveness of Educational
Planning.
4.8.1 Ll teracy galns of Scheduled. castes, Scheduled.
Trlbes and General Population
To begin with, the literacy gains of the
vulnerable sections of the society like Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes are compared with the gains
189
reglstered by the population in general. The population
belonging to scheduled Tribe category is around 4.25
per cent In Karnataka according to 1991 Census. and
bulk of them is concentrated in a few pockets. The list
of tribes included in the schedule has~ seen drastic
changes with the inclusion of many new groups making
the comparlson of the ST category across Censuses
difficult. Table 4.28 glves the picture of such a
comparison.
Table 4.28 Comparative Picture of Literacy Gains of SC,
ST and General Population
Gain Gain
1971 1981 1991 between between
1971·1981 1981·1991
General population 31.52 38.46 46.72 6.94 8.26
Scheduled castes 13.88 20.44 20.71 6.56 10.27
Scheduled Tribes 14.84 20.13 29.21 5.29 9.08
190
Fig 4.17 Literacy of Population Category Based on Ctinsuses 1971, 1981 c1 1991
50 -
4(H I I l
30~
!
"
10 ~ I
o
percent
. I I I I I
"I ' .. . '.1 I
.1 ! «I'
.. ·1 . I
I
I , i I
GIIner.' Scheduled C ... t_
Population Catagorl_ Scheduled Trlb_
Literacy of Population Categories Gains during 1971-1981 and 1981-1991
percent
12 , '
~ ! 10 1 8~ a J
I 41 2
o Ganer.1 8cheduled Ca"te" Scheduled TrlbM
"opulatlon Categor' ....
_ 1971-81 m:J 1981-91
I
II II I ,I 11
il II i I I
il ! I il II II II 'I t. il 'I Ii
I II II i
I
II I
It is seen from the Table 4.28 that the literacy
gain of the general population during the decade
bet'.-Ieen 1971 and 1981 was 6.94 points as compared to
the gain of 6.56 registered by SC and 5.29 by ST. This
decade overlapped with the last three years of Fourth
Plan, the entire Fifth Plan and t,.-IO Annual Plans. It
was In the Fifth Plan, more than 50 percent of the Plan
:>utlay on prlmary education was earmarked for
incentIves to attract chIldren from Scheduled Castes
and Tribes.
~he data on enrollment do indicate that the
enr:>llment of children from these sections Increased
considerabl y during this period, but such enrollments
did not result In the attainment of literacy. The
sit~ation Improved during the decade between 1981 and
1991. The literacy galns of both SC and ST categories
respectively accounting 10.27 and 9.08 points which
were hlgher than the gaIn of 8.26 recorded by the
::;eneral populaticn (Graph 4.17) This decade not only
overlapped ·.-lith Sixth and Seventh Plans but also saw
the change in the Educational Policy of the Government
192
of India in 1986 which stressed the importance of
Primary Education. Both the five Year Plans implemented
during this period in Karnataka gave h1gh priority to
facilitate the education of weaker sections. During
this decade, Primary Education was made the joint
responsibility of the Center, the State and the newly
introduced elected governments called Zilla Panchyats
iZP! at the distrlc~ level. There was a phenomenal jump
1n the enrollments i=edia~ely after the introduction
of Zilla Panchyats. As compared to improvements
reported 1n enrollment and retention figures during
this per1od, the literacy gains observed appears to be
lower than the expected level. The literacy gains of
General population was less than one percent per year
and slightly higher than one per cent in the case of SC
category.
4.8.2 Gender-w1se L1 teracy gains of Scheduled castes,
Scheduled Tribes and General Population
Girls education was given high priority from the
fifth Plan onwards along with the special attention
given for the education of SC and ST categories. How
193
far such efforts reinforced each other has to be
examined by comparing the Ii teracy galns of Male and
Female segments of these population categories.
It may be seen from the Table 4.29 that the
advantage of Plan efforts for the SC and ST population
worked to the advantage of Male category of these
population segments during seventies. SC Males
regls~ered a gal.n of 8.62 and ST Males gained 8.24
points whlch are higher than the gain of 7.19 percent
obtained by the General Male populatlon. It was the
lower level gains of Females in General and the Females
belonging to SC and ST which accounted for low overall
galns In literacy during the decade between 1971 and
1981.
The situation considerably improved during
eighties for Female population in General and the
Females belonging to SC and ST categories. The literacy
gains recorded by the General Female category was 9.25
higher as compared to the gain of 7.27 percent by
General Male Category. Even the SC Female category
registered higher gain of 9.39 as compared to General
194
Female Category which itself was higher than Males.
Even the SC Female category gained 9.08 which was
higher than the General Male category and slightly
lower than the gains recorded by General Female
category. But, interms of gains the SC Males registered
the hlghest at 10.76 points during eighties
(Graph4 .18!. But these gains in elght::'es reduced the
inltial disparities In literacy levels among the
populatlon categories only marginally.
Table 4.29 Comparative Picture of Male and female
Literacy Gains of SC, ST and General Population
1971 1981 1991 Gain Gain
between between
1971·1981 1981·1991
General Male 41.62 48.81 56.08 7.19 7.27
Scheduled caste Male 20.73 29.35 40.11 8.62 10.76
Scheduled Tribe Male 21.71 29.95 38.93 8.24 8.98
General Female 2097 27.71 36.96 6.74 9.25
Scheduled caste female 6.74 11.54 20.93 4.8 9.39
Scheduled Tribe females 7.67 10.02 19.10 2.35 9.08
195
4.8.3 Literacy galns of Scheduled castes, Scheduled
Tribes and General Population in Urban and Rural areas
Karnataka educational scene lS marked by the vast
difference between Urban and Rural population.
Education In Urban areas lS marked by the private
initiatives in addition to the Government efforts at
Primary stage, where as the responsibility of providing
Primary Education In Rural areas rests solely on the
Government efforts. The strength of the Government
interventions can best be judged by the magnitude of
literacy gains among Rural population segments and the
reduction In the gaps In literacy between Urban and
Rural areas. Table 4.30 compares the literacy gains
of six braad population categories of Urban and Rural
population during seventies and eighties.
Initially In 1971, the differences in literacy
levels between corresponding Urban and Rural population
categories were very large. The literacy level~General
Rural population was 25.13 per cent and the
corresponding category in Urban area had attained 51.43
196
percent, the gap was about 26 points. At the end of
Seventies the gap remained same while the literacy of
Rural General population increased to 31.05 per cent
and that of Urban General Population was 56.71 per
cent. During Eighties the gap was reduced to 23.5, per
cent, the Ii teracy of Rural General popu'..ation
increased to 39.43 per cent and that of Urban General
population was 63 per cent.
Table 4.30 Comparative Picture of Rural and Urban
Literacy Gains of SC, ST and General Population
1971 1981 1991 Gain Gain
between between
1971·1981 1981·1991
General rural 25.13 31.05 39.43 5.92 8.38
Scheduled caste rural 10.26 15.36 25.18 5.13 9.82
Scheduled Tribe rural 12.99 17.94 26.30 4.95 8.36
General urban 51.43 56.71 63.00 5.28 6.29
Scheduled caste urban 31.98 38.91 48.81 6.93 9.9
Scheduled Tribe urban 30.03 35.00 45.75 4.97 10.75
197
,
I II II
i I i II
I
'I II II
~ i
Fig 4.18 Gender-wise Lit9racy gains: from 197H~1 " 1981-91
Within each Population Catec;lory
R ...... . ~~·~·:,:I\
Hil ~
· .. ···.I \ I U·.II
'\' 1I11 II \ 11 ~ \ \ \1' .... 1\ \ \ .
. . \ \ .. .- .
fl, I· ·11 I [··'-n !
~ 11 I
\ \'. I,. il' \' ~ lJ (ian Mala 8C Mala ST Mal" (ian Famala 8C F"mala IJT Famale
PopulatIon Catagorlaa
Oacadal Galna
Ill:J 1971-19111 c::; 19111-1991
FiB,LtIi.Rural-Urban Literacy gains:71-81 & 81-91 Within each Population Category
/>ercanr
~jI ~; , I
10 -< I -= I I I .
! I n I
4 ~:I' 1'1\\\\\1 i ~. ! 1!m1 ~ I l\\\ ~ I \ \ .. I ~\\i ~ \\ \ . U\ \\ .
21It:~~· IU\~; ILJ~\ .1 ~\\;, \\\1'" I o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CJan ltur" 8C Rural 8T I'bJral Gan Urban 8C Urban 8T Urban Population Catagorl_
DBc;adul Gain.
[ill '!1171- '!II II 1 c=J 19111-1991
I
" iI II
'I I I , I
Ii Ii II
II ii !: " I'
ii II
ii i: ii Ii d 1; " " Ii !\ I, Ii il II II II II
Ii II :I 'I i, Ii II II
i! Ii !I II II ii
I: I'
II II I!
II II I
I I
Surprisingly the gap in literacy rates between
Scheduled Caste Urban category and the Scheduled Caste
Rural Category increased during the two decades. In
1971 the SC Urban was at 31. 98 per cent and the SC
Rural was way below at 10.23 per cent resulting in a
gap of 21.75 points. The literacy levels of SC Urban
and SC Rural categories increased respectively to 38.91
per cent and 15.36 per cent respectively in 1981 while
the gap also increased to 23.55 points. Similarly the
gap marginally increased to 23.63 in 1991 when the SC
Urban and SC Rural reached the literacy levels of 48.81
and 25.18 respectively.
The similar phenomenon of the increase in the gap
between Urban and Rural segments of ST population took
place during Eighties (19.4 percent gap) while the gap
remained same In 1971' and 1981 (About 17 percentage
points) .
When the literacy gains of the different
population categories are compared between 1971 Census
and 1981 Census, the gain registered in 1971 by
199
General Urban population was lower at 5.28 points than
the gain of 5.92 by Rural General population. In the
Case of the SC and ST population it was reverse wi th
Urban segments registering higher gains in 1981 as
compared to the corresponding Rural segments. While the
size of the gains increased in Eighties in the case of
each of the categories as compared to Seventies, the
Urban segments of SC and ST population registered
higher gains in 1981 as compared to the corresponding
rural segments. It was in the opposite direction in the
case of General population. (Graph 4.18a)
From the above analysis it can be inferred that
the benefits of the interventions under different Five
Year Plans directed for the benefit of SC and ST
categories is accruing more for the Urban segments of
those groups. ll.nother observation that emerge,outolthe
above compar ison is the slow pace wi th which the gap
between Rural and Urban population is being bridged
resulting in the maintenance of the disparities.
200
4.8.4 Li teracy Changes in Districts during Seventies
and Eighties
Another dimension of the educational disparities
tackled by the planning lS the regional disparity
within the state of Karnataka. When the state was
formed, the region comprising of four northern
districts added to the state from fGrmer Hyderabad
State were very backward in education. Even the region
added from Bombay province was educationally backward.
Not all
part of
districts of old Mysore
the Karnataka state
state which became
could be called
educationally well developed during those times.
The coastal District of Mangalore which was part
of Madras province and the small independent state of
Kodagu had higher literacy rates. Five Year Plans,
particularly from the Fourth Five Year Plan onwards
adopted the policy of relating plan allocation to the
backwardness of the district to reduce intra district
dispari ties. In his section, an attempt is made to
examine the changes in literacy gains of each of the
201
districts keeping their literacy level in 1971 as the
bench mark. The comparison of the gains In the literacy
of General population and Scheduled Caste population is
given in the Table 4.30.
Table 4.31: Comparison of growth of Literacy rates in different districts of Kamataka State:
DISTRICTS GENERAL
Literacy Gain during Literacy Gain during Uteracy 1991 1971 1971· 1981 1981 1981·1991
BANGALORE 42.72 8.6 51.32 14.02 65.34 BELGAUM 30.73 5.91 36.64 7.24 43.84 BELlARY 25.12 5.52 30.64 6.07 36.71 BIDAR 20.02 6.42 26.44 9.54 35.92 BIJAPUR 27.48 4.48 31.96 12.7 44.66 CHIKMAGLORE 34.93 8.57 43.50 8.71 52.21 CHITRADURGA 31.45 6.8 38.25 8 46.25 OAKSHINAKANNADA 43.45 10.02 53.47 9.71 65.18 DHARWAD 38.51 3.85 42.36 6.14 48.50 GULBARGA 18.74 6.2 24.94 5.72 30.66 HASSAN 30.56 6.93 37.49 10.73 48.22 KOOAGU 44.30 5.85 50.15 8.25 58.40 KOLAR 27.06 6.51 33.57 8.78 42.35 MANDYA 22.51 7.84 30.40 10.68 4108 MYSORE 25.62 5.34 30.96 9.08 40.04 RAICHUR 20.20 4.52 24.72 3.87 28.59 SHIMOGA 36.37 8.07 44.44 7.59 52.03 TUMKUR 29.36 7.56 36.92 9.31 46.23 UTIARAKANNADA 40.65 7.58 48.35 81 56.49
It can be seen from the Table that the situation
that existed at the time of the formation of Karnataka
stat~ with respect to the disparities across districts
202
persisted in 1971. The most backward districts in
literacy were Gulbarga, Bidar and Raichur of Hyderabad
Karnataka area. The Districts of Kodagu, Dakshinakannda
Uttarakannada and Bangalore retained their higher
levels of literacy ln 1971 and Other districts were
located in between these two extremes.
One should expect larger gains in literacy in the
backward districts as the result of planning at its
implementation. Gains ln literacy during the decade of
Seventies experienced by the districts did not change
their relative arrangement drastically. Dakshina
kannada, Bangalore and Uttarakannada districts gained
higher points and continued to drift apart from other
districts while the gains recorded by the backward
districts like Gulbarga and Raichur were small and
thereby disparities increased during Seventies.
Surprisingly, Bidar gained more points among the
backward district to improve its literacy level as
compared to its neighboring district of Gulbarga and
Raichur. Chikrnagalore and Shimoga districts which were
ranking in the middle gained more during seventies and
203
their distance from the high ranking districts
considerably reduced. The pattern of literacy gains by
the districts during Eighties show an al ::ered picture
as compared to the previous decade.
While the gains of the most backward district like
Raichur and Gulbarga remained least, the gains recorded
by the districts like Bijapur, Mandya and Hassan were
higher and their position among the ranking of the
district improved considerably.
But, the difference In literacy between the
highest ranking district and the lowest ranking one in
1971 was 24.71 points which increased to 28.75 in 1981
and to 36.75 in 1991. This increase in differences that
took place in the middle of positive gains by all the
districts indicate that the Plans have not succeeded in
bringing about changes in the way in which they were
intended to do.
204
CHAPTER V
Analysis of qualitative data on
educational planning process
5.1 Introduction:
Secondary data reflecting the changes in the
educational parameters during the past 24 years starting
from 1971 to 1994 were analysed in relation to
educational plans in the previous chapter.
The present chapter deals with the outcomes of the
analysis of the qualitative data on the planning process
underlining such developments observed in the previous
chapter. To begin with the structure of educational
planning is provided followed by detailed method of
analysis of qualitative data and the final analysis lS
presented.
205
5.2 Method of qualitative data analysis
Data obtained was in the form of field notes taken
continuously during field visits. It consisted of the
responses of various functionaries involved in plan
formulation. The discussion centered around
following issues:
a) How do educational plans get initiated?,
b) Process of preparation of educational Plans,
c) Nature and sources of information collected and
used during the formulation and implementation of
plans,
d) Administration and implementation of programmes,
the
e) Perceptions of individuals occupying different roles
and performing different functions related to school
education,
f) Feedback from the grassroots and
g) Information from informal discussions/encounters.
The purpose of interviews was to know the meaning
and functions the planners attribute to five year and
annual plans. It was intended to generate different
categories of activities carried out under planning, the
206
kind and nature of information they collect and use In
decision making processes, their perceptions about the
meaning of their own activities and other roles
encountered in the negotiations during the process of
planning.
The respondents were asked some key questions like,
'How plans are initiated ?', , Who does what ?' etc. The
initial responses were pursued further through detailed
probes to elicit the details of issues that emerged
during the discussions.
The above information thus generated was further
reinforced by attending the plan related meetings to
observe the transactions at the district and state
levels. The investigator took necessary permission of
the state authorities. Finally, visits were made to 12
communities having primary schools to talk to the
communi ty members, teachers and the School Betterment
Committee members.
207
First, The information in the form of field notes was
categorised
follows:
based on the source of information as
A. Secretariat
B. Office of the Commissioner of Public Instruction
C. Zilla Panchayat Office
D. Office of the Deputy Director of Public Instruction
E. Office of the Block Level Education Officer
F. School and community
At the second phase, the information categorised on
the above lines was read and re-read and further divided
into sub categories, as follows:
• Initiation of plans,
• Nature of planning,
• Nature and sources of information,
• Administration/implementation,
208
• Perceptions of individuals performing different
functions and occupying different roles, and
• Feedback from the grassroots information from informal
discussions/encounters.
Each of the cells marked with 'Yes' represent the
collection of the bits of information generated from
the field notes belonging to the respective category of
data. In the following analysis such information bits
are linked up to obtain the field view of the aspects
of planning practiced at different levels and their
correspondence as well as their relevance in the light
of grassroots level information.
The above categories were further divided into two
groups depending upon the origin of the information as
interview based and observation based. The following
grid provides the categorization of the Data.
209
Table 5.1 Grid representing the categorization of informa
tion from field notes:
Infonnation category State District Block Grass roots
~- -- ~- ot.err.I ~- observa- klter- --view lion view -tion view lion view lion
Initiation of plans Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Nature of Planning Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Nature and sources of information Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Administration! Implementation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Perceptions of individuals Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
performing different functions and
occupying different roles
Feedback from the grassroots No No No No No No Yes Yes
informatIOn from Informal
diSCUSSIOns I encounters
210
5.3 Structure of educational planning:
The disc~ss:on at various levels revealed a
distric~ structure of educational planning starting
from policy making to the development of detailed plan
proposals for various programmes contemplated for
action. Fig 5.1 is the result of the information pieced
together from the discussions.
