Edward H Carr - The Science of International Politics

7/29/2019 Edward H Carr - The Science of International Politics

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cvlii Preface 10First Editiondiagnosis of th e present crisis In world history. Many excellent historicaland descriptive works about various aspects of international relationshave appeared in the last twenty years, and my indebtedness to some ofthese is recorded in endnotes, which must take the place of abibliography. But not one of these works known to me has a tt emptedto analyse the profoundercauses of the contemporary international crisis.

My obligations to individuals are still more extensive. In particular, Idesire to record my deep gratitude to three friends who found time to readthe whole of my manuscript, whose comments were equally stimulatingwhether they agreed or disagreed with my views, and whose suggestionsare responsiblefor a great partof suchvalue as this book possesses: CharlesManning, Professor of International Relations in the London School ofEconomics and Poli tical Science; Dennis Routