Educational Research: Educational Research: Introduction to the ConceptIntroduction to the Concept

EDU 8603

Educational Research

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Research...Research...

The systematic application of a family of methods employed to provide trustworthy information about problems…an ongoing process based on many accumulated

understandings and explanations that, when taken together lead to generalizations about problems and the development of theories

The basic steps of research...The basic steps of research...

Scientific and disciplined inquiry is an orderly process, involving:

description and execution of procedures to collection information (“methodmethod”)

objective data analysisanalysis statement of findings (“resultsresults”)

recognition and identification of a topic to be studied (“problemproblem”)

Types of research...Types of research...

BasicBasic……the process of collecting and

analyzing information to develop or enhance a theorytheory

AppliedApplied……conducted for the purpose of applying

or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness for solving problems

EvaluationEvaluation……concerned with making decisions about

the quality, effectiveness, or value of programs, products, or practices

The research continuum…The research continuum…

pure research

evaluation research

BASIC APPLIED

theory development

current problems

why it works what works

produces concepts provides data

laboratory field

Approaches to reasoning...Approaches to reasoning...

InductiveInductive……developing generalizations from

a limited number of specific observations or experiences

…highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization

DeductiveDeductive……developing specific predictions from

general principles, observations, or experiences

…dependent on the truth of the generalizations used as a basis for its logic

Relating reasoning with research Relating reasoning with research methods…methods…

pure research

evaluation research

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

researcher objectivity

researcher intersubjectivity

logical positivism: factual

post-structuralism: depth

“snapshot” “portrait”

laboratory work field work

Research methods...Research methods...

QuantitativeQuantitative……collects and analyzes numerical datadata

obtained from formal instrumentsinstruments

QualitativeQualitative……collects and analyzes nonnumeric

data over an extended period of time to situate meaning within a particular perspective or context

Quantitative methods...Quantitative methods...

descriptive research (“survey research”)correlational researchcausal-comparative research (“ex post facto research”)

experimental research

descriptive researchdescriptive research (“survey research”)…collects data in order to answer

questions about the current status of the subject or topic of study

…uses formal instruments to study preferences, attitudes, practices, concerns, or interests of a samplesample

correlational researchcorrelational research…determines whether and to what

degree a relationship exists between two or more variablesvariables

…the presence of a correlation does not indicate a cause-effect relationship primarily due to multiple confounding factorsconfounding factors

Correlation coefficient (Correlation coefficient ()…)…

-1.00 +1.00

strong negative strong positive

0.00

no relationship

A positive correlationship…A positive correlationship…

y

x

A negative correlationship…A negative correlationship…

y

x

No correlationship…No correlationship…

y

x

No correlationship…No correlationship…

y

x

causal-comparative research (“causal-comparative research (“ex post factoex post facto research”) research”)

…at least two different groups are compared on a dependent variabledependent variable or measure of performance (called the “effect”) because the independent variableindependent variable (called the “cause”) has already occurred or cannot be manipulated

Variable...Variable...

…a concept (e.g., intelligence, height, aptitude) that can assume any one of a range of values

Research variables...Research variables...

IndependentIndependent……an activity or characteristic

believed to make a difference with respect to some behavior

…(syn.) experimental variable, cause, treatment

DependentDependent……the change or difference occurring a

a result of the independent variable…(syn.) criterion variable, effect,

outcome, posttest

experimental researchexperimental research…the researcher selects participants and

divides them into two or more groups having similar characteristics and, then, applies the treatment(s) to the groups and measures the effects upon the groups

Quantitative method decision tree…Quantitative method decision tree…

Is there a cause-effect relationship?

Is the independent variable manipulated?

Is there a relationship or prediction being made?

Experimental Causal-Comparative

Correlational Descriptive

YES

YES

YES

NO

NO

NO

Qualitative methods...Qualitative methods...

historical researchethnography

case studyethologyethnomethodology

grounded theoryphenomenology

symbolic interaction

action research

historical researchhistorical research…studies available data to study,

understand, and interpret past events

ethnographyethnography…studies cultural patterns and perspectives

of participants in their natural settings

ethologyethology…compares the origins, characteristics,

and culture of different societies

ethnomethodologyethnomethodology…studies how people make sense of their everyday

activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways

symbolic interactionsymbolic interaction…investigates how people construct meaning and

shared perspectives by interacting with others

grounded theorygrounded theory…investigates how inductively-derived theory about

phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting

phenomenologyphenomenology…considers how the experience of particular

participants exhibits a unique perspective

case studycase study…examines the characteristics of a

particular entity, phenomenon, or person

action researchaction research…practitioner-based systematic reflection upon

practice aimed at improving professional practice

Generally speaking, qualitative researchers….

…spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldworkfieldwork)

…rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivitysubjectivity; intersubjectivityintersubjectivity)

…analyze data using interpretative lenses

…employ expressive language and voicevoice in descriptions and explanations

…seek depth of perspective (i.e., “waves of data” requiring ongoing interpretation)

…judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and logic of interpretations

Types of criticism...Types of criticism...

InternalInternal……evaluates the worth or

trustworthiness of the content of the data

…assesses the authenticity of the data source

ExternalExternal…

data sources……primary

…secondary

…tertiary

Limitations of the scientific and Limitations of the scientific and disciplined inquiry approach…disciplined inquiry approach…

not able to investigate philosophical and/or moral/ethical problems (“shoulds” and “oughts”) only factual matters

the presence of intervening and confounding variables make assertions probable rather than proven

imperfections in sampling, instruments, procedures

Mini-Quiz…Mini-Quiz…

Identify the research methodology…

…a study of the research on the effect of anxiety on achievement from 1900 to 1990

historical

…a study of the effect of socioeconomic status on self-concept

causal-comparative

…a study to compare the achievement of two groups: one group taught in an anxiety-producing environment and one group taught in an anxiety reducing environment

experimental

…a study of the personal and educational interactions in a group of teachers developing social studies standards for a high school curriculum

qualitative

…a study to compare the achievement of a group of students classified as high-anxious and a group classified as low-anxious

causal-comparative

…a study of teachers’ attitudes toward unions

historical

…a study of the effect of large-group versus small-group instruction upon achievement

experimental

…a study of SAT preparation by three students, with particular emphasis on their anxiety

qualitative

…a study to determine the relationship between scores on an anxiety scale and scores on an achievement measure

correlational

…a survey of teachers to determine how and to what degree they believe anxiety affects achievement

descriptive

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

…which enable educators to access, understand, and evaluate research findings and the claims purported by researchers

introductory research concepts

The next module will focus on...The next module will focus on...

...as the foundation for a literature review and the formulation of a hypothesis

research problems