The structure also provides the routes of
information flow for developing plans. The nature of
information flow differs according to the levels.
In the section 5.9 an attempt is made to exarnlne
the nature of information flow.
211
Fig. 5. 1 Structure of Educational planning for primary education
State planrung Board
, Planrung depanment
r
DDPI pI anru ng
Zilla Panchayat (CEf)
I Taluk Panchavat
I -,
Gram Panchavat I -
SSC
Chief Minister and the Cabinet
Mirustrv of Educallon for pnmary educallon
r Education Secretanat
I Planrung WIng
I Deputy secretary under Secretary
I ConumsslOner of public InstruCUon
r
DPI pnmary education
educatIon
r f
Finance department
DSERT DP! (minority )
I Office of DDPI DIET
Dlslnct , AEO·
Schools (HM)
• Subsequently a new position at the block level called Block educational officer has
been created.
212
Initiation of Planning Process:
5.3.1 Discussions with chairperson of the State Planning
Board.
In Karnataka, an advisory body called State
Planning Board under the Chairmanship of the Chief
Minister, functions to advise the Government in planning
matters. It consists of a Deputy Chairman and Members
nominated by the Government. Invariably the Deputy
Chairperson and the Members are drawn from academic and
research institutions or retired civil servants having
specialisation in various sectors which come under the
purview of planning.
The State Planning Board is responsible for
formulating policies related to social and economic
development. Hence, it deals with aspects such as
agriculture, industry and education. The Deputy
Chairperson of the State Planning Board was interviewed
to understand the role played by the Board in
educatlonal planning. The following picture emerges from
213
the discussion with the Deputy Chairperson of the State
Planning Board(SPB) .
The Chief Minister 1S the Chairperson though
usually the Deputy Chairperson looks after the work. SPB
prepares s~atus paper relat1ng to all aspects of social
welfare. Status paper 1S prepared by 1dentifying the
problem to formulate policies to solve the identified
problems. Thus, Planning Board acts as a think tank.
The Secretaries, Additional Secretaries and
Educational experts are consulted and based on their
exper1ences the Status Paper is prepared. The Chief
Minister also glves suggestion to write the status
paper.
The status paper is presented to the Cabinet. The
Deputy Chairperson attends the meeting and convinces the
ministers and obtains the approval for the status paper.
If it 1S approved, the finance department allots money.
Based on the ideas and policy prescribed in the status
paper, action plan is prepared by the concerned
21~
department at the Secretariat with the help of the
Secretary and the Additional Secretary.
Discussion with the Deputy Chairperson of SPB
reveals that the State Planning Board lS yet to
formulate policies related to primary education. The
Deputy Chairperson In answering the question, "Have you
brought out any policy on education?" said, \\No, we
do not have state policy on education. Whatever laid
down in the previous years and by the National level is
followed. The Chief Minister has asked us to write a
paper on agriculture. Next we may write a paper on
industrial policy. We are thinking to bring out a paper
reI a ting to agricul ture and uni versi ty education. We
may also work on financing of university education."
The method of drawing status paper at SPB is highly
centralised. People involved in the formulation of the
policies are the Secretaries, the Additional Secretaries
and the Commissioner of SPB. Here, experiences of these
people are taken into consideration and people at the
grassroots level are not involved. SPB personnel collect
215
required statistics from the concerned secretariat.
According to the Deputy Chairperson, "No, we do not
consult DDPI's or AEO's. I consult the Secretary, and
the Additional Secretary. Decisions are taken at the
secretary level. We present the ideas that are felt
necessary by me. Secretaries, experts and ministers
also suggest based on their experlence. The Chief
Minister also gives recommendations."
SPB do not workout the details of the plans fer
both Five Year and Annual plans. It formulates the
policies related to agriculture, industry and provides
status paper on the basis of information obtained from
the discussion with the secretaries, additional
secretaries of various ministries. Based on the problems
identified
formulated.
in these status papers, policles are
The discussion clearly indicates that the SPB
concentrates only on the sectors which come under the
State list of the Constitution. It also indicates that
the, Board takes initiative only when it is asked to work
216
on a specific sector by the Chief Minister. Further, it
is far removed from the field level as it interacts with
the secretaries of different departments. Basically it
may be concluded that the SPB functions legit~mizing
role through its stamp of 'expert approval'. As far as
educational planning at school level is concerned, the
SPB's role lS marginal. It is also apparent that the
SPB, if invited to look into educational planning would
be interested in working on the policy to link higher
education with industry.
5.3.2 Discussions with Persons occupying key positions
ln relation to educational planning at the Secretariat
and CPI's office:
The process of plan preparation, whether it is the
Five Year Plan or the Annual Plan under a Five Year Plan
begins at the State level. It is activated by the
decision taken by the Cabinet under the advise of the
Finance Department regarding the size of financial
allocation to the education department. This was
217
confirmed by several key persons working in the
secretariat and in the office of the Commissioner of
Public Instruction.
The Under Secretary working In the Secretariat
looking after school education said that, "Education was
the State subject which later came under concurrent
list. Central Government allots certain amount to each
State for education and specifies that, a particular
sub-sector should be given more. The Center insists that
prlmary education should be given importance to achieve
U.E.E." While discussing about the State component plans
she stated that "We have to deal with different levels
of education. The given amount should be allotted to
pre-prlmary, primary, secondary, higher education and
adult education."
Regarding the role of the district she said that,
"Zilla Panchayat acts as a Government at district level.
It takes into account primary, secondary and adult
education. DDPI and other related offices give
information to prepare a proposal. This proposal lS
218
placed before the State Government for approval. The
State Government allots money to different districts
based on the proposal received from Zilla Panchayats.
This preparation of proposal of various districts are
carried out in the month of October or November for the
next year. Money allocated for other works like
construction of rooms, buildings repairs teaching aids
etc. are approved". To the question, "How the plans are
prepared by the districts?", the DDPI (Planning), in the
Office of the CPI explained that the, district planning
is being systematically followed only since 1988. Now
Districts are entrusted to have their own plans. Before
1988, planning was carried out at the State level.
District level machinery does it now. They conduct
monthly review meetings to know physical achievement and
financial problems, if any. He further stated that,
"Eighth Five Year Plan is progressing. Now the Fourth
Annual Plan is prepared for the year 1995-96. The Chief
Minister and the Secretary of Planning Department decide
about the financial allotment to districts. This depends
on previous year's allotment and usually allotment is
increased by 10% to 15% for next Five Year Plan. In the
219
State plan, 10% of the total amount is given to
education and out of the given amount 50% is allotted to
primary education."
At a later stage during the discussion the officer
reaffirmed that the money is allotted first and
according to the allotted amount the plan is prepared.
The amount is distributed to Five annual plans but it is
not strictly followed as the demand cannot be predicted
accurately. But, in the beginning of the Five Year Plan
many developmental activities (teachers' appointment)
are taken up because of the availability of funds.
Later, at the end of the plan such activities cannot be
undertaken. In the next Five year plan the teachers'
salaries will go to non-plan expenditure.
Similarly, the Central Plans are also initiated
when the Center communicates the allocation made in a
given year for the state. The Case Worker said that,
"Guidelines were given by Central Government for
centrally sponsored Schemes. Guidelines contain the
financial target allotted for the State."
220
The Section Officer in the Secretariat of the
Education Department reported that "Before preparing any
Programme,
Government
the
holds
Additional Secretary
the discussion with
from
the
Cent=al
Deputy
Secretary, the Secretary and Directors of respective
levels of education. The Additional Secretary chairs
the meeting. He clarifies the doubts related to
financial aspect. He also collects the information
related to the beneficiaries involved in the project and
the necessary mechanism required for the project. This
is called State Level Education Committee. Based on the
meeting held at the State level, the Center prepares a
booklet containing guidelines required to write the
proposal. The State Government prepares the proposal
according to the specifications given in the booklet. In
the notification from the center physical and financial
targets are specified. If the project involves large sum
of money then the implementation ~s phased out in
different stages."
221
It is clear from the above that the work related to
planning are put into motion by the Cabinet decision
regarding the quantum of money allocated to different
ministries. The secretariats of the concerned ministries
allocate the money to different departments corning
under their jurisdiction. The Cabinet also allocates
money to Zilla Panchayats for planning development
sectors like school education, health, sanitation, minor
roads etc. It emerges from the discussion that the plan
size for various sectors are decided on ad hoc basis of
10 to 15 per cent increase over the previous Five Year
Plan. In the case of annual plans within an ongoing Five
Year Plan, the same criterion of . . increasing the
allocation by 10 to 15 per cent over the previous
annual plan allocation is used.
5.3.3 Discussions with Persons occupying key positions
in educational planning at the Zilla Panchayat and
DDPI's office:
Even at the District level, the planning activity
starts when the Zilla Panchayat decides financial
222
allotments for the different development departments,
including school education. This comes out from the
interviews with the personnel at Zilla Panchayat.
The Statistical Officer working under the Chief
Planning Officer in Hysore mentioned that, 3486 lakh
rupees have been allotted to Mysore district. She said
that "A few district officers felt that the amount
should be increased by a few more lakhs. But the State
Government did not agree and informed the Zilla
Panchayat to plan wi thin the allotted amount.
Accordingly, the draft plan was prepared."
The Assistant Director (Planning Section) in
Chickamglore Zilla Panchayat, explained about the
planning process. "Government gives lump sum amount to
Zilla Panchayat. We have to allot it to different
sectors. This method is in practice since 1987. In the
beginning we gave importance to roads and bridge
construction. The new Government has given different
sectors under the control of Zilla Panchayat, Taluk
Panchayat and Gram Panchayat. Government has allotted
223
nlne crore to Taluk Panchayat directly and 3 crore to
Gram Panchayt. Education doesn't come under Gram
Panchayat. At Zilla Panchayat level this year we have
asked DepartInents to increase the amount by 10%."
The Project appraisal and Evaluation Officer
working under the Chief Planning Officer in Mandya
district reported that "In the month of November the
State gives lump sum amount and districts prepare draft
plan by distributing the amount to different sectors. In
the month of March State GoverllIllent finalises the
allotment to Zilla Panchayat fund."
Mandya DDPI said, "Zilla Panchayat allots the
amount to education sector. Concerned clerk distributes
the amount to different Heads. Usually the amount is
increased by 10% from previous allotment. The major
proportion goes to salary component. Very less money is
allotted to other developmental acti vi ties. This draft
plan is submitted to Zilla Panchayat. This year we have
exceeded the allotted amount. Because more number of
teachers were appointed this year. We require nearly two
224
crore extra. This is discussed in the State level
meeting."
The Case worker in charge of preparing draft plan
working under DDPI, Mandya explained the steps involved
in preparation of draft plan, "CEO asks for the draft
plan from DDPI by specifying the amount allotted to
education. The directions for allotment are given by
the State Government which informs Zilla Panchayat to
increase the budget allotment by 10% from the previous
year. This is communicated to DDPI's office from Zilla
Panchayat."
Zilla Panchayat member from Mandya said that, "We
have to increase the allotment by 10% according to the
government guidelines. In the meeting, we discussed
aspects related to the distribution of money to
different programmes. Actually officials prepare the
draft plan and members can also give suggestions for
implementation. In the Education sector members can
also propose for upgrading the schools, opening of new
schools. Zilla Panchayat members put forth their
225
demands during standing committee meeting. Usually
standing committee members would not oppose our
proposals. But there should be money In the plan
allotment, otherwise they postpone it to next year.
Actually In the meetlng we do Dot discuss about
formulating new programmes. Our discussion is confined
to money matters. We discuss about shortage of money
and allotment of funds ~o different sectors and various
programmes. This draft plan lS placed before general
body meeting. If two-thirds of the members vote In
favour of the approval of a draft plan then it is sent
to the State Government."
The tex~ book deflnitions of planning starts with
a broad goal followed by an analysis of the situation
in a sector to identify the local needs and problems in
relatlon to the goal. This would lead to specified
objectives, action plans and the programs to suit the
local condition. Only after this stage the costs are
estimated for mobilising the resources. Availability of
resources leads to further prioritization and
adjustments in the plan. contrary to the above procedure
226
of planning, In the real world of educational planning
in the Karnataka context, financial targets are fixed in
the beginning of the draft plan preparation.
5.4 Nature of Plans:
Having seen that the plans get initiated after the
decision regarding the potential availability of funds,
the next issue pursued in the analysis deals with the
nature of plans. During the interviews the varlOUS
participants in the planning process at all levels were
asked to tell about the process of planning. The
discussion indicated three levels of planning namely,
the central, the state and the district level in which
all personnel involved In planning participated. But,
most frequently heard concepts are 'guidelines' and
'proposals'. These two are used as the main devises in
the planning process. Guidelines normally accompany the
communication from the higher level of the department
specifying the allocations. Response to these guidelines
take the form of proposals. Proposals normally contain
description of an acti vi ty in the domain of education.
227
The description contains labels of acti vi ty indicating
the treatment like distribution, appointment, repairs,
training etc. , The units of focus are labeled as
benef~ciaries like children, schools, communities etc.
~umber of such units to be covered are termed as
physical targets. The money required are termed as
financial targets. In the case of programmes which form
the part of a plan to be finalised at a higher level,
proposals are collected from different lower level units
of the department for consolidation.
Thus, proposals from different states are
consolidated by the Center, proposals from different
districts are consolidated by the state and proposals
from blocks are consolidated at the district level by
the concerned departments.
In the following section discussion held with the
officials at the state and the district level around the
theme of the procedures followed in preparing plans are
presented according to the levels.
228
5.5 Plan Procedure for different programmes
Enquiries regarding the process of plan preparation
could only elicit the procedure fo::cwed :or speci :ic
programmes. Programmes were treated separate~y and there
was no indication regarding ';'ntegration of set
programmes in Five Year Plan/Annual Plan.
Discussions with the Section Officer in Education
Secretariat about the activities carried out in relation
to planning revealed that there were two sections in
the Secretariat Plan A and Plan B. Plan A section deals
with State Budget Plan and Non Plan. Plan B section
deals with Central Budget Plan and Non Plan.
5.5.1 Central programmes
Central plan schemes in operation during
Year Plan are as follows,
1) OBB (Operation Black Board)
Eighth Five
2) DIET (District institute of education and training)
229
3) CTE (College of teacher education)
4) lED (Integrated Education of Disabled Children)
5) Improvement of Science Education
6) Educational Technology
7) Class Project (Computer Education)
8) NFE (Non-formal Education)
According to the Section Officer, the Government of
India funds these proj ects. CPI prepares the proposal
speci fying phys ical targets and money required. This
proposal 1S sent to the Secretariat. There is an
Empowerment Committee at the State level.
proposals are examined. Committee verifies,
Here
whether
the money required for the set physical target is
calculated correctly and whether the targeted
beneficiaries include the needed people. Proposals,
after verification, 1S sent to the Government of India.
Based on the decision taken at the Center, proposal is
approved and sent to the State Government. The
Secretariat issues Government Order to Directorates who
are responsible for implementation. The Secretariat
230
sends monthly report to the Center. As an example he
explained the scheme of opening of District Institutes
of Education and Training (DIET). The Government of
India sanctions orders for construction of building
for DIETs and appointment of teaching staff. A meeting
was held at the State level and the proposal was
prepared by the DSERT. After the Government Order DIETs
were given money from the Center through state
Government which in turn routed the funds through DSERT.
According to the officer, the Central Government
issues guidelines for centrally sponsored Schemes. These
guidelines contain the financial target allotted for the
State. He explained the process with examples as
follows: In the case of the scheme to lmprove science
education, a copy of the letter is sent to the
Secretariat and DSERT. A Committee is set up in DSERT.
This Committee decides about the teaching aids that have
to be supplied in science kit. This depends on the
amount allotted per kit by the center. The DSERT decides
about the number of materials to be included in the
231
science kit. The same lS communicated to Secretariat
through a proposal. In the Secretariat the proposal is
verified. They verify whether physical targets and
financial targets are correctly mentioned (amount
required to furnish physical target should not exceed
the amount allotted). This proposal is forwarded to the
Center for release of the amount. Similarly, the State
Government decides about the amount to be spent on two
in-one and computers. The DSERT decides about the
physical targets based on this allotted amount.
According to the Section Officer, the State Government
can refuse Central programmes, e.g. the Central
Government allots money for salary of teachers
appointed during the current plan year. After the Five
Year Plan, salaries have to be paid by the State
Government. If the State Government is not in a
position to do so it may reject the programmes. Most of
the Central programmes are fully financed by the Central
Government. Hence the State Government accepts the
Central programmes. The decision to accept or reject the
programme is taken in the cabinet meeting. The Education
232
Secretary, the Chief minlster and the Education Minister
participate in the meeting.
5.5.2 State programmes
Some of the State sector programmes
education cited during the discussion with
Assistant in the Secretariat are :
1) Construction of new school buildings
2) Vidyavikas (uniforms, text books)
for prlmary
the Senlor
3) Akshaya Programmes (play grounds, repalrs of
classrooms, excursion, supply of musical instruments)
4) Construction of class rooms.
The Section officer in the Secretariat was asked as to
how the state schemes are decided. According to him, the
Chief Minister calls for the meeting to discuss about
the
that
amount
are
involved In carrying out different schemes
being currently implemented. He seeks t~e
advice from Secretaries to know whether schemes should
be continued or not? Based on their experlence and
complaints received from the people, officers and
233
Secretaries suggest for the
discontinuation of the schemes.
modifications
Budget Speech
or
is
prepared
Programme
based on this discussion. e.g. Ksheer
was stopped due to the problem of
distribution. Complaints were received from AEOs and
DDPIs such as sour milk was served to students, milk
cannot be supplied to interior places, teachers cannot
monitor the distribution of milk as it reduces the
instruction time.
During the budget speech, the Finance Minister
highlighted about new programme and its coverage along
wi th other programmes. The allocation presented during
the budget speech is taken from draft plans prepared at
the State level. A report of the budget estimates
containing details regarding programmes to be
undertaken, physical and financial targets allotted, is
placed before the Assembly. This report needs to be
voted by MLAs. MLAs discuss about the programmes
(needed or not) then they approve the plan. A copy of
the report is sent to the Secretariat. Money is allotted
234
to respective Directorates for ongoing schemes from the
Secretariat.
5.5.3 District programme:
The programmes concerned at district level as informed
by Project Appraisal and Evaluation Officer at Mandya ZP
offlce are,
l. Salaries of teachers,
2. Equipment supply,
3. Buildings construction,
4. Training of teachers,
5. Distribution of uniforms and text books.
The Panchayat Raj and Rural Development Department
at the State level informs the amount allotted to ZP for
the preparation of district draft plan. It also gives
the guidelines for distributing the amount to different
sectors. Within the given amount ZP prepares the
district draft plan.
235
The sector wise allotments are made by the CPO. The
CPO asks the concerned officer to distribute among
different accounts. In the education sector the DDPI
prepares the draft plan according to the specification
and sends it to ZP. The draft plan reaches the DSI and
the CPO. They clarify certain points related to the
allotment with the DDPI in the meeting. The draft plans
of all the departments are compiled at the ZP. Based on
the modifications made during the meeting a 'Draft
Annual Plan' is prepared at the ZP.
Thus prepared the 'Draft Annual Plan' lS sent to
the Panchayat Raj and Rural Development. A meeting is
held at State level to decide about the final allotment.
This draft plan gets modified at the State level
meeting. Then it lS placed before the Legislature for
approval. Based on the approved figures the link
document is prepared. And this document is distributed
to all the districts. The District Officers have to
execute the plan accordingly.
236
5.5.4 Procedure followed for new schemes:
The Chief Minister finds out whether the new
schemes, ''''hich he wants to introduce, are feasible by
consulting secretaries of concerned department. Later
guidelines are prepared at the Secretariat by the Deputy
Secretary. Education Secretary I I modi fies the Proposal
if required. Guidelines are sent to the Directorate from
Education Secretary II and calls for the proposals.
Usually these guidelines inform the beneficiaries to be
selected and the necessary information that the
Directorates should furnish In terms of physical and
financial targets.
In the next stage, Directorates with the help of
the AEO and the DDPIs prepare a proposal based on the
guide:ines sent by the Education Secretary II. This
proposal is sent to Secretariat. Case Workers at the
Secretariat verify whether the proposal contains all the
details as specified in the guidelines.
237
Proposal is then sent to the Planning Department.
The Planning Department verifies whether the money
mentioned in the draft proposal is wi thin this ceiling
limit. The proposal is sent back after verificat:on to
the Education Department. The proposal from the
Education Department of the Secretariat is sent to the
Finance Department. Here they verify whether the money
component mentioned 1S feasible to carry out the
programme. The Education Department then 1ssues
Government Orders (G.O) to CPr. Sometimes the G.O 1S
issued directly to ZP for implementing.
After the 1ssue of G.O, CPI or ZP office can draw
money for implementation. If OM asks to include new
schemes, allocation for the schemes is made within the
ceiling set by the Finance Department. The Education
Department is requested to prepare the guidelines.
Inspite of proposals being scrutinised, many of the
schemes are not successfully implemented. This 1S
because of shortage of funds. In the plan document
238
shortage of fund is mentioned and it is left to CPI or
other Directorates to see whether they can adjust
resources and take up the project on a large scale. If
they want to channelise from one Head to another they
have to take permission from the Finance Department and
Planning Department.
5.5.5 District Primary Educational Plan:
'District Primary Educational Plan' aims at
universal enrollment and quality improvement of primary
education. The DPEP is a World Bank assisted programme.
85% of the money is given by the World Bank and 15% of
the share is given by the State. Under this project
Seven States have been selected namely Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Haryana, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh. In Karnataka four districts having low
female literacy rates are selected. They are Mandya,
Kolar, Belgaurn and Raichur.
239
According to the Section Officer of the education
department at the secretariat, DPEP is the World Bank
sponsored project where 15% of it has to be met by the
State Government.
DPEP has a State level body consisting of
• Governing Council (C.M. being the Chairperson)
• Executive Committee (Secretary-I being the Chair-
person)
• District Committee
Any correspondence between District Committee and being
the World Bank is only through the Secretariat and the
Government of India.
Mandya district was selected for DPEP. In Mandya,
the Project Co-ordinator of DPEP explained that, 40
crore is spent on this project. The main aim of DPEP is
to provide safe drinking water to schools, teaching
materials, furnitures, infrastructure for school,
school compounds, and also to give training to the
teachers. According to him the proj ect aims at
providing a school in every village.
240
Informing about the method of preparing the district
plans he said, "State DPEP Head decides about: the
programmes, and guidelines are communicated to district
level officials for preparation of the proposals".
According to the Project Co-ordinator, "there lS no
difference between regular planning done by the
district and DPEP planning. DPEP is a World Bank
sponsored programme. This programme may last for seven
years. Here, we submit the proposal as asked by the
state DPEP Head. Necessary orders are issued to the
proj ect director. As per the directors instruction we
implement the programme.
We have already prepared the action plan based on
the format given by the resource person for 1994-1995
and 1995-1996 as the State did not give us further
guidelines to implement the plan, we have not taken up
implementation".
241
In DPEP, the District level officials prepare the
proposals according to the norms prescribed by the
State level officials and implement the plan after
obtai~ing the approval from the state level officials.
Implementation is carried out according to the
guidelines specified by the State level officials.
5. 6,~rocedure of educational planning
Details of the procedure followed during the preparation
of the educational plan at the state and the district
level offices are discussed.
5.6.1 Educational planning exercise carried out at the
State Level Office of the cpr
In the CPI office, the Assistant Director of
Planning, said, "State level planning for education lS
done here. The State allots money to education sector.
The planning takes place at CPI's office. The amount is
allotted to different programmes. The allotment is first
2~2
approved by the State Education Ministry and then by the
Center".
As mentioned earlier, the DDPI (Planning) said
that, the Chief Minister and the Secretary of Planning
Department decide about the financial allotment to
districts based on previous year's allotment and usually
allotment is increased by 10% to 15% for next Five Year
Plan. Answering to the question, "Who decides the
financial allotment to different departments of
education?" he said, " At the time of decision making,
the directors of education departments (Primary,
Secondary, Vocational) and DDPI (planning) decide about
the financial allotment required for each district". He
also added, the meeting of the DDPls is held to know
the requirements of the districts and present it ln the
meetlng of the directors of various education
departments under the chairmanship of the CPI at the
state level".
243
Funds allotted to education in the State depends on
the Center's allocation. The programs which cannot be
taken up at the dlstrict level are carried out at the
state level, such as repair of classrooms, construction
of additional rooms and other constructional work.
District level officials appoint teachers, give salaries
to teachers from ZP fund. The Center takes up many
qualitative improvement programmes such as OBB, SClence
labs construction and SClence kits distribution (to
improve science education) . During State plan
preparation, money lS allotted first and according to
the allotted amount draft plan is prepared.
In planning discourse no one mentions the term
objectives. Instead, the often used word in the place of
obj ecti ve is t!1e physical target. But physical targets
are arrived at keeping the financial targets in focus.
The DDPI (Planning) claimed that, he decides the
State level programmes. In a way he is correct, since he
prepares the draft proposals on the basis of the
244
requisitions received from the DDPIs. At the time of the
interview, he said that, the DDPIs are asking for
additional classrooms and hence he intended to make
proposal for the same in the annual plan proposals.
5.6.2 Educational planning exercise carried out at the
District Level Zilla Panchayat Office:
These excerpts are from the discussion held at district
level offices.
According to the CAO, "The State gives us
guidelines. The salary component should be given more
importance and next basic needs like health, water,
education should be glven importance. Usually we
increase the amount by 10 to 15 per cent over prevlous
year's allotment. Draft plan is prepared based on the
State guidelines by District officers. They give it to
ZP for approval. In ZP meeting with minor changes, it
gets approved. This is called district draft plan and
245
draft plan and members can also give suggestions fo=
implementation. In the Education sector members can
also propose for upgrading the schools or open.:.ng of
new schools. ZP memb~rs put forth thelr demands durlng
Standing Committee meeting. Usually Standing Committee
members will not oppose our proposals. But there should
be money in the plan allotment, otherwise they postpone
it to next year. Actually in the meeting we do not
discuss about formulating new programmes. Our
discussion is confined to money matters. We discuss
about shortage of money and allotment of funds to
different sectors and various programmes. This draft
plan is placed before the general body meeting If
two-thirds of the members vote in favour of the
approval of a draft plan then it is sent to the State
Government."
According to a Case Worker in Mandya, after the
approval of the plan, State Government issues Government
order to ZP. A copy is given to the DDPI who sends the
proposal to ZP. The list of schools selected for
247
it is glven to the State for approval. After the
approval plan of action is prepared."
Planning Appraisal and evaluation Officer in
Mandya explained, "The sector wise allotments are made
by the CPO who asks the concerned officer to distribute
funds to different Heads of account.
sector, the DDPI prepares the plan.
In the Education
She may ask more
for a particular Head. But we have to take into account
of all the Heads of account. We have to prepare the
proposal wi thin the given amount. In case we need more
allotment, we request the State Government Which
releases the amount. This action is take~-up after the
1st quarter of the plan year. This is asked usually for
salary component."
ZP member from Mandya said that, "We have to
increase the allotment by 10% according to the
government guidelines. In the meeting, we discussed
aspects related to the distribution of money to
different programmes. Actually officials prepare the
246
draft plan and members can also glve suggestions for
implementation. In the Education sector members can
also propose for upgrading the schools or opening of
new sc~oo:s. ZP memDers put forth their demands during
Standing Commlttee meeting. Usually Standing Committee
members will not oppose our proposals. But there should
be money 1n the plan allotment, otherwise they postpone
it to next year. Actually ::.n the meeting we do not
discuss about formulating new programmes. Our
discussion 1S confined to money matters. We discuss
about s~ortage of money and allotment of funds to
different sectors and various programmes. This draft
plan 1S placed before the general body meeting If
two-thirds of the members vote 1n favour of the
approval of a draft plan then it is sent to the State
Government."
According to a Case Worker ln Mandya, after the
approval of the plan, State Government issues Government
order to ZP. A copy 1S glven to the DDP! who sends the
proposal to ZP. The list of schools selected for
2~7
different programmes is sent to ZP for approval. If the
proposed nwnber of schools is more than the allotted
target, then ZP officials ask the DDPI to glve priority
to needy villages. ZP officials do not delete school
names from the list. In some cases the BDO informs that
a particular school cannot be repaired with Rs.5,OOO/-.
They survey other schools and separate list of schools
are selected. The BDO takes the permission to change the
selected schools from the AEOs.
5.6.3 Educational planning exercise carried out at the
District Level Office of the DDPI:
The meanlng of the proposal as explained by the
officials of DDPI's office is glven below. The
proposals are separately sent for different programmes.
Hence the nature of preparation of the proposals are
discussed separately for each programme.
The Case Worker in DDPI's Office, Mandya, explained
the method of drawing proposal for additional rooms.
248
Addi tional rooms: The State asks to send proposal for
additional classrooms required. The DDPI In turn asks
the AEOs to send a list of schools requiring additional
classroom by fixing the norm. Requirement of the
additional classrooms is decided based on pupil-teacher
ratio and number of existing classrooms i.e. pupil
teacher-classrooms ratio being 50:1:2. Based on the
strength of students, teachers and classrooms the AEOs
calculate additional classrooms required. Taluk level
information is consolidated at the district level sent
to the State.
Based on the funds availability, physical targets
are allotted to each district by the State. The allotted
physical targets are usually less than the requirement.
Based on this allotment, at the district level again a
list of schools badly requiring additional rooms is
called from taluk level. Most needed schools are decided
by the DDPI based on the strength of students. Money is
sanctioned to ZP .. The DDPI gives the list of rooms
required in respective school. ZP decides the agency
249
for construction and the DDPI is only the supervising
authority.
The Case Worker at Chickmaglore while giving
addi tional information regarding the al:
for additional classrooms said that thE
for the part of the estimate. The
provides a fixed amount of the unit
Centrally sponsored scheme called Jawaha
The remaining funds are to be mobi
community.
Repair of class rooms: The Case We
of planning at Mandya DDPI's office said
for repairs is same as the room construc
has not given funds to repair but, every
asks us to send the proposal. We hi
proposal to Government after obtaining
for repair of schools from ZP engineers.
Manaranjana programme: Person in charge of Akshaya
Programme
allotted
said that,
11 lakhs
during 1993-1994 the State
for Manaranj ana (entertainment)
programme. The DDPI and CEO decide about the number of
books and types of books to be distributed and orders
are gl ven ~o book se:.lers. Only financial allotlnent is
glven by the State Government. Number of schools
selected for the distribution of the books are decided
at the Dlstrict level.
District specific programme: Mandya Case Worker said
that, previous CEO had asked, the DDPI to send a
proposal for district specific programme. Accordingly,
the proposal for giving prizes to SSLC rank students
was prepared and sent to the State Government. The State
Government agreed to include the programmes from 1993-94
onwards. Hence provision is made by the State for the
allotment of fund. 1.5 lakhs lS sanctioned for this
purpose. 1 lakh is spent for distributing prizes to
SSLC rank holders. 5 prizes are glven to 1st five
highest rank holders in 3 categories: (a) SC/ST;
251
(b) Boys; and (c) girls. Remaining 50,000/- lS glven to
the best teacher and the best school award. If the State
recommends for discontinuing this programme based on the
inspection reports then it will be discontinued and
deleted during the preparation of draft plan at the
district level also.
5.7 Perception of officials concerned with educational
planning about the VEE:
Since the section of the DDPI (planning) In the
office of the CPI is the origin of all plan proposals
fcr state schemes, the discussion with the officer
covered a wide range of issues like the basis of
allocation of funds for the district, efforts to
universalize elementary education, introducing new
schemes etc. His response for various probing queries
are summarised below.
It was interesting to note that the response of the
DDPI (planning) for the question, "Have you taken up any
252
addi tional programmes to support UEE?" To quote his own
words, "What is UEE? What additional programmes should
be taken up? All these programmes that are carried out
are only to achieve UEE. What other programmes one can
take-up?
When his attention was drawn to the fact about
children who have to go to work and for whom classes
can be conducted in the same building after 5 or 6
0' clock, he said, "No, we cannot do it, this 15 not
effective. Usually academicians visit two villages and
define the problems and generalise it to the entire
State. But the problems are different in each village.
Academicians, in the beginning, thought that poverty was
the only problem in sending children to school, but now
they feel social taboos are also hindering UEE and
prescribe non-formal education as the alternative to
formal system. But it is not so in practice, I argue
with them telling that, if parents want to send
children to school, they send children to formal system
253
and not to NFE. Because these two system are not
comparable."
for the question, "What can we do to the children
who are labourers and out of school?" The DDPI
(planning) said, "How many such children do you find in
a village? May be 8 to 10, 1n the entire State may be
8,000.
help.
Our country's problems are like that, we cannot
Because of the scarcity of resources we are
experimenting this NfE with the foreign funds (in DPEP
districts) and not with the State funds."
When the attention of the DDPI (Planning) was drawn
towards the allocation of money for districts and asked
to explain the basis of allotment, he said that it is
based on the population of the district and not the
backwardness. for the question, "Do they take into
account the backwardness of the district while allotting
the funds?" he sa1d, "No, for allotment backwardness of
the district 1S not taken into account. There are Tribal
Development Board and Backward Development Board to
254
support backward districts. For the question, "While
fixing expenditure, do you take into account per pupil
cost? Have you used any other indicators?" he said,
"We have calculated per pupil cost and it has corne to
around Rs. 875/- per year but we have not reflected it
in planning. Incentive schemes are not working out
effectlvely.
enrollment.
Even wi thout these schemes there lS 60%
We find problem only with 20% of children.
Even if the enrollment increases by 5%, we are happy.
It is very difficult to enroll these children."
The discussion was focused to know the efforts
towards universal enrollment and was asked "Do you
lncrease the allocation for education keeping in view
the cost involved in covering the last 20% of children?"
He replied, "No, we do not take into account children.
who are not In the school. But we do allot based on the
norms followed during five year plan. We have prepared
perspectlve plan taking into account the opinion of
experts. There are many things, which do not require
money but requlre change in the policy, e.g.
255
transferring the power of teachers' recruitment from
district offices to taluk boards. We cannot transfer
the power because it is a policy decision. Previously,
recruitment was taking place at the State level. Now, it
1S decentralised to the district level. It may be
decentralised further to the taluk level. But the
salaries are paid by the State Government." He
continued, "Related to appointment of teacher, the
Central Government wants us to recruit female teachers.
But "r l~ is not going to be useful because ( 1 ) teachers
are not prepared to stay 1n the village (2) they have to
travel from far off places (3) they take transfer to
city by bringing political pressure."
About the school timings, the DDPI expressed his
opinion relating to change of school timing according to
the convenience of the local people. The main problem is
that teachers are not available to teach the regular
schedule. They are given permission to declare winter
vacation any time in the academic year. Even the school
timing can be changed according to their convenience.
256
As teachers do not stay in the same village, they do not
agree with these timings. However in Belgaum class start
at 8 a.m. and close at 12 noon during summer."
5.8 Nature Of Information And Information Flow
Based on the discussions held at various levels the
following types of information are identified:
• Guidelines
• Proposals
• Statistical information
Decisions in the form of orders and circulars.
The nature of each of the above is discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Guidelines: The need of guidelines lS felt at all
levels. Guidelines originate from a higher level of the
structure to lower levels. They are needed when higher
level decides the outlays or allocates money for plans
to be prepared and implemented by the lower level of the
257
structure. This can be illustrated by the description
given by the Planning, Evaluation and Appraisal Officer
of Mandya Zilla Panchayat. According to him, "the St.at.e
Government. indicates t.he plan outlay for preparing the
district plan and gives guidelines during the month of
March. The guidelines indicate the priorities to be
given. On the basis of such priorities the total outlay
needs to be distributed across different development
departments."
Most of the guidelines contain a por forma to organise
the i terns of actions and financial requirements. They
also include the identification of authority to approve
the actions undertaken.
Proposals: Proposals are responses to the guidelines.
They go from lower levels to higher levels of the
structure. Normally they are evidence of compliance to
the guidelines. They include the information organised
according to the pro forma supplied along with
guidelines. Draft Proposals with details of action to be
258
taken are sent for approval to the agency as prescribed
in the guidelines.
Statistical Information The substantive aspects of
proposal consists of statistical information. Such
informa tion is always In the form of numbers
representing the 'reali ty' . But validity of these
numbers never gets questioned. The statistical
information is generated separately for each proposal.
In other words, each of the proposals using the same
information like enrollment, number of teachers etc.
Collects information separately without cross-checks
from lower level structures. The lowest link in the
planning structure is the school. All information flows
upwards from the Headmaster. During the discussions at
all levels starting from the state to the block, no one
mentioned the existence of a reliable data base.
Circulars and orders: The information is in the form of
instructions, approval and acceptance taken for
circulars and orders. They always flow in downward
259
direction of the structure. Information provides
legitimacy at the operational level to implement and
initiate actions in different areas.
In the following paragraphs an attempt is made to
capture the role and quality of information flow from
the qualitative data generated during field visits.
5.9 Information base for the development of proposals:
Realistic and achievable planning requlres a
reliable data base. This data base would contain unit
wise information on important educational parameters.
Whether the plan intends to expand or restructure, the
direction and magnitude of the task require the current
status of the system. The data base is also required
for diagnosis of the situation and specify objectives.
Discussions with the district and block level
officers revealed that information on same parameters
260
are sought and supplied separately for each programme
at the time of proposal and also at the time of
implementation. Data base does not exist at the block
level which can be updated every year from where the
information can be drawn for planning as well as
monitorlng the implementation. Discussions at the
district and block lev€l offices revealed the existence
of different sources of information which are employed
at different points of time for different purposes as
given below.
1) Monthly Reports: Each school sends a Mahevari
(monthly) report to the AEO through the IOS. Very
rarely the IOS goes to the school to collect the
required information. This Mahevari report contains the
position of teachers working, sanctioned number of
rooms, number of children on roll and the average
attendance separately for boys, girls, SC boys, SC
girls, ST boys and ST girls. The information contained
in the report is not trustworthy. According to the AEO
of Najanagudu " .. this.report would not be accurate as
261
the information given by the teachers ~s not correct.
Teachers increase the students enrollment. Teachers
fear that they may be transferred to some other school
if the enrollment figure ~s
problem of distribution of
less. This has led to the
incentives. Due to th~s
inflated numbers many text books and food packets have
remained ~n my office. For example, ~n one school
teachers had included additional 30 names, but they
were not present. When asked the reason for their
absence, teachers tell, students have gone to yathre,
or to attend festival in the village etc., lOS found
out the correct number of school going children. Last
year they had asked for ten quintal of food. This year
according to the survey I have given only 3 quintal of
food. "
When the Case Worker at the DDP1's office was asked,
"How is information received and processed?" the case
worker responded, "DDPI office receive information from
AEOs every month starting from June in the form of a
report named KDB report (Karnataka Development Board) .
262
When asked about the collection of data at taluk
level, he said, "The information is collected by each
Inspectors of Schools in monthly meeting of Headmasters
of the schools in their respective ranges. HMs are
required to bring the information pertaining to their
school in prescribed form and give it to the lOS. Such
information from each range is consolidated at the
AEO's office and reported to the DDPI in the form of
KDB report."
In fact there exists a post of Assistant
Statistical Officer in the office of the DDPI. But, in
all the districts visited, the posts were vacant at
the time of the visit.
It was also found that the same type of
information is used both at the time of sending plan
proposals and also at the time of implementing the
programme. There lS no mechanism to cross check the
information nor they are used for monitoring purpose.
For example the case worker in the DDPI' s office in
263
Mysore stated that, "state Goverrunent allots money to
glve equipments to HPS (chair, table, desk, sitting
planks, bench) . ZP and DDPI officials decide about
list of equipments to be supplied . There is also a
separate committee related to equipment. AEOs inform
about the equipments required by the schools. They
collect it from HMs." The present investigator asked,
"Who decides about the nwnber of equipments?" He said,
"Roughly we give 10 plank. During the distribution of
planks to respective schools we see the nwnber of
equipments already in the school. If it is more then we
give it to some other school.
2) Enumeration; Lot of time of teacherS/Headmasters 1S
taken away in compiling and supplying information in
different kinds of pro forma to the higher office. In
fact the teachers start collection of information
during the month of December every year about the
children who should be enrolled in school during the
succeeding year. This is called enumeration census. The
information comes from households. Teachers collect the
264
information related to date of birth, house number,
head of the household's name, number of brothers and
sisters. All these statistics are sent to the DDPI' s
office.
office.
Individual details are sent to the AEO's
Such a type of cens~s is done even in school-
less villages.
3) Occasional surveys: The AEO of Nanjungudu Block of
Mysore district mentioned about a survey conducted by
him. This survey was conducted to meet the instruction
given by the State Government which stated that the
incentives should be distributed to those children who
regularly attended the school. The survey attempted to
measure the number of students attending the schools
regularly. He also added that children attend the
school in large numbers till the distribution of
uniforms, text books and food packets and stop corning
after the distribution.
265
4) Programme Specific Information: Each time when a
progranune is to be implemented or proposal has to be
sent as per the guidelines, efforts are made to collect
the essential information for the purpose. Proposals
to create new posts of teachers or opening of new
school, lS decided based on the infor:nation collected
from the HMs. For example, the lOS reported that the
DDPI has glven new pro forma to collect information. A
copy of the pro forma is displayed on the notice board
during circle meetings. HMs are expected to collect the
information accordingly.
In one of the meetings attended by this
investigator in the DDPI's office, Mysore, she saw Case
Worker distributing pro forma during the meeting and
asking the AEO's to collect taluk level data within 3
days. The doubts raised by the AEO's on the certain
items in the pro forma one of the Case Worker clarified
by explaining that, "It is similar to last year's pro
forma and in addition you have to collect information
related to high schools also. H The city AEO objected
266
saying that, "I cannot collect High school information
wi thin 3 days as there are 67 High schools in his
taluk." The Case Worker then asked them to get
information from only Government schools.
In the same meeting, a person from Textbooks
Bureau came to collect statistics related to primary
and secondary schools. He wanted to know the total
enrollment in government and private schools, number
of books that are in the stock and SC/ST students from
V to VII standard of government schools. All the AEOs
were asked to give the needed information wi thin a
given date to the Textbook Bureau.
5) All India Educational survey: NCERT conducts
periodic all India Educational Survey of Education. But
information collected in such surveys are not kept for
use in the block or district level.
267
5.10 Reliability of Information:
Most of the programmes depend upon the enrollment
figures. But the functicnaries at the grass roots level
know that the enrollment figures are most often
inflated. Earlier, the AEOs remark has been cited to
show the distortions 1n the figures given by the
headmasters for reasons of their own. But, invariably
the information supplied by the schools are taken into
account for further planning and administrative
purposes. The present researcher during her visit to
the DDPI office at Chickamaglore came across a
situation in which the clerical staff were calculating
per pupil expenditure for the district. One of the
Second Division Clerk asked her senior as to whether
she should take attendance or enrollment into
consideration to calculate per pupil expenditure. The
First Division Clerk clarified that she has to take the
enrollment, otherwise the per pupil expenditure becomes
high if attendance 1S used in calculation. On the
268
expenditure side she wanted to find out whether she has
to take the actual salaries disbursed or salaries of
the teachers who are not paid at present. The FDC told
her to take the salary payable as the money has been
allotted to them.
In another incident, the CPO of Mysore showed the
researcher a letter which required certain information
about the district to be supplied to the State in
fi fteen days time. According to him, the work needed
more time. He remarked that since such unreasonable
requests were made the officials at the block and
grassroots level gave some figures and hence the
statistics did not tally from programme to programme.
To quote his own words "It is not consistent. Higher
officials are happy with the targets and statistical
figures. They take 10ts of time in asking for the
required information and we have to collect the
information within fifteen days. That is why our
implementation is failing."
269
Information used in the process 1S gathered by
different functionaries. No arrangement exists at the
block level to collect and make t~em cons1stent. Even
at the district level the position of the }\.SSlstant
Statistical Officer 1n the office of the DDPI has
remained vacant in all the three districts visited by
this researcher.
5.11 Role of Information in Planning:
Inspite of the discrepancies ln information and
its lack of credibility, plan proposals use convenient
form of information to satisfy the procedural
requirements and information is also used to justify
higher allocations.
This can be illustrated by several examples. The
statement made by the Case Worker in the office of the
DDPI, Mysore regarding the rationale for deciding the
distribution of the equipment as already been mentioned
earlier.
270
The same practice is evident from Mandya as well.
The case worker in charge of programmes in the office
of the DDPI reported that the State asks to send
proposal for number of additional classrooms required.
DDPI in turn asks the AEOs to send a list of schools
requiring additional classroom by fixing a norm.
Requirement of the addi tional classrooms is decided
based on pupil-teacher ratio and number of existing
classrooms. Taluk level information is consolidated at
the District level and sent to the State. Based on the
availability of funds physical targets are allotted to
each district by the state. The allotted physical
targets are usually less than the requirement. Based on
this allotment, the district again asks for list of
schools badly requiring additional rooms from taluk
level. Most needed schools are decided by the DDPI
based on the strength of students.
In another instance, as narrated by the same Case
Worker the State Government invited ZP and DDPI's
office asking to send a proposal for repair of play-
271
ground and fencing the DDPI instruc':ed ':he AEOs to send
a list of LPS/HPS schools having playground where
fencing was r~quired in their respective blocks.
Accordingly AEO's sent the reports based 'In '''''h.:.ch the
DDPI estimated that 175 school play qrc:unds required
fencing. Similarly, in 1993-94 the State hac .:.mposed a
ceiling of 5,000/- for repair to be glven to each
school and each legislative constituency was permitted
with 10 schools. Hence Mandya was al:otted 90 schools.
List of schools was sent to ZP by the DDPI. They were
approved without any change.
As discussed above each progranune generates its
own information on the same phenomenon, the maln
purpose appears to claim as much resources as possible
with the help of statistics and other forms of
information.
5.12 outcomes of the analysis: In the present chapter an
attempt is made to analyze the information generated
through interviews, discussions and observat:ons of p:an
272
related meetings carried out at state and district
level. Based on the analysis certain observations are
made:
1. All plan activities start from the decision regarding
the quantU!:t of funds by the cabinet or the Nat:conal
Planning Commission, whether the plan refers to new Five
Year or an Annual Plan of an ongoing Five Year Plan.
2. It has been indicated that the cabinet takes the
decision regarding financial outlays based on status
paper submitted by the secretaries of different
departments including education to the cabinet meeting.
The State Planning Board has no role to play in shaping
the educational plans. The status paper is prepared by
the planning section of the secretariat of the education
department on the basis of information obtained from
commissioners and directors. The discussions with the
officials of the planning section in the educational
secretariat did not indicate any systematic approach to
analyze the information in a holistic way.
273
3. Educational plan consists of three sections depending
upon the source of outlay. All the programs for which
the Central Government supports, are called, centrally
sponsored schemes. The programs for whlcn the funds come
from state account are termed as state sector programs.
Programs which are supported by the individual ZP are
termed as district sector programmes. Invariably the
officials involved in the planning process understand
educational planning as a bundle of discrete programmes.
They always think at the concrete level rather than
viewing the plan as a set of inter-related abstract idea
structure which have implication for action during the
discourse. No one talked about strategic plan,
objectives, diagnosis of a situation etc.,.
4. 7he planning procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines
procedures to prepare
authority to lower
guide I ines by the lower
communicate instructions and
a proposal given from higher
authority. Responses to the
level structure to the higher
274
level structure take the form of proposal. Even the
district sector programs are district specific In the
sense of administration than plan formulation. During
our discussions only one instance of proposal In the
form of giving awards to rank holders within a distr~ct
came to light as a sole example of District specific
programme.
5. The discrete nature of plan program clearly emerges
from the nature and method of data collected for
preparing the proposals. Even though the data may happen
to be the same for several programme proposals, each of
them seek data separately and the information collected
under one program is rarely used for another program. In
this process data on a given parameter may not be the
same when collected under different programmes. In the
entire planning structure, the notion of data base, its
update and analysis is completely absent.
From the above observation it may be concluded that
the plans are used as legitimizing instrument for
275
spending public :unds. Once the funds are earmarked for
differen~ programs the role of planning comes to an end.
The feed back from <::he evaluation of the implementatlon
of prevlous plans do not find any place in further
planning.
After looking at the plan process carried out at
the district level and the state level an attempt 1.S
made in the next chapter to describe the field level
activities and perceptions related to planning and
implementation.
276
CHAPTER VI
A View of the Primary Education
at the Field Level
6.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the meaning and process of
planning emerging out of discussions at the district and
the state level was presented. In this chapter the
info~ation generated during the visits to the block and
community levels are analyzed. Block and community level
are active locations and they provide the information
needed for future decisions.
The relevance of planning from the view of bringing
about changes in the intended direction gets tested at
the field level. The degree of understanding and
commi tment to the aims and obj ecti ves of plans decide
the success.
277
Two blocks from each of the selected districts
were visl~ed during the field work. The block and
schoo~ level educational functionaries, district and
village level elected representatives, school
betterment committee members, and parents were
interv~ewed in each block. The objective of the field
work was t~ ascertain the role of the grassroots level
bureaucratic structure In expansion of education and
the responses of the client groups to the planned
development. Specifically, the field work served the
following purposes:
• To understand the role of field level functionaries
in educational planning and nature of information
base used for planning.
• To understand the process of educational development
In the form of new schools additional rooms,
•
additional teachers, deployment of teachers,
distribution of incentives, etc.
To understand the perceptions of the concerned with
respect to the above issues in the context of the
planned development of primary education.
278
• To obtain the perceptions of the parents who have
not enrolled or have withdrawn their children from
the school
The narrative recounted In the following pages has
been evolved based o~ the field notes on the interviews
and observation.
6.2 Educational Planning and Field Level functionaries
The Field level functionaries do not perceive their
role as of any importance in planning. Their basic role
is to respond to the circular sent by the higher
offices asking for specific information or directing
them to take actions. As one of the Inspectors of
Schools (IDS) puts it, "we have nothing to do with the
planning. It is the work of the Head Quarters. We only
supply information sought by them". Since the role of
information is crucial in planning, the researcher
asked the functionaries about the nature and source of
information they transmit upwards in each of the
blocks. The discussions revealed that Head Masters/Head
279
dropouts from parents. We just sit and write the reason and never visit houses."
As AEO of Nanjangudu pointed out that teachers inflate enrollment figures to ensure their place in the school in which they ~ike to continue. In one case he recollected, the teacher has reported thirty children on the roll who did not exist.
On enquiry about the number of school going aged child population in the vi~lage, the teacher in Alambur of Nanjangud Block said, "~tere are many children we do not enroll. If we enroll them all then the space in the school would not be sufficient. I was teaching all the classes alone three years ago. The second teacher under OBB was posted here. It is sufficient to enroll 70 or 80 children for two of us. I f we show less then that, one of us would be deputed to another school. Hence we enroll 70 to 80 students."
Puneeth aged 6 years of Tangali Tandya of Kadur Block stopped going to school. Gowrarnrna in Kanagondanahalli in the same block did not enroll to the school as her father opposed. He was against her going to school. Gowrarnrna takes food to her father who works in a farm. Hale Mudigere Jayalakshrni works as a coolie. She .is paid Rs.30/- per day. She is a 1st standard dropout. According to her father, Lakshrni did not show any interest in studies hence started working. Renuka of the same village is seven years old. She was enrolled to the school. But she did not attend the school. Now she takes care of her younger sister at horne. Her mother works as a labourer. Nagalakshrni in Mogarhalli of Srirangapatna Block stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard She left the school . three years back to look after her sister. In the same village in Manjula's house, she has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled in school, because Manjula has to cook and look after the household work, when their
281
Teachers of all schools in each range ( a range is a
part of a block) and one lOS will be incharge of all
primary schools in that area meet once in a month in a
central place and provide the current information about
their scl1oo1 in a prescrlbed pro forma. Normally the
pro for:na includes the current enrollment and
attendance level of children ln gender-wise and
category-wise classifications, number of classrooms,
the ownershlp status of the school building, the number
of teacher posts sanctioned and the number of teachers
working and information about several accounts
maintained at the school. The information routinely
collected every month from each school is sent to the
district level office for physical storage. Based on
the information thus generated, the AEO would prepare a
development report and sends it to the Office of the
DDP1. The following excerpts are from the field notes
presented as illustrations to show the unreliability of
the enrollment data.
Teacher who accompanied researcher to Tangali Tandya enquired about the purpose of the work and appreciated researchers' effort to obtain information from villages . and said, "you have been honest in visiting villages to collect the information by going to houses. Often the department asks us to collect reasons for
280
dropouts from parents. We just sit and write the reason and never visit houses. H
As AEO of Nanjangudu pointed out that teachers inflate enrollment figures to ensure their place in the school in which they like to continue. In one case he recollected, the teacher has reported thirty children on the roll who did not eXist.
On enquiry about the number of school going aged child population in the village, the teacher in Alambur of Nanjangud Block said, "There are many children we do not enroll. If we enroll them all then the space in the school would not be sufficient. I was teaching all the classes alone three years ago. The second teacher under OBB was posted here. It is sufficient to enroll 70 or 80 children for two of us. If we show less then that, one of us would be deputed to another school. Hence we enroll 70 to 80 students. H
Puneeth aged 6 years of Tangali Tandya of Kadur Block stopped going to school. Gowramma in Kanagondanahalli in the same block did not enroll to the school as her father opposed. He was against her going to school. Gowramma takes food to her father who works in a farm. Hale Mudigere Jayalakshmi works as a coolie. She .is paid Rs. 30/ - per day. She is a 1st standard dropout. According to her father, Lakshmi did not show any interest in studies hence started working. Renuka of the same village is seven years old. She was enrolled to the school. But she did not attend the school. Now she takes care of her younger sister at home. Her mother works as a labourer. Nagalakshmi in Mogarhalli of Srirangapatna Block stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard She left the school three years back to look after her sister. In the same village in Manjula's house, she has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled in school, because Manjula has to cook and look after the household work, when their
281
parents go to interested In scheol.
work. Her parents are not enrolling their children to
The above clted children could be traced because their
names happen to be in the school reglsters as enrolled.
The examples glven above indicate :hat the information
base used for planning purposes is not reliable. During
the field work, no one talked about the existence of a
data bank. The same information was collected
separately for different plan proposals. Since the
concentration of all previous plans was on expansion of
enrollment, the inflated figures given by the teachers
for various existential reasons also become useful for
justifying the interventions of previous plans and
place demand for continued flow of resources to do the
same thing in much more expanded scale. But, once the
resources are allocated, the dynamics of growth takes
over at the action level. At the stage of plan
formulation, the exerClse lS driven by supply based
politica: economy. Whether the same principle also
dominates at the action level becomes important to
hlghlight the role of planning. In the succeeding
paragraphs procedures followed in expanding education,
supplying infrastructure and human resources to the
schools are discussed with the help of field notes
based on observations and interviews.
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6.3 Dynamics of Expansion of Schooling
The activities that take place at the field level more
or less conform to the plan programmes. But the
procedure followed to implement and the forces that
come into operation in the process differ from the
perspectives with which such programmes are planned.
Some of the major interventions are focused here to
bring out the field realities influencing the expansion
of education. Here, the term educational expansion is
used to differentiate the changes that take place at
the field level from the perspective of educational
development. The dynamics of expansion will be
discussed in terms of the opening of new schools, basis
of the decisions to distribute resources for existing
schools under construction, repairs and maintenance,
provision for additional teachers and reallocation of
existing teachers through transfers and deputation.
Opening of New Schools
The Government of Karnataka follows a norm for opening a
new school. Normally, the norm specifies that the
habitation should have a popUlation of 300 or should
have at least 20 to 30 school going aged child
population. Over a period in the last forty years most
of such habitations have been covered. Therefore, there
is little scope for opening new schools. But, at the
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local level new schools are coming to existence through
an indirect route to circumvent the norm. Initiative for
this development does not emerge from the department of
education. I~ depends on the initiatives taken up by the
representatives of the people at the constituency level
(demand side) and the response of the department for
such initiatives. The following excerpts from the field
notes illustrate the procedure and the role of the
department of education at the block level.
When asked how the decision to open schools are taken, an lOS in Mudigere said, "We do not decide about the opening of a school. It has to come from local people. We can not feel the need of a school in a particular place. Local people should feel the need of a school."
The AEO at Kadur while discussing about the activity currently being carried out in the block said, "One of the activities carried out at the taluk level is opening of branch schools. If school going child population is 16 or more, then villagers write to us. The lOS visits the spot and based on the visit report we send the proposal to DDPI's office for approval. lOS carries out the- spot inspection to knO"'l whether the students' strength is between 15-20 and whether villagers accommodate the school in a private building for a year. AEO recommends for
284
deputation of a teacher. Within two years a Government building is constructed.
When asked whether he would fix priority to forward proposals, AEO, Kadur replied, "We do not fix any priority. We forward all the proposals to DDPI's office. During 1989-94 12 branch schools were opened. This year, we have recei ved 3 applications. These applications are pending with DDPI for approval."
In Mudigere one of the lOS on the issue of opening branch schools said, " We gi ve preference to SC/ST areas. We are not given any guidelines. We follow our own guidelines before sending the proposals to DDPI's office. We conduct spot inspection to check the population of school going children (6 to 13) which should be more than 15. We ensure that the villagers agree to run the school for two years in any private building and equip the school with necessary equipment. We recommend for the deputation of a teacher from the nearby school. The DDPI approves deputation of a teacher. At the end the of second year we send the proposal for building. The school building is constructed by the Government. Teacher's posts for these schools are created as soon as the State Government allots additional teacher posts in the district."
285
In another example, a hamlet called Laxmipura attached to Oddaradoddi village in Heggadadevannakotp. Villagers of Laxmipura managed through lobbying to obtain a branch school of the main school. and also diverted the additional room which was allotted to Oddaradodi village under OBB scheme.
Providing a teacher for a branch school is also complicated. The FDC in Kadur, answering to the question "Who decides the teachers allotment?" explained, "lOS, AEO and DDPI decide about posting of teachers to branch school. Usually one teacher is deputed from HPS school to branch school. HMs of these schools pressurise the lOS and AEO constantly to bring back the deputed teacher or they demand additional post. In such cases an additional post is created to HPS. After two years or wi thin a year, a teacher's post is created in the branch school. Hence AEO selects the schools where HMs pressurise more and the teacher is needed very badly. Strength of students are also considered for this purpose." When asked for the record in which guidelines are mentioned for the selection of the schools, he replied, "such things are discussed orally and are not available in written form."
286
In another case, Lokavali village in Mudigere had a branch school. The main school of which ~s situated ~n another village. One teacher ~s teaching in that school. There are cwo rooms in the branch school. One room ~s given to Shishuvihar (pre-primary). tour classes are taught by a single teacher in another room. This branch school is started for the benefit of SC students because these children were not coming to the main school. The main school has two rooms and students' strength is only 15.
The SBC President and Gram Panchayat Adyaksha of Laxmipura village said, "This village is dominated by SCs. All the benefits go to neighbour ing village dominated by STs. A Few years back these two villages got separated. Recently, Government gave a branch school and a teacher was deputed. Teacher's post is not created ~n Oddaradoddi school. AEO informed that, the teacher post cannot be sanctioned as ours is not an original Grama."
Out of the 12 villages visited three of them
had branch schools. All of them are located in SC
colony. Such schools are likely to continue as single
teacher schools. The local level Governments are not
empowered to create teachers post but rooms can be
constructed by them.
287
From the above field realities it can be surmised that
the expanSlon of schooling facility depends upon the
demand factors. The demand for school in a given
locality emerge frem the local power politics and social
6.4 Implementation of Schemes.
Apart from the administration of the existing
schools, the schemes envisaged under plans have to be
lmplemented by the block level educational
functionaries. The way ln which they go about
translating the schemes into action provides insights to
lnfer the outcomes of the planned development approach.
Generally they fol:ow a procedure which endorses the
local power structure. The following excerpts from the
field notes illustrate the above observation.
At the AEO's office in Heggadadevanakote block, Case Worker in charge of Akshaya programme was consulted to go through the files and collect names of schools selected for various progranunes. For the question "How are schools selected for various programmes?" he explained that, the Government order is circulated by the DDPI along with the guidelines to select school. For yatra programme guideline has been given to select 35 schools. Concerned Case Worker
288
collects the list of schools for yatra programme from lOS.
In the case of schemes like construction of class rooms, repair of school buildings, fencing the schoo 1 grounds etc., ros gives the list of schools separately for each scheme. and short list the number according to the target set by DDPI. And shows the list of schools to AEO before sending it to DDPI. According to him, "The previous AEO had the feel of local conditions but present AEO puts the signature to the list of names selected by me randomly. Actually lOS and AEO should decide about it but they are not doing accordingly. ross are not aware of the prevailing conditions in the villages. They are not maintaining any report. They have to write a report on every visit. This is not done by them. When we ask lOSs for list of schools which require classrooms or repair. lOSs inturn suggest us to refer to the consolidated monthly reports given by HMs. If an lOS feels that repairs are not required in a hobli circle then he would not give list of school names."
In Kadur, First Division Clerk (FDC) in charge of Akshaya programmes explained the procedure followed for implementing various schemes, "In Akshaya there are 9 programmes dealing with supply of uniforms, text books, foed, creating educational environment, providing play grounds, repair of school buildings, educational excursions and providing musical instruments to schools. ODPI fixes financial and physical targets. AEO selects the schools for implementation. Sometimes guidelines are given by cpr and DDPI. Sometimes AEO himself imposes norms."
The AEO of Kadur, during the discussion about the procedures selecting the locations/specific
'targets for implementation of the programmes and schemes, said that IOS's are asked to collect information related to problems of the schools
289
and discuss with HMs and teachers during their visit to the school and make a note of facili ties required for each school. Based on this information the schools are selected.
During the discussion with the lOSs at Kadur, researcher tried to cross check the information she had obtained earlier regarding the procedures of implementation by asking them to explain the steps involved In providing additional classrooms and teachers.
One 0 f them explained, "Orders corne from the CPI office to the DDPI. The DDPl asks the AEO to send a list of schools requiring additional classrooms. In June a list of schools requlrlng repairs and additional classrooms are prepared. In July, a list of schools requiring addi tional teacher posts is prepared. This is prepared after receiving the enrollment numbers of students. The prescribed norm is, One additional room to be given to HPS having 5 rooms. Additional room lS given based on the strength of LPS.H
In Mudigere, the issue of selection of schools was raised with the Case Worker in charge of building constructions in the Office of the AEO in Mudigere Block said, "it depends on 105, who give us a list. This list is sent to DDPI's office."
The above excerpts provide a general picture of the
procedure followed at the field level. It also shows
that the role of the 105 is crucial in the process of
implementation. It will be of interest to know-how far
the norms and procedures are adhered by 105. The
political structure and the education structure get
290
linked at the lOS level. His/her inspection report
provides official the official seal for accepting the
clalms for resources. In the following paragraphs
specific schemes are focused to know how they are
carr~ed out.
Adding classrooms to the existing schools form a maJor
component of civil works activities under the plans.
Irrespective of the source of funding of the schemes
like State Plan schemes, centrally sponsored schemes or
Zilla Panchayat schemes, the implementing authority is
ZP. But, the need for construction requires an
endorsement from the education department which follows
the general procedure mentioned earlier. The
construction acti vi ty involve tendering and contracting
for civil works to local contractors or to the public
sector construction corporations like Land Army,
Karnataka Construction Corporation etc. Most often, the
construction of classrooms and small school buildings
are given to local private contractors as the magnitude
of budget lS very small. But this activity of classroom
construction attracts much attention of the local
291
politicians and district level bureaucracy. There exists
a great scope for grafts and distribution of patronage.
The following excerpts provide the picture of the
process of classroom construction.
One of the Nanjungudu 105 was interviewed to know the basis of selecting schools to implement varlOUS programmes. 105 explained that in general, ln any programme the physical targets allotted by the DDPI are shared equally among four circles. When asked," How are you going to select the villages in a circle for construction of school buildings?" 105 replied, ftpreference is given to the schools having no buildings and very interior villages. But in few places if the site is not available then we shift it to the place where site is available. For example, Banaj i village dominated by SC/ST has only one room. There are two teachers working in the school. When one teacher takes the class the second teacher has to wait outside. The class room is not spacious enough to accorrunodate all the students. A room was allotted to this school but villagers did not give a site. Hence the room is shifted to Kasovali. In Kasovali, villagers came forward to give a site. Now this school has 5 rooms. I asked, "How are you going to distribute the physical target, when there are eight backward villages in a circle and only 2 in another circle?" In reply he said, "for any programme, physical targets are distributed equally among 4 circles. If the backward areas are concentrated then the political leaders to come to the office to demand equal treatment for their constituency. There are 3 MLAs in Nanjangudu taluk. When a particular circle gets attention, MLAs from other, circles demand for the same. Hence, any benefit given by the government is equally shared by all the circles irrespective of the development."
292
lOS in Mudigere was asked, "what is the basis for selecting schools for additional classrooms?" Showing a pro forma he said, "This is given to HMs. They fill and give it to respecti ve inspectors of schools in the circle meeting. This pro forma gl ves information related to the strength of students and number of standards. Based on thiS information additional classroom are allotted to schools.H
The Case Worker working under the AEO in Muddur Block said, "This year the DDPI allotted 10 addi tional classrooms in the existing schools. The AEO and two lOS discussed and fixed the norms for selection. But it is not uniformly distributed among the circles. AEO and lOS selected the schools. This list of selected schools is sent to DDPI's office. The DDPI did not make any modification. If the SBC or the MIAs ask for a room, then DDPI writes to AEO and asks whether it is possible to fulfil the requirement. The AEO. based on the spot inspection report, conveys his opinion. Thus selected list 1S given to ZP. The work is entrusted to BDOs. After construction BDO gives the keys to AEO. The same will be communicated to DDPI and ZP."
In Kanagondanahalli when the school was started several years ago, the teacher was taking classes in Gram Panchayat office. It was very small room. Teachers felt very bad to teach in the small room and persuaded a villager to donate land. He gave 1 1/2 acres. The Head teacher also observed that the children were discontinuing their study after 4th standard and hence decided to obtain up-gradation of the school up to 7th standard. He collected 60,000/,to construct one room but was able to construct 4 more rooms with the grants from ZP and Taluk Panchayat. When school was visited by the
293
researcher, standards I to V"I. I were functioning with three teachers. Out of them one teacher was on deputation and the remalning twc pos~s belonged to the school. There were five rooms. Students' strength was around 200. The teacher was asked, "how did he manage to get sanction for so many rooms ?" Teacher explained, "application related to additional teacher's post or additional classroom can be sent by post or we can go to concerned office and hand over the application. If we give the application tc department (AEO's office) then 2 to 3 years are required to materialise because they have ~o wait for allotment. If we go through ZP, wort.: can be done in a year. Gram Panchayat member and SBC members can also give the application. Teacher prefers to go personally to move things faster. For the construction of a classroom, teacher can give an application directly to BOO. BDO takes permission from AEO and constructs a room. Application is sent through Gram Adhyaksha or SBC member to the department. Teacher should wait for 15 days or one week to know, whether the room has been sanctioned or not. In a month application is moved to ZP from taluk Panchayat. Teacher finds out from concerned caseworker in ZP, whether the room is sanctioned or not. Teachers usually go on Saturday after the morning classes. This may take a week or 1S days. If things are not materialised in this procedure then teacher meets MLA cr MP. If they tell the ZP, the school room is constructed within a year. But according to the teacher, things can be materialised even without MIAs help."
lOS of Kadur explained the process through which the schools get the additional facilities. According to his report, "Last year (1993-1994), DDPI allotted 14 classroom to Kadur taluk. Schools were selected by lOS and AEO based on their field reports. This list was given to BOO. BDO was entrusted with the responsibility of drawing the plan, estimating and constructing."
294
lOS at Heggadadevanakote answer~ng to the question "How are you going to select schools for implementing programmes?" said, "we select the most needed place. But things do not happen according to our specifications". When asked, "Do you consider SBC members application while allotting additional classrooms?" he said, "SBC members rarely ask for such things. In case politicians ask then the preference is given to them. If SBC or MLAs ask for a room then DDPI writes to AEO and asks whether it is possible to give or not? AEO based cn the field report and spot inspection report conveys his opinion on the case by case basis. Thus selected list is given to ZP. The work is then entrusted to BDOs. After construction BDO gives the keys to AEO. The same will be communicated to DDPI and ZP. Constructions are taken up under different Heads of account." If the proposal is the result of the MLA's ini tiati ve, they get cleared by DDPI without any problem. Otherwise, DDPI exercises cuts in the proposals according to her/his perception of the allotted resources and their distribution across different blocks."
Kanagondanahalli represents the implementation dynamics
of several schemes like construction of rooms,
deputation of teachers, and creation of posts. In the
above discussion, the mention of all levels of political
influence has been made by the teacher. It may be seen
that the criteria for identification of sites do not
follow the educational needs in terms of backwardness of
the sub-block regions. It gets divided equally among
them. During the process of the distribution of the
295
benefits equally, the provision always falls short of
the need. Hence, the politics of distribution of the
public resources takes over and status quo gets
maintained. Similarly, the repair of classrooms is
another intervention which attracts attention of the
local representatives elected either to Zilla Panchayat
or to the State Legislature.
In the AEO's office (Maddur), a few Villagers carne to his chamber, explained that, the school building is in very bad condition and requested the AEO to take action to repair the building. He sent them after assuring them that he would inform about their problem to the DDPI. Afterwards jokingly AEO remarked that all the buildings constructed after Independence are in bad condition and all the schools have to be constructed again.
In Maddur, Case Worker in charge of repairs of class rooms said, "This year MLAs and villagers have pressurised for repair of schools. This month MLA has asked for repair of 21 schools. We have sent the proposal to DDPI. Another MLA has asked for repair of classroom after we had sent the proposal. Now we have to send the proposal again.
Repairs are taken up under many pretext including the
state plan intervention. Repairs are not directly
implemented by block level education office. But they
have to endorse the request. The following selections
296
from the field notes indicate the issues involved.
