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Educators Professional Day 10/04/10
Neurophysiological Foundations of Learning &
Evidence-Based Teaching
Ahmed M. Abdelal, Ph.D., CCC-SLPAssistant Professor of Communication
Sciences & DisordersDepartment of Special Education &
Communication [email protected] Phone: 508-531-6146
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cDbY7Jf31I
LEARNING STAGES
& STRATEGIES
Learning
“Learning is the process in which neurons that fire together to produce a particular experience are altered so that they have a tendency to fire together again. The subsequent combined firing of the neurons reconstructs the original experience, producing a ‘recollection’ of it. The act of recollecting makes the neurons involved even more likely to fire again in the future.”
(Carter, et al 2009, 154)
Relationship Between Learning & Memory
Leaning is “the process by which we acquire knowledge about the world, while memory is the process by which that knowledge is encoded, stored, and later retrieved”
(Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 2000, p. 1227)
Types of Memory Based on Duration
Immediate memory Capacity of 7 items Only 30 seconds, if info not
rehearsed Working Memory (WM)
Phonological loop (verbal info) Visuospatial sketch pad (faces, images,
spatial layouts)
WM sustains info for 0.5 sec. to 10 min.
Long-term memory
Learning & Emotions
“Our memories are personal and evocative, intertwined with emotion, and they provide us with a sense of who we are.”
(Squire & Kandel 2010, 75)
How Learning Changes Brain Structure
Any type of learning must result in physical changes in brain structure:Cellular changesBirth of new neurons
(Neurogenesis)Expansion of existing networks
Creation of new circuits
How Learning Changes Brain Structure
Cellular changes in the existing neurons: Strengthening existing synaptic
connections Growth of new synaptic branches and
production of neurotransmitter components in presynaptic neurons
Translation and transcription of specific genes
Production of new receptor proteins and inserting them along the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron
Primary Centers of Learning HippocampusAmygdalaMedial temporal lobe
PF cortex Association cortices
© A. Abdelal, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Phases of Learning
For information to be retained in LT memory, it has to be processed in phases
Each phase involves specific neural pathways, and structural modifications
Perception Pre-encoding Encoding Transfer Imprinting Storage Retrieval Consolidation
Setting the Stage for Learning
Motivation and emotional response direct our attention
Information cannot enter into the memory system unless it is attended to
Attend to a piece of info for about 0.2 sec.
Attention intensifies the experience by triggering neurons to fire more frequently The more a neuron fires the
stronger its connections are with other neurons (Squire 07,77)
Preparatory Phase: Pre-encoding Mechanism
There are specific areas “pre-prepared to store new information, even before the stimuli are collected and coded”
If these areas are activated in time for encoding, encoding & recall will efficient
This pre-encoding circuit is activated by: Good self-esteem Strong motivation Positive attitude (Atlas of Human Physiology,
2009, 166-167)
Working Memory & Executive Functions
Executive functions: location? Develop, pursue & focus on goals;
sustain attention, allocate attentional resources, monitor our own work toward the goal; regulate our behavior, etc.
Behavioral inhibition suppresses distractions
Working Memory: PFC Sensory center Holds material to guide on-going behavior
and cognition Info gets shuttled back and forth from
frontal cortex to the sensory cortex that initially registered it.
Encoding The process by
which new information is attended to and processed when it is first encountered
(Kandel et al., 2000)
Mediated by the hippocampus & PFC
New info reaching the hippocampus induces activation of pathways to previous info
What Happens During Encoding
Activation of previous information
Evaluation of the new information
Analysis Organization Integration Reassembling and
synthesis
Encoding Mechanisms
Neurotransmitters Noreadrenaline/Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Serotonin Dopamine
Proteins C-Kinase Synapsin 1
Neurogenesis During Encoding
Occupies the first 20 minutes of learning
Newly born neurons immediately enter the memory pathways individually Enter Exit Re-enter and stay
They appear to imprint the new information and integrate it with previous information
They mediate forgetfulness of irrelevant information
Efficiency of Encoding
Encoding determines the efficiency of retrieval.
Efficiency of retrieval depends on the cues & strategies used while the info is being encoded, rather than the strategies used during the retrieval process.
What Determines Efficiency of Encoding
Emotional content of the info: happy vs sad
Motivation & level of interest cause deep encoding and subconscious rehearsal
Effort learner puts into practicing recall of info
Novelty (Carter et al, 2009, 154)
Extent to which the info is: Organized Related to previous knowledge Rehearsed after it has been presented
(Squire & Kandel 2009, 74)
Efficiency of Encoding: Elaborative Encoding
Elaborative/deep encoding is better than shallow/superficial encoding Breaking down info Discussing the meaning of each
part Relating the info to previous
knowledge Asking questions in the process
Example
Retrieval
The process of recalling stored information through reactivating the pattern or pathways in which the information was originally stored. (Nelson, 2005)
Retrieval is a reconstructive process that involves pulling pieces of info from various storage sites and integrating them into a coherent whole.
Retrieval …
Either involuntary or intentional
Intentional retrieval is required for adequate academic performance and similar goal-directed behavior.
Requires: Executive functioning & WM Attentional resources Strategic memory searching
Retrieval …
Involves gene expression and protein synthesis and insertion along pathways
Any interruption of these cellular processes (e.g., stress, anxiety, etc.) prevents the formation of long-term memories
Retrieval: Facts & Strategies
Previous knowledge promotes efficient recall of new information
Experts have superior abilities in remembering info related to there area of expertise, but “have no special gift for recalling details that are not meaningful to their area of expertise”
Memory exercises do not improve retrieval
(Squire & Kandel 2009, 77-78)
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Foster a friendly relationship with students, characterized by mutual respect
Create a flexible teaching environment free from tension and anxiety
Have the students move about in the classroom, whenever possible: to provide physical mobility & reduce tension
Teaching Environment
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
► Reduce your own stress to avoid stressing your students
► Perseveration Effect/Rigidity► Always adopt a positive
communication style► Yes, smile at the kids and use humor ► void negative feedback
► Always be positive, even if the student’s answer is incorrect – student’s learn from mistakes
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
► Avoid Habituation: ► Elicit student interaction► Avoid monotone► Vary loudness, tone, and accent
frequently ► Do not stand or sit still for an
extended period of time► Change topic points every 5-10
minutes► Use humor
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
► Ensure adequate encoding (quality over quantity)
► Guide students to the correct answer by asking step-by-step questions
► Keep in mind that students have different learning styles
► Two major interactive learning styles: ► Experiential/Narrative Style► Rational/Expository Style
A combination of both styles is expected to produce the best results
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Experiential
Teaching through: Stories Settings Intentions Emotions Plots Acting and role-
playing Metaphors and
similes Personal experiences
Rational
Teaching through: Analysis Logical explanations Abstract ideas, etc.
Completely removed from direct experience
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
The familiarity effect Provide lesson previews a week
or two prior to in-depth presentation of lessons
Implications for: Arabic Instruction English Instruction to nonnative
speakers Exercise
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Strengthens existing synaptic connections
Establishes new synaptic connections
Strengthens memory pathways between hippocampus and storage sites
Leads to cognitive efficiency First few revisions are the most
important First revision 40% Second revision 80-90% Third revision 95% Then, get a good night’s sleep!
Power of Retrieval (Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981; Anderson, 1995)
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
The more frequently the information is retrieved, the stronger the pathway, and the faster the activation
Information not retrieved for an extended period of time might take longer to reactivate or might be forgotten
Context & Strength of cues are related to strength of retrieval Retrieval is best when in same context
and in presence of initial cues used during encoding
Power of Retrieval
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Create opportunities for student interaction: ► Heighten student curiosity, and ask
questions to make them actively engaged in the information
► Provide hands-on learning experiences and concrete examples
► Teach information in an organized way
► Use controlled, deep semantic encoding
► Allow for transition time when shifting between topics to avoid interference
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Testing promotes “better long-term retention than restudying” (Squire & Kandel 2009, 77).
Prior knowledge of test format impr. perf.
High-protein breakfast prior to major exams
Focusing on concepts is best for essay tests
Focusing on details is best study for multiple-choice tests
Visual presentation is extremely powerful: “Nearly half of the cortex is dedicated to processing visual information” (Squire & Kandel 2009, 77)
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Use testing as a teaching tool
Protein breakfast on morning of Testing
Advise parents who smoke not to do so in the presence of their children: Decreased recall, attention
& tooth decay Sleep is crucial
Use testing as a teaching tool
Protein breakfast on morning of Testing
Advise parents who smoke not to do so in the presence of their children: Decreased recall, attention
& tooth decay Sleep is crucial
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Sleep plays a direct role in WM, executive functioning, behavioral inhibition, and attention
Plays a crucial role in consolidation of new learning
Regulates neurotransmitters Learning and memory circuits
are reactivated during sleep
Sleep plays a direct role in WM, executive functioning, behavioral inhibition, and attention
Plays a crucial role in consolidation of new learning
Regulates neurotransmitters Learning and memory circuits
are reactivated during sleep
Sleep & Dreaming
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Information is reprocessed during sleep
Plays a pivotal role in neuroplasticity
Different types of learning require different stages of sleep
Speed of processing in sleep is faster than in real time
Information is reprocessed during sleep
Plays a pivotal role in neuroplasticity
Different types of learning require different stages of sleep
Speed of processing in sleep is faster than in real time
Sleep & Dreaming
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Regulate Sleep Seek medical help for
velopharyngeal obstruction (causes snoring, sleep apnea, and weight gain)
Avoiding studying over an extended number of hours
Avoid studying late into the night Organize your studying/learning
environment Organize the information while you
are learning it The method of loci could be an
effective tool for exam preparation
Regulate Sleep Seek medical help for
velopharyngeal obstruction (causes snoring, sleep apnea, and weight gain)
Avoiding studying over an extended number of hours
Avoid studying late into the night Organize your studying/learning
environment Organize the information while you
are learning it The method of loci could be an
effective tool for exam preparation
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Physical Exercises: Reduce stress Improve blood flow to the
brain Improve brain plasticity :
increases synaptic density, and positive effects of Ach
Increase amount of oxygen in blood stream
In adults, decreases risk for memory disorders, Alzheimer’s, and dementia.
Physical Exercises: Reduce stress Improve blood flow to the
brain Improve brain plasticity :
increases synaptic density, and positive effects of Ach
Increase amount of oxygen in blood stream
In adults, decreases risk for memory disorders, Alzheimer’s, and dementia.
Conclusion
• What you teach changes the structure of the brain
• Set a positive tone for the day • Mood & Motivational states play a
major role in determining the efficiency of encoding and retrieval of new learning
• Learning is an-experience and time dependent process
• The lengthy consolidation allows the brain time to re-configure itself in response to the new information
• Get the parents involved to implement healthy sleep and dietary habits