Though repairs involve considerable allocation, an unit
of implementation is school. There is scope for a lot of
graft in awarding the contract: and also overestimation.
The work is normally carried out by the contractor and
supervised by the Zilla Panchayat Engineering
Department. Tenders are approved by the Zilla Panchayat
Office.
6.S Provision of Additional Teachers
Deployment of human resources in the form of
teachers recruitment and their placement forms an
important activity of the block level educational
office. As mentioned earlier, the documentary analysis
of the Five Year Plans revealed L'lat the macro level
projections of additional future enrollments form the
basis of projecting future demands for teachers and
accordingly allocations are made. For example in VI
Plan, provision for four thousand teachers was made in
the Five Year Plan to meet the target of 20 lakh
additional enrollment. But, in reality all the
297
additional enrollments do not take place 1n school-less
villages. Existing schools account for marginal 1ncrease
in enrollment. Further, a teacher-Pupil ratio of 1:50 is
used for locating the add1tional teacher. Schools, to
attain this marginal 1ncrease over the previous level,
require more than £:11e to S1X jears. Hence only a few
schools qualify for additional post. Invar iabl y,
provisions for salary component get postponed as much as
possible. The new posts sanctioned in any g1ven year 1S
always less than the projected demand. Hence, the
allocation of additional teacher's post corne under the
local power play.
In recent times it is the rural areas where such
demands have to be met. But, the teachers in rural areas
prefer to move to towns or to large central villages.
This also creates a demand for transfers. Transfers are
considered as purely administrative matters. But, the
re-deployment of teachers has greater significance 1n
the distribution of quality of schooling. Small schools
in interior areas continue to work with a single teacher
and the town schools have more teachers. The dynam~c
298
nature of the interplay of the demand and supply forces
for transfers and deputations require a separate study.
Glimpses of such power play could be discerned 1.n the
interviews with the field level functionaries of the
education departments. Some such statements are given in
the succeeding paragr~phs as illustrations.
Mudigere AEO said, "The criteria considered for the creation of the post is teacher-pupil ratio. Teacher-pupil ratio should be 1: 50. AEO sends a proposal to DDPI for sanctioning of addi tional teachers' post. In the proposal they mention students strength, number of teachers, working hours and number of required posts. SBC members also can send similar proposal for additional teachers' post to the DDPI."
Responding to the question, "do you fill up all the vacancies simultaneously in the block?", the AEO at Mudigere said, " When the sanctioned posts are less than the required posts, only teacher-student ratio is considered. This information is given by HMs in the hobli meeting. We see whether the school is LPS/HPS, number of students and teachers. We give preference to I to VII standards and schools having more number of students. E.g. in Komanahalli 2 teachers are teaching 20 students in LPS school. In the town school 450 students are taught by 4 teachers. Hence we depute a teacher from Komanahalli to town school. This year, DDPI informed us not to depute OBB school teachers to other places."
Maddur lOS explaining about the allotment of teacher posts said, "1: 50 teacher-student ratio norm is followed by the Government to allot additional teacher posts. Additional teacher post 1.S sanctioned to the schools having 1:80
299
teacher-student ratio. MLAs or SBC members ask for additional posts. AEOs are not in a position to give it. Hence deputations are done to such schools. Teachers can be deputed from LPS or HPS."
On the way bacK from the visit to the village to AEO'S office at Maddur blocK, HM who was accompanying researcher said, "I was transferred from Town School to a village school. Last year, I tried asking for a transfer to my native village as I have lands in the village and I have to take care of the irrigation work. AEO behaved rudely with me. He spoke without giving respect. Hence, I got him transferred to DDPI's office. There, he is given powerless superintendent post. Because of this incident, lOSs are scared that, they may also be transferred to far off places as graduate HMs. In the elections lOSs have supported Cong (I) (political party). I have canvassed for Janatha Dal(political party), this party has now come to power. If I am not transferred then I will go to the Chief Minister. And get my transfer this year."
The Case Worker in the office of the AEO stated that, during the period when a school having more strength is waiting for the sanction a f an additional post of teacher, a teacher is deputed to that school from a neighboring school. If classrooms are less than the teachers then teacher from that school is deputed to some other school having more strength. He showed a list containing school names, standards and number of teachers working and explained that, lOS, AEO and DDPI decide about it. Usually one teacher is deputed from HPS school to branch school. HMs of these schools pressurize the lOS and AEO constantly to bring back deputed teacher or they demand additional post. In such cases an ,additional post is created to HPS. Regarding the norms followed during deputation or transfers of teachers AEO of Heggadadevankote said,
300
"Transfers are recommended by AEOs to DDPI' s. We transfer teachers according to teacher student ratio in the class. We take into account 1: 50 ratio as the norm. For deputation, if an extra hand is required, the HM gives an application for deputation. Teacher is deputed within the Panchayat jurisdiction."
Nanjungudu lOS said, "When OBB Scheme was introduced, students' strength was around 18 in a class. Now due to migration and family planning only 2 to 3 children are in a class. In a class of two standards there are only 8 to 10 children studying. A teacher for 8 to 10 children is a" waste. In many villages 60 to 70 children are taught by one teacher in a class. Hence we have deputed one teacher to HPSs from LPSs having two teachers."
A teacher posted against the vacancy in a village called Mahadevanagar is at present working in Heggadadevanakote town school against the vacancy of a craft teacher. This teacher accompanied researcher on the instruction of AEO, to visit a village. On the way by travelling to the village she narrated the details of how she got herself deputed to the town school. According to her the village school where she is posted, is away from her home town. The school is a LPS and has an enrollment of 40 children. Only 20 attend the school. School has two teachers including her. She thought that one teacher is enough to teach 20 children and wanted to go on deputation to a school in her home town. But there was no vacant post in the town school. But the post of craft teacher was vacant. She persuaded the Headmaster of the school to write to AEO and ask for craft teacher and simultaneously requested the AEO to depute her to the school in town citing her problems. Her request was considered and she was posted against
'the post of craft teacher in the town school.
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The above excerpts from the field diary indicate that
the centralised approach to recruit and deploy teachers
does not take into consideration the educational
concerns. Transfers of teachers become a fertile ground
for political power play. Teachers use their influence
to ~ina a place suitable :or their own well-being.
6.6 Perceptions of Local People
The targets of the plan intervention, namely the
poor and land-less live within their own circumscribed
space the system which expects them to change their
ways of life do not offer enough opportunity to do so.
Somehow the incentives get distributed without any
tangible educational outcomes for the beneficiaries.
They get co-opted by the entrenched educational system
to draw upon the public funds In their name. The
following excerpts represent the examples of non
enrolled, dropouts and neglected children and the
explanation given by the parents and elders of the
households for their educational deprivations. Some of
the examples highlight the drabness of education and
consequent failure in retaining the children, some
reflect the competing demands on the childrens' time by
the school and the parents and some reflect the lack of
faith in the ability of the school in providing useful
302
education. The examples given below are the examples of
the failure of planned development of education.
Kalamrna's father (Lakshmipura) 'going to school is of no use. children are not able to write cannot read and 'wr i te Kannada.
feels that, School gOlng
alphabets and A 4th standard
student cannot read 1st standard text book.'
In Mahadevanagara, the mother of a girl made the following comment when she was congratulated by the teacher for her daughter's promotion to the next class "what is the use of going to 3rd standard. She does not know how to write Kannada alphabets. It is not worth going to 3rd standard."
In Mogarahalli of Manjula's parents also are not benefited by the
Srirangapatna block, feel that the children school.
While talking with Kalamrna(Lakshimipura), a villager explained his grievance related to the functioning of the schools. There was a teacher working in the school for 3 years. He was corning very late to the school. Never strained himself to teach students. He was sleeping in the classroom. Kalamrna's mother complained that the teacher was asking students also to sleep in the class. "Can grown up children sleep in the class?" was her question. Hence, when Kalamrna said that, she did not want to continue schooling, her mother did not resist. Kalamma said that, once teacher told them that he is not going to lose any money if students did not corne to school. Government is going to give him salary". Kalamma' s father feels that, going to school is of no use. School going children are not able to write alphabets and cannot read and write Kannada. A 4th standard student cannot read 1st standard text book. Once a villager said to the teacher that, he has spoiled all the children for three years. Two
303
teachers came on deputation after retirement. They worked very hard, children were busy doing home work and preparing for next day's class. They were here only for a year. After they left, children came back to the original stage. Now they do not find any difference between school going and non school going children.
Jayalakshmi (Lakshimipura) stopped go~ng to the school after completing 3rd standard. She is not interested in going to school. Now looks after domestic work. Her mother also did not force her to go to school.
Madesha(Sindhuvalipura), 9 years old, stopped going to school. He was studying in 3rd standard. Once the teacher scolded him. Since then he has stopped going to the school. From then onwards he looks after cows.
Ranganath (Sindhuvalipura) left school last year on the pretext of stomach-ache. His father consulted a doctor and got him treated. Since then Ranganath started showing a dislike to school.
Savitha(Sindhuvalipura) stopped going to the school after 4th standard. Her parents go to work. They are economically sound. But she is not interested in going to school. She finds it less interesting, now she looks after the household work. She is not sent to field to do the work. Next year they are planning to get her married. This year they want her to learn domestic work.
Sivakumar(Alambur) who is a 2nd standard dropout, has seven brothers and a sister. Five brothers are elder to him. They are all engaged in agriculture. Si vakumar has no work to do. He plays near his house or near flowing water. His brother when asked, "Why is he not ,going to the school?" answered, "he would not listen, he goes with books to school and plays outside with his friends. They tried explaining
304
to him but now are fed up" When they had any financ.:.al problem? in the negative and said, comfortable financlally.
asleed, whether They replied, were quite
Manjula (Alarnbur) 1st standard dropout of 89-90 batch has 3 sisters and a brother. Ten year elder one is married. Younger one, Bhagya lS not interested in going to schoo':'. Hence, not enrolled. Her mother said, " my husband and I go to work. We are not here to see whether she goes to school or to play". "Do you expect them to do household work, when you go to worle", a question was asked to her mother. Her mother said, "no these children cannot coole for us, they are very young. I do all the household work and then go to work. But, in school they would not learn anything because they are not intelligent enough to grasp things. My son goes to tuition where few boys sit and study together. There also he is perfornung badly". When enquired, whether the financial problem stops them in sending their children to school"? She said, "Every thing is given by the school. Whatever we earn is sufficient for us. We do not send our children to work. In fact school gives them books, uniforms, food. We need not spend money for education but our children are not interested in going to schoo:".
R.Swarny (Alarnbur) 3rd standard dropout has 5 brothers, 2 of them are married and 3rd one lS In the 9th standard. Both his parents go to work. They have a very spacious old fashIoned house. Swarny's sister-in-law was at home. According to her, Swarny did not show any interest in studies. Swarny said that, he would not go to school. Now he is engaged in grazing cows.
..
Child labour
Belishetty (Soligarakaloni) has 3 sons and 1 daughter. He has not enrolled any of his three sons to the school. They are serving as bonded labourers in different places away from the village. Belishetty had taken loan from villagers and left his sons to serve in their houses. Hence they could not go to school. First son returned to the house 4 years back, second and third sons came back last year. His daughter is going to Anganwadi. His family depends on wage labour. They earn Rs .115/- per day during the season and during other times they do not earn much.
Shankar (Mogarha1i) stopped studying when he was in 4th standard. He went to Tirupathi for one year and came back. He wanted to join 4th standard again. Teacher refused to admit him as he was over aged for 4th standard. He goes to cut stones and earns 25/- per day. His parents depend on manual work.
Mahadev's younger brother (Mahadevanagara) is engaged in grazing cows and sheep. Hence he cannot go to school. Mahadev's father wants his third son to continue in school for a year and then send him to look after the sheep and has plans to train the second son in fishing. He is very poor. They cannot have two meals a day properly. Government has given 3 acres of land but they cannot depend on it because of uncertain rains. Even if the Government gives incentives, children cannot be sent to school. Work has been distributed equally in the family. Children should work and earn to maintain the family.
Basavaraj's(Mahadevanagara) father children. 3 girls and 2 sons are Married sons are staying separately.
has 7 married.
Basavaraj 306
3rd standard dropout goes to Kerala for fishing and comes back after two months. Other two sons have stopped going to school after third standard. Now they go for fishing with other friends. They also graze the sheep.
Manju (Lakshimipural1st standard dropout, left the school 3 years back due to her mother's illness. She takes care of household work. Her elder sister Neela has never been to scheol. She is a casual labourer and earns Rs. 25/ - per day. According to Neela's mother, money earned by her husband is not sufficient to maintain the family. Due to her ill health she cannot go to work. Hence her daughters are working.
Household work
Rathna(Kanagondanahali) has studied up to VI standard. Her father stopped her from going to the school. Because she has to take care of the house hold work when her parents go to work.
Geetha (Kanagondanahali) of 3rd standard. stopped going to school due to ill health. But according to her friends she does all household work. She has a problem with her speech. She can not talk freely with children. Hence she stopped going to school. Manjunath has studied up to VI standard. He stays with his uncle. Parents are living in a different village. He was sent to study in this village. But his uncle asked him to look after the sheep. Because they cannot hire a person to look after the sheep.
Sunitha(Lokavalil stopped going to the school after completing 3rd standard because she was taking care of her sister's kid. After a year she refused to rejoin school. She was not interested in going to schocl. Her elder sister also did not go to school. She was also expected to take care of her brothers and sisters.
307
Radha (Halemudegere) stopped her schooling after 4th standard. Her mother removed her from the school. Her mother said," We are poor. We cannot afford education. Radha cooks and takes care of household work when I go to work." Ramaswamy stopped going to the school after 3rd standard. Now he earns money from manual work.
cattle rearing
Siddaraju (Sindhuvalipura) was removed from the school two years back. His father asked him to look after cows as there was nobody to do it. His brother continues to study as he has no work to do at home.
Parents apathy
Kusuma(Soligarakaloni) stopped going to school from 2nd standard. She is not going to work as she is young. Her grandmother tells that, her sons and daughters-in-law go to coolie work. They are not depending on their children's earnlng. Children do not show any interest in education. Kusuma's brother works as a casual labourer.
Nagesh(Soligarakaloni) is ln 2nd standard. He is very irregular to the school. His mother goes to sell bangles and father goes to repair locks. According to his mother, "children have to walk 1.5 km to go to school, so they do not go, instead they play near the running water and come to the house exactly at 5.30 p.m. Parents cannot check whether they go to school or not. Now children are not earning. After a few years, if they are not interested in going to school then they have to take up locksmith's work like their father."
Marappa (Soligarakaloni) a 4th standard student is irregular in attending the school. His mother a bangle seller carries her ware
308
from one village to the other to sell. The boy accompanies her to villages and assists her. Even his brother did not go to school. He is also not interested. Now, he works as a labourer.
Vijaya( Athgur) discontinued her study to look after her sisters and brothers. She has studied up to the 4th standard. A girl who had stopped going to school after Fifth standard was asked the reason for not going to the school? She said that, her mother is not willing to send her. She is getting married soon to her uncle. As her mother underwent a major operation, she was taking care of her mother.
Nagalakshmi ( Mogarhali) stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard. She left the school three years back to look after her sister. Her parents work for wages. Nagalakshmi's grand mother told that the girls' mother is not interested in sending the children to school. In Manjula' s house, her parents and younger brother go to work in a factory. She has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled to school.
Pakura and Naga are dropouts of 3rd and 4th standards. Their mother passed away last year. Father got married again. Stepmother also goes to work and nobody takes care of them. They would not go to school but play outside the school. Because of this, parents feel it lS better to teach them fishing than sending them to school. Hence they accompany their parents for fishing.
The very purpose of educational planning is to counter
the living conditions of the children which are
diS8ussed in the above cases and provide primary
309
education for them. But the entrenched system of
education tends to equate pr~mary education to the
attendance in school, irrespective of the outcomes. The
schools operate uniformly in all the places and with
respect to all children, irrespective of their living
conditlons. There ere no alternatives. In such a
sit~ation the objective of educational planning becomes
the perpetuation of the existing system and not the
primary education of all children.
In conclusion the field data indicates that the
growth of education while drawing upon the resources
provided by supply dominated educational plans responds
to the demands articulated at the local. Most often the
demands are not governed by educational considerations
but by the local power politics.
310
CHAPTER VII
SUl+fARY AND CONCLUSION
7.1 Introduction
Primary education in the Indian context
attracted renewed interest in recent years.
has
This
interest is not confined only to Indian policy makers.
Even the international agencies and markets have evinced
keen interest in promoting primary education in India.
This change in the scenario is attributable to the
recent changes in the economic policies leading to the
opening up of the Indian economy.
Right at the inception of the constitution, the
framers of the Indian constitution had realised the
importance of primary education and hence directed the
state to make primary education free and compulsory upto
the age of fourteen years for all children. But, the
motivation behind the constitutional directive was to
ensure the development of a democratic and just society
311
which required a well informed citizenry. Another
impetus for the promotion of primary education during
the early decades of the constitutional rule came from
the planned economic development envisaged and
implemented through rive Year plans. The five Year
Plans, right from the rirst one, included education as a
distinct sector of planning.
Inspite of such early efforts to develop primary
education in India, due to historical and social reasons
the progress achieved was far from satisfactory in the
past. One important indicator in the form of literacy
grew with a snail pace. Over the period, the absolute
Size of illiterates also increased along with the slow
growth of literacy. The primary education forms the
foundation of all further educational outcomes,
including literacy. The failure of the educational
system in providing opportunities for the masses lie at
the root of the sluggish growth of literacy. The
educational discourse has blamed the poor economic
condition and unjust social arrangement in the society
for the educational backwardness of the society.
312
But the very rationale for planned development of
prlmary education militates against the notion dominant
In the educational discourse. Very few instances are
there to seek the reason behind the continuation of
educational disparities across population categories,
across reglons and sub-regions inspite of increased
outlays and expenditure through Five Year Plans. This
ralses serious doubts about the nature and purpose of
planning for primary education.
The experience of educational planning In other
developing countries also has given raise to serlOUS
criticisms. But, systematic studies into the approaches,
techniques and processes of educational planning are
very few in number. Not much work has been done in the
past regarding the relationship between planning and
actual practices that take place subsequent to the
formulation of plans In the field level.
313
Keeping the above issues In focus the present study
titled "Educational Planning for School Education: A
Study of Three districts ~n Karnataka.", has been
proposed to look into the nature :Jf educational plans
formulated in the Karnataka State, the process of
planning pursued and the nature of activities performed
by the field level functionaries while implementing the
plans.
7.2 ObJectives of the Study:
I The objectives for the State level analysis are.
1. To examine the Karnataka State Plan documents to
ascertain the methodology and priorities of educational
sectoral plans in IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII Five Year
Plans.
To develop indicators of educational parameters and
compute them to examine the changes in those parameters
over the period of time from 1971-1994.
31~
3. To compare the distribution of educational access,
retention and quality input indicators (educational
parameters) across different popu~ation segments over
twenty four years.
4. To compare the effect on varlOUS educational
indicators after
administration of
level.
t'le State sharing the power of
school education with the District
S. To Examine the effect of the plan expenditure on
selected educational indicators.
6. To examine the changes in literacy levels of different
population categories as indicated in census of 1971,
1981 and 1991.
II The objectives proposed for district level analysis
are
To compute the educational performance and
educational outcome indicators related to the progress
of primary education at the district level.
315
2. To compare the inter district disparities in relation
to educational indicators across Five Year Plans.
III The objectives for the study of the planning
process are:
1. To identify the linkages of educational planning
structure at the state, the district and the sub
district levels in Karnataka.
2. To study the roles played by various personnel in the
process of planning.
3. To obtain the quali tati ve aspects of planning like
information flow, information analysis during the
preparation of educational plans.
4. To understand the perceptions involved in educational
planning at various levels.
5. To know the perceptions of people at the grass roots
level related to primary education.
316
7.3 Research Methodology
Methodology followed in the present study lS a
combination of descriptive and analytical approach to
st~d! the data from secondary sources, and descriptive
st'Jdy of the qualitative data collected by the
investigator on the process of planning and
implementation.
The secondary data considered for the study are,
Fl ve Year Plan documents regarding the approach and
outlays for different aspects of primary education from
Fourth Five Year Plan through Eighth Five Year Plan,
the published and unpublished data collected from the
Office of the Commissioner of Public Instruction on the
educational parameters pertaining to primary education
in Karnataka and the demographic data from Censuses.
The primary data was collected through focused
interviews and non-participant observation of the
317
planning process carried out at the state, district,
block and community levels.
The secondary data on the educational parameters
covered the period from 1971 to 1994. The primary data
was generated from offices of the DDPI and Zilla
Panchayat secretariat in three districts, Block Level
Education Offices in two blocks each located In the
selected districts (six blocks in all), two rural
localities each located in the selected blocks (Twelve
localities in all) .
The indicators listed below were developed and
their values were derived for each year, starting from
1971 through 1994 for purposes of the study.
• Enrollment rate representing the enrollment as per
cent of population.
•
•
•
Gender equality index.
Annual retention rate.
Indicator for the provision of schools represented
by schools per ten thousand population.
318
•
•
Indicator of the supply of teachers represented by
teachers per ten thousand population.
Pupil teacher ratio indicating the size of the
learning groups.
• Standard teacher ratio indicating the degree of
multl-grade teaching.
• Literacy represented by the ratio of literates to
total population.
Different exercises to analyse the data as
indicated below were carried out.
• Descriptive analysis of the plan documents to
highlight the focus and approach of Five Year
Plans.
• Descriptive and comparative analysis of the
financial allocation for different programmes to
achieve the objectives of planning in the area of
primary education.
319
• Descriptive analysis of the annual changes in
indicator values representing important parameters
of primary education mentioned earlier.
• Regression analysis us~ng per pupil annual plan
expenditure at constant pr~ces as independent
variable and each of the selected indicators as
dependent variable was carried out. For each of
the variables, the annual time series data were
constructed using secondary data for the period
from 1971 to 1994.
• Comparison of the changes in the performance
indicators of primary education before and after
the introduction of Zilla Panchayat
administration.
• Plan wise changes in the relative positions of the
ranking of the districts on different indicators
of primary education.
• Descriptive analysis of the literacy indicators
used as proxy to educational outcomes.
• qualitative analysis of the field data on the
planning process and implementation process.
320
7.4 Findings of secondary data analysis:
I. Analysis of the state plan documents, strategies and
outlays
1. Star:ing from the fourth Plan, in each of the five
Year Plans it has been repeatedly reiterated to achieve
cent percent enrollment covering 6 to 11 age group
children. None of the plans, however, specified the
targets taking into consideration the current status of
enrollment.
2. The Second priority area was to improve the
retention rate in primary schools. The plan documents
at:ributed poverty and lack of parental motivation as
the maln reasons behind the phenomenon of school
The plans did not develop alternative
strategies. From the Fifth Plan onwards a mention was
made in the documents about continuing and part-time
education. But it was not worked out in detail as an
alternative to the formal system.
321
3. The review of the achievements of the previous plans
given in the documents of the succeeding plans starting
from Fifth Five Year Plan to Eighth Five Year Plan
mentions the phenomenal growth in the enrollments
achieved during prevlOUS Five Year Plan. The
adaevement also records improvements in retention of
children in the school. But none of the plan documents
mention the outcomes of schooling. There was not even
an attempt made to relate the changes in the literary
levels with the changes in enrollment and retention
rate to assess the impact of plan development during
Five Year Plans.
4. The analysis of the plan outlays in each of the Five
Year Plans indicates a narrow range of interventions to
develop pr imary educat ion. Only four major programmes
have been given high priority in all the plans. These
items are: Construction(Civil Works) , incentives,
teachers' salary and at later stages of planning pre
school. Excepting the outlays of teachers' salary the
remaining three items represent facilitative measures
322
3. The enrollment rate of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) at lower primary level shows
gradual increase as compared to t:-1e enrollment rate of
non-SC/ST which remained constant through out. The trend
indicates that the enrollment rate of SC/ST ',vas
considerably lower tLll 1975 and suddenly picked up and
reached the level of non SC/ST enrollment rate in 1988
and surpassed it afterwards.
4. The comparison of changes in enrollment rates
between SC/ST and non-SC/ST category shows that the rate
of growth of enrollment at Higher Primary level
increased gradually in the case of non-SC/ST at a slower
pace whereas the change of growth rate was at a faster
pace in the case of SC/ST. There was a large difference
In the enrollment rate between SC/ST and non-SC/ST
during 1971. Enrollment rate became more or less equal
by 1993.
5. Gender equality indicator developed in the present
study represents the ratio between enrollment rates of
boys and girls. This indicator in the case of lower
324
and not educational interventions directed towards
improving educational processes. Even among such
facilitative measures, the Incentives have claimed
increasingly large outlays over the successive plans.
The outlays on teachers' salaries ranged from one-fifth
to one-third in different Five Year Plans.
II. Analysis of state level time series data
A descriptive analysis of the time series data on some
major educational indicators constructed for the
purpose using secondary data sources revealed the
following:
1. The rate of enrollment as per cent of population
remained more or less constant from 1971-80 and
increased by one per cent since 1987 onwards at the
lower primary stage.
2. The enrollment rate improved gradually from 1971 to
1994 at higher primary level.
323
3. The enrollment rate of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) at lower primary level shows
gradual increase as compared to t~e enrollment rate of
non-SC/ST which remained constant through out. The trend
indicates that the enrollment rate of SC/ST was
considerably lower till :975 and suddenly picked up and
reached the level of non SC/ST enrollment rate in 1988
and surpassed it afterwards.
4. The comparison of changes in enrollment rates
between SC/ST and non-SC/ST category shows that the rate
of growth of enrollment at Higher Primary level
increased gradually in the case of non-SC/ST at a slower
pace whereas the change of growth rate was at a faster
pace ln the case of SC/ST. There was a large difference
in the enrollment rate between SC/ST and non-SC/ST
during 1971. Enrollment rate became more or less equal
by 1993.
5. Gender equality indicator developed in the present
study represents the ratio between enrollment rates of
boys and girls. This indicator ln the case of lower
324
primary schools increased considerably but at a constant
incremental rate to reach from 78 t~ 93 between 1971 and
1994. But the rate of bridging the gap in the case of
Higher Primary School is found to be faster in the case
of Higher Primary School. It has changed from 57 to 90
during the same peri0d. Stlll a small disparity persists
between boys and girls. Which is likely to be bridged by
the end of this century if the present trend continues.
6. The gender gap amongst SC/ST was higher as compared
to non-SC/ST both at Lower Primary Level and Higher
Primary levels. But as compared to 1971 situation this
difference has been reduced At Lower Primary level. But
the di fference in gender equality index between SC/ST
and non-SC/ST has increased at Higher Primary level.
7. The annual retention rate of boys and girls
differed by 5-6 points in 1971 and became almost equal
at 93 per cent in 1992 at lower primary level.
The comparison of the retention rate Se/ST and non
Se/ST categories indicated the reversal of the position.
325
Initially in 1971 SC/ST retention was at 72 per cent and
the non-SC/ST was 76 per cent. The values of the
indicators with respect to both the categories increased
in subsequen~ years. The annual retention rate of SC/ST
reached 96 per cent whereas it could reach
per cent in the case of non-SC/ST in 1992.
only to 92
8. Availability of schools per ten thousand population
both at Lower Primary School and Higher Primary School
level indicated a contrasting trend. This indicator
value decreased in the case of the provision of primary
schools whereas it remained more or less constant
between 1971 and 1994 In the case of Higher Primary
Schools. The provision of Lower Primary classes to
almost all viable habitations had been completed by 1971
or around. Therefore opening new schools became marginal
activity during the greater part of period under
consideration. Since, this indicator measures the
availability of school per unit population, In the
absence of new schools and in the presence of population
growth in the locali ties served by schools this
indicator value declined from eleven schools to around
326
thousand population. Pupil teacher ratio increased from
37 to 52 during the period.
11. Since the creation of teaching posts depends upon
the enrollment in the school at the rate of one teacher
per 50 students. The nwnber of teachers working in a
school may not be same as the nwnber of classes taught
in that schooled. If the number of teachers is less than
nwnber of classes taught then the phenomenon is called
multi-grade school.
The standard-teacher ratio was used as indicator of
multi-grade teaching. The value of this ratio shows that
the modal school context in primary schools of Karnataka
is multi-grade and the ratio marginally declined from
1.58 to 1.39 from 1971 to 1994 respectively.
III Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention
and quality input indicators.
1. It was hypothesised that the variations in the
access, retention and quality inputs are influenced by
328
seven schools per ten thousand population. In the case
of Higher Primary School, opening of new schools is not
involved. It is simply an act of expanding lower primary
schools vertically by adding hlgher primary classes. The
constant value of this indicator reflects that the
process of up-gradation kept pace ',-.lith the populatlon
increase during the period 1971 to 1994.
9. One of the quality input in the form of teachers was
examined with the help of teacher per ten thousand
population as an indicator. This indicator behaved in a
cyclical fashion. It had initially a higher value in
1971 and started declining till 1979 to reach the lowest
point. From 1979 it started increasing at a faster rate
to reach another peak in 1984 and again experienced a
steep fall to reach another low in 1987 and there after
it started to increase every year till 1994. But the
value in 1994 was lower than its initial value in 1971.
10. The pupil-teacher ratio observed during the period
under consideration emerged as a corollary of the
interaction of changes in schools and teacher per ten
327
thousand population. Pupil teacher ratio increased from
37 to 52 during the period.
11 . Since the creation of teaching posts depends upon
the enrollment In the school at the rate of one teacher
per 50 st~dents. Tre number of teachers working In a
school may not be same as the number of classes taught
in that schooled. If the number of teachers is less than
number of classes taught then the phenomenon is called
multi-grade school.
The standard-teacher ratio was used as indicator of
multi-grade teaching. The value of this ratio shows that
the modal school context in primary schools of Karnataka
lS multi-grade and the ratio marginally declined from
1.58 to 1.39 from 1971 to 1994 respectively.
III Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention
and quality input indicators.
1. It was hypothesised that the variations in the
access, retention and quality inputs are influenced by
328
the plan expenditure. Hence, to know the influence of
plan expenditure on access, retention and quality input
indicators, linear regression technique with correction
for auto correlation was used. Positively significant
result at five per cent level was obtained for the
enp)llment lndlcator. The influence of expenditure on
other indicators were not statistically significant.
IV Change In the trend of education indicators after the
change in administrative system.
1. The mean value of enrollment, gender equality and
retention indicators were higher after the introduction
of Zilla Parishad in Karnataka in 1987. This increase is
applicable to both Lower Primary School and Higher
Primary School levels. Schools per ten thousand
population and teacher per ten thousand population
showed decline In their mean values after the
introduction of Zilla Panchayat. But Higher Primary
Schools per ten thousand population showed marginally
higher mean value after the introduction. Pupil-teacher
ratio increased and standard-teacher ratio remained more
329
or less same after the introduction of Zilla Panchayat
as compared to the situation before Zilla Panchayat.
V District wise analysis of educational lndicators.
The analysis of changes in the relative positions of the
districts at the end of each Five Year Plan on a three
point scale revealed the following:
1. At the end of the Fourth Year Plan, the
arrangements of districts on the 3 point scale indicated
that the districts belonging to Hyderabad-Karnataka area
were classified as poor and the districts which merged
from erstwhile Madras province in the coastal area
occupied the Good category on all the indicators. This
kind of arrangement retained more or less the same
pattern even at the end of Eighth Plan period. Only
Bidar district classified under the Poor category at the
end of Fourth Plan shifted to Good category with respect
to enrollment rate at the end of Sixth Plan. On other
variables Bidar did not show much change as compared to
its initial position.
330
VI Literacy Gains Of Various Categories
1. The literacy galns of General population was
slightly higher than the gains registered by SC and ST
categories durlng 1971-1981 decade. But during eighties
the gains of SC and ST population categories were
higher than the general population.
2. The Literacy gain recorded by the General population
was on an average less than one percent per year
through out the period under consideration.
3. The gains of the Male population in general was
higher than the galns of Female population during
seventles and the trend reversed during eighties. But
in the case of Scheduled Castes, gains in literacy of
male was higher than the Females during the decades of
both seventies and eighties. Such difference was very
marked during 1971-1981 decade and it got reduced
during the next decade.
331
4. Li teracy gains of Urban population in general was
higher than the Rural counterparts between 1971 and
1981. The trend got reversed with ~ural segment showing
higher gains between 1981 and 1991. But in the case of
S Cs the Urban segment maintained higher gains as
compared to Rura: population through out the period.
5. The initial difference ln literacy rates of highest
ranklng district and lowest ranking district increased
in 1981 and further widened ln 1991. This widening took
place in the midst of increase in the literacy rates of
all districts.
7.5 Findings of primary data analysis:
I The processes of planning
1. All plan activities start from the decision regarding
the quantwn of funds by the Cabinet or the National
Planning Commission, whether the plan refers to New Five
Year.or an Annual Plan of an on-going Five Year Plan.
332
programmes. Invariably the officials involved ln the
planning process understand educat:onal plannlng as a
bundle of discrete programmes. They always thlnk at the
conc~ete level rather than percelvlng the plan as a set
of inter-related abstract idea structure WhlCh has
impllcatlon fer actJCi'.. cic one talked about strategic
plan, objectives, diagnosis of a sltuatlon etc.
4. The planning procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines communicate instructions and
procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S glven from
higher authority to lower authority ln the lower
section. Responses to the guidelines by the lower level
structure to the higher level structure take the form of
proposals. Even the district sector programs are
district specific 1n the sense of administration than
plan formulation. During our discussions only one
instance of proposal 1n the form of giv1ng awards to
rank holders within a distr1ct came to light as a
district specific plan proposal.
33~
programmes. Invarlably the officials involved 1n the
plar~ing process understand educat~onal plann1ng as a
bundle of discrete programmes. They always ~h1nk at the
concrete level rather than perceivlng the plan as a se~
of inter-related abstract idea structure ~hlCh has
implication for actlC:'c. ~tc one talked about strategi_~
plan, objectives, diagnosis of a situation etc.
4. The planning procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines communicate instructions and
procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S gl ven from
higher authority to lower authority in the lower
section. Responses to the guidelines by the lower level
structure to the higher level structure take the form of
proposals. Even the district sector programs are
district specific 1n the sense of administration than
plan formulation. During our discussions only one
instance of proposal ln the form of glvlng awards to
rank holders within a district came to light as a
district specific plan proposal.
33 ..
2. It has been indicated that the Cabinet takes the
decision regarding financial outlays based on status
paper submitted by the secretaries of different
departments including education to the Cabinet meeting.
The State Planning Board has no role to play in shaping
the educational plans. The status paper is prepared by
the planning sec:ion of the secretariat of the education
department on the basis of information obtained from the
Commissioner and Directors In the area of school
education. The discussions with the officials of the
planning section in the educational secretariat did not
indicate any systematic approach to analyze the
information in a holistic way.
3. Educational plan consists of three sections depending
upon the source of outlay. All the programs for which
the Central Government supports are called centrally
sponsored schemes. The programs for which the funds come
from the State account are termed as state sector
programs. Programs which are supported by the individual
Zilla Panchayats are termed as district sector
333
programmes. Invariably the officials invo:ved ln the
planning process understand educat.:.onal plannlng as a
bundle of discrete programmes. They always :hlnk at the
concrete level rather than perce1v~ng the plan as a set
of inter-relaced abstract idea structure ~hich has
implication fcr act:'2i:. ~lc one talked abcu: strateg~.:
plan, objectives, diagnosis of a situat1cn etc.
4. The plarL~ing procedure consists of guidelines and
proposals. Guidelines communicate instructions and
procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S gl'len from
higher authority to lower authority 1n the lower
section. Responses to the guidelines by the lower level
structure to the higher level structure take the form of
proposals. Even the district sector programs are
district specific ln the sense of administration thar,
plan formulation. During our discussions only one
instance of proposal .:.n the form of glvlng aY"i'ards :c
rank holders w1thin a district came to light as a
district specific plan proposal.
334
5. The discrete nature of plan program clearly emerges
from the nature and method of data collected for
preparing the proposals. Even though the data happens to
be same for several programmes, proposals for these
programs seek data separately and the information
collected under one program is rarely used for another
program. In this process data on a given parameter may
not be the same when collected under different
programmes. In the entire planning process, the notion
of a data base, its update and analysis is completely
absent.
From the above observation it may be concluded that
the plans are used as legitimizing instrument for
spending public funds. Once the funds are earmarked for
different programs the role of planning comes to an end.
In an on-golng plan development of education in
Karnataka, action plans are drawn without any feed back
from the implementation of the previous plan.
335
II The Process Of Implementation:
1. The Process of imp1ementat1on 1S found to be
counter point of the process of planning. The role of
the fiela level edc.cational structures in planning is
merely to follow guidelines and supply information. But
in the implementation process they have to communicate
decision to higher authorities 1n the form of
rec:)mmendations. Information used 1n the planning
process 1S aggregated and quantitative data which
serves the purposes of macro level politico-economic
decisions to deploy resources for primary education.
But, the process of implementation is guided by micro
level information and the decisions are responses to
local s:)cio-political signals. Here, the data is viewed
in the form of real communities and power structure.
2. The local level functionaries view their role in
planning as marginal. Their concern 1S to distribute
the resources transferred to them for growth of
education in their jurisdiction. They do not share the
336
perspectives of plans and even if they agree with the
view points underlying the plan llke social justice,
preferential treatment of backward classes and regions
etc, they find it difficult to act according to them.
The resources are expected to be equally distributed
across political constituencies. New schools are
recommended on the basis of the demands of local
political
deployed
leaders,
to cater
teachers are
to the interest
appointed or re-
of schools having
higher classes in towns and large villages. The local
leaders appropriate the benefits of incentives to
increase their respective political clouts. Much of the
activities of the educational administration and
supervision lS non-educational in nature and resembles
more the revenue administration.
3. The decentralisation in the form of Zilla
Panchaya ts has not yet empowered the local political
and bureaucratic structures to work out their own
development planning in social sectors, especially
education for which such decentralisation has been
moqted.
337
7.6 Discussion of the findings
The present study has attempted to assess the
experience of educational planning In the field of
primary education iT' Karnataka during the period from
1971 to 1994. The criticisms enumerated by Weiler (1978)
formed the theoretical framework for the present study.
One of the maln criticism of educational planning
lS that it tends to reproduce the current educational
system on an expanded scale. The researches in the field
of Sociology of Education in India, some of which have
been reviewed in this study demonstrate that, by and
large, the education system has worked towards
perpetuation of the status quo. In such a situation, the
expansion of the current primary education system would
be counter-productive to the goal of planning namely,
Universalisation of Elementary Education. This study has
indicated that the educational planning in Karnataka has
done precisely the same. The changes in literacy of
various population segments indicate that, while all
338
segments of population have gained in literacy rates,
the relative disparities have not changed over the
period of time and in some cases the disparities have
rather widened. In the absence of a precIse measure of
educational ou(comes, the .!.iteracy rate can be taken as
its proxy. The rationale for planning In the past has
been to attain growth with distribution. The literacy
outcomes belies this understanding. The analysis of the
plan documents in terms of their strategies, programmes
and outlays reflecting the priorities indicates that the
planning for primary education equates the expanSIon of
current education
universalisation of
system
prImary
with the
education.
goal
The
of
plan
priorities as reflected In outlays indicate that all
previous Five Year Plans have tried to physically expand
the access and provide incentives to encourage children
to attend the school. Actual educational process has
escaped the attention of the planners. The analysis of
the changes In the parameters of education indicate that
the plans have succeeded in tracking children and make
them come to the school to receIve the incentives. The
obs~rvations and discussions at the field level confirm
339
this observation. In the absence of educational purpose
the educational planning is guided by the consideration
of the political economy. In other 'Nords, the planning
is being used to legitimize the flow of public resources
to the current educational system. The critlcism of
educational planning in the context of developing
countries relating to the tendency of perpetuating the
status quo is applicable to the educational planning in
Karnataka too.
The second criticism that the educational planning
flows from top to bottom applies In the context of
Karnataka as well. The whole process of planning starts
from the political and bureaucratic apex at the State
level. This has continued even after the establishment
of decentralised development administration in the form
of Zilla Panchayats. All the districts have uniform plan
strategies and programmes even after the change in the
structure of governance. The decentralisation In
planning is confined to the distribution of plan funds
made available to the districts across different
340
departments and within a department, across different
programmes decided at the apex level.
The third criticism that the plans are pre-occupied
wi th the growth against development comes out true in a
very prominent way in the present sLldy. The entire
planning lS based on the current levels of gross
enrollment and projection of this enrollment as future
targets. All other plan interventions are made
subservient to the gross enrollment targets. Therefore
the whole of planning appears as an exerCise in
numerical manipulation of numbers. Even when these
numbers, educationally speaking are unreal, they acquire
the sanctity of official educational statistics and
processed for planning purposes. But, the same education
system which produces these statistics do not trust them
at the action level. A separate set of information are
used at the time of taking decisions for allocating
resources.
Another equally important criticism is that the
educ~tional planning neglects implementation. The
3~1
absence of official statistics on the educational
outcomes testify the truth of this observation with
respect to educational planning in !:Carnataka. The whole
purpose of schooling ln the form of learners'
ac~ievement is conspicuously absent ln the planning
j';'sc8urse. Successive plans have increasingly relied on
the same set of programmes. But those programmes have
not been viewed in an integrated fashion to understand
their implication at the action level. An example of
such unrealistic approach to planning is the provision
for salaries of teachers arrived on the basis of
enrollment targets aggregated at the district or at the
state level and arriving at the teacher requirements on
the basis of one teacher for 50 students. This would
work in a context where the educational system is being
introduced for the first time. But in an ongoing system
the incidence of increase in enrollment in each school
decides the teacher requirements in addition to the new
schools opened ln un-served areas. None of the plans
has looked into the existential dimension of the
distribution of additional enrollments. As a result, the
increase ln enrollments induced through incentives in
342
the existing schools have resul ted ~n the decrease in
the supply of teachers and schools per unit population,
increased pupil-teacher ratio and standard-teacher
ratio. In other words, the idea of 'school' has been
transfor:ned into day care centers of children
especially ~n rur31 areas. The qualitative data
generated from the field level about the process of
decision making with respect to the management of
schools confirm the criticism that the planning
neglects implementation. In fact it is the other way
round resulting In the same conclusion. That ~s, the
Implementation does not take the operational plan into
consideration while taking decisions.
The question still remaining to be answered is, if
the educational planning ~s not directed towards
educational objectives, then what is the function of
education in the whole scheme of things? The answer to
this question can only be in the form of a proposition,
subject to further verification, namely, since planning
is made as condition for appropriating public resources,
it is used as a tool for legi timising the claim for
343
resources by entrenched interests. In the field of
primary education, the vast bureaucracy itself has grown
over the years as a vested interest and survives by
l' . a~lgnlng with the interests
econcmy at different levels.
7.7 Policy implications
controlling political
1. The changed policy of the Central Government to fund
primary level education through DPEP should take note of
the outcomes of this study. The structures envisaged for
the continuous planning and implementation of the DPEP
depend heavily on the civil and educational bureaucracy
and inherently they are integrated vertically
replicating similar structures responsible for the
ongoing education system. The district level development
administration has a margi nal role to play in planning
and the DPEP has already become a section in the office
of the DOPI performing discrete functions and not the
interrelated set of activities. The functionaries wait
for the approval of proposals to take actions. The DPEP
needs to shoulder calculated risk of experimentation
344
wi th decentralised and representative structures taking
charge of planning and implementation at the district
level with support from autonomous academic institutions
made available to the district level initiatives. They
would provide the needed research and development
ac:ivities.
2. Efforts should be made to develop training programmes
to expose the functionaries performing both planning and
implementing functions at strategic levels to the theory
and practice of educational planning.
3. Immediate effort should be initiated by the State to
develop an educational data base which includes
information on educational outcomes and quality of
education.
4. Independent third party evaluation should be built
into the system from ninth Five Year Plan onwards.
345
7.8 Suggestions for further studies
1. Process studies of planning and implementation In
DPEP can be taken
functional/dysfunctional
practices.
up
aspects
to
of
identify
structures
the
and
2. Case studies uSlng social anthropological framework
can be taken up to establish the nature and function of
school in single communities of differing structures and
the nature of educational outcomes for different
sections in such communities.
346
APPENDX
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Planning process
1. What are the objectives laid by the State to
achieve U.E.E.?
2. What are the targets you have set to achieve the
objects?
3. How is the educational development of the district
determined?
-Level at which this exercise ~s taken up.
-Indicators considered for determining educational
development.
-Method used for determining educational develop
ment.
4. What is the process involved in sanctioning of
educational facilities?
-Who collects the information?
-To whom it is reported?
-Who takes the decisions to improve the condition?
5. What is the information required at the State, the
District and the Taluk levels for planning purpose?
6. What are the sources of data available for planning
purpose?
7. What are the problems do you find in the informa
tion obtained?
8. What is the gap to be covered in each district?
9. What is the amount requ~red to cover the gap?
10. What is the target to be covered during each year?
11. Who fixes the physical targets £or dis~ricts each
year? Related to
-No. of teachers
-No. of schools to be opened
-No. of class rooms constructed
-What are the equipments to be supplied? How many?
12. Do they take into account targets set at National
and State levels?
13. What are the functions carried out at the State and
the District level in relation to planning process?
13a. What is the normal procedure followed to arrive at
the programmes?
14. What are the plan and non-plan schemes undertaken
by the State and the District?
15. Who decides about var~ous schemes to be
implemented?
or
How do you arrive at new programmes?
15a. How do you decide the cost of implementing
programmes sustaining the programmes?
16. Who evaluates the effectiveness of the schemes?
17. How are the set targets are translated in:c
programmes?
17a. What are the programmes formulated to achieve
U.E.E.?
17b. How do you encourage ~.E.E. and SC/ST education?
18. How are you gOlng to re-adjust the gap bet'l'Ieen
resources availability and resource requlred?
-Are you going to reduce the target
-Additional resource is sought
19. Do you have district specific plans? Do you give
guide lines to District?
19a. What are the guidelines
district plan?
followed to prepare
20. What are the aspects covered in the district draft
plan?
21. What are the aspects involved In the preparation of
the draft plans?
22. How is Five Year Plan prepared for the district?
-Personnel involved
-Basis for Fixing of amount
~Basis for Fixing of targets
23. How are the Annual Plans and Five Year Plan
related?
23a. How are Physical and financial targets distributed
for each annual plan?
24. What are the sources of finance at the district
level?
-Center
-State
-Local bodies
-Credit instltutes
-Contributions
-Others
25. Who decides about the allotments of funds to
district level?
26. What are the guidelines followed by the state in
distributing the funds?
-Geographical size of the District
-Population of the district
-Educational backwardness of the district.
27. In case of shortage of funds, what are the items
given more importance and money is allotted?
28. What are the maln items that are going to suffer,
during the shortage of funds?
29. What are the effects of these things on the
developmental activities of education?
30. What are the alternate methods you would suggest to
minimise the negative effects on educational
development?
31. What are the maln reasons de you th:nk weuld affect
the complet~on of the wo~k as per the sched~:e?
32. What are
mistakes?
your suggestlons to correct. these
33. I f plan programmes are not completed wi thln the
plan period it be<::omes burde!"! to next year as it
comes under non-plan. Hew are you gOlng to manage In
such a sltuations, where scarcity of funds
prevailing?
34. In the stages of planning, where are we failing?
35. What are the reasons for the failure?
36. "''hat are the ways do you think PRls would help to
achieve U.E.E.?
37. What are the challenges PRls shoulc take up?
38. What are the major problems at the implementation
stage?
39. How can these problems be corrected?
40. What are the factors that affect
-Realistic plan
-Regular flow of funds
-Flow of communication
-Monitoring
STATE PLANNING BOARD (SPB)
1. What are the activities carried out the SPB
related to education?
2. What are the activities carried out related to
primary education?
3. What is the normal procedure followed to arrive at
a programme?
4. Who are involved in the preparation of the status
paper?
5. What are the guidelines followed to prepare the
status paper?
6. Have you brought out any policy on education?
7. Have you formulated programmes related to primary
education?
8. Do you consult DDPI's, AEG's during the
preparation of the pr0gramme?
9. Whom do you consult during the preparation of
training materials?
10. How are going to collect the required information?
11. Have you formulated separate programmes for SC/ST
and girl child?
12. Do you consult finance department to know the
availability of funds?
13. Who decides the cost of implementing the
programmes?
14. Who write the action plan for the ideas given
by you?
Questions related to U.E.E.
1 ~ . What are the main reasons hindering the achievement
of U.E.E.?
2. How can we solve these problems?
3. Can we achieve U.E.E. by 2000 A.D.? How?
4. What are the target groups we should concentrate to
achieve U.E.E.?
How can PHIs help in bringing awareness among local
people to participate in educational development
activities?
6. Do you face any problem in enrolling students? If
yes, what are those problems? and, How can we solve
them?
7. What are the problems of retention? How can we
solve them?
8. What are the aspects we should take into account to
improve quality of schooling?
9. What should be the ratio of teacher and students?
10. What are the reasons for irregular attendance?
11. What are the problems of SC/ST and girl enrollment?
12. Suggest an alternate method by which we can cover
SC/ST and female children?
13. What are the measures followed to increase
enrollment of SC/ST and girls?
14. Hew are incentive programmes help in enrolling and
retaining children?
15. Comment on the effectiveness of incentive scheme.
(the supply of uniforms, text books, food items and
scholarship) .
16. What are the maln factors hindering the achievement
of DEE?
17. What is the role played by the PRls In achieving
U.E.E.?
18. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the
present planning process?
19. What are the aspects needed to be decentralised for
achieving U.E.E.?
20. Do you think the present delegation of power
helping in achieving U.E.E. in an accelerated
manner?
21. What should be the power and responsibility of the
State, the District, the Taluk and the village level
offices for accelerating the development
education?
22. What is the role played by elected members in
facilitating educational development?
23. What 1S the type of training required for them?
24. Is the financial assistance given by Government
insuff~cient?
25. Do you have any alternate plans to overcome the
financial constraint? Give reasons?
26. What are your expectations from district level
officers and elected members?
27. Why have district failed to plan their own
programmes?
Facilities available in the school
1. What are the equipments provided fer the school?
2. What are the equiprnents required for school?
3. Do you use these equiprnents? if no, glve reasons?
4. Do you think that you should be consulted before
supply of materials? Give reasons?
5. Have you requested higher officials to supply
equipments that are useful for school?
of
6. Express your opinion about the buildings, and
stationary provided for teaching purposes?
7. Do you think teachers find problem in commuting to
the school? If yes, suggest alternate arrangement to
solve problem?
8. How do teachers solve the problems faced by them in
the school? Whom do they report?
9. What are the complaints generally received related
to functioning of school?
Classroom teaching
1. What are the problems faced during enrollment and
retention of children?
2. Do you find it difficult to teach more than one
standard at a time?
3. How do you plan for teaching more than one class?
4. Can this be one of the reasons for decline in the
quality of teaching? If no, what are the other
reasons?
5. What are the other problems? Do you face in the
classroom while teaching?
6. What are problems faced by the teacher ln the
school?
About maintaining discipline
Relationship with Head Master and teacher
Relationship with PR members and officials
Relationship with parents and SBC members.
7. How can political leaders and local people support
the educational development of the village?
8. Do you feel better quality educatlon is imparted?
If no, what are the measures do you suggest?
9. How is inspection carried out? Explain merlts and
demerits of the inspection?
Parents
1. How do you feel about the present functioning of
the school?
2. What is your opinion about
- Teacher's punctuality
-Teacher's competency
-Teacher's political influence
3. What are the expectations do you have from the
school?
4. What are reasons for not enrolling/withdrawing
children?
5. Do you think education lS required for girl child?
YIN, Give reasons.
6. What are the problems do you find in sending girl
child to the school?
7. !'low is School Better:nent Committee (SBC: support
the efficlent funct~oning cf the school?
8. Do you think SBC ::ecrJl::es :ncre power to monitor the
functioning of the schoo:? ~xplaln.
9. What are the incenti·;e programmes implemented in
your village to support education?
10. .~e you happy wi~h tte lncentive programmes
lmplemented by the :;overnment? If no, give reasons.
11 . How are these programmes helping you to send your
child to school?
School Betterment Committee
1. How are SBC supporting the activities of the school
in the village?
2. What are the powers given to SBC?
3. What are the aspects do you think SBC can
interfere?
4. How are the villages support the stand taken by
SBC?
5. What are the changes brought about by SBC ln the
functioning of schooling?
6. Wha t aspects do you think are required :or total
enrollment, retention and improvement in the quality?
7. How are ~he incentive schemes help for the
educat:onal development?
8. ~hat are the steps that should be ta~en bj
offlcials to achieve U.E.E.?
9. How are PRls helping for better functioning of the
school?
10. What is the procedure followed to f~lfi:l the
requirement of school?
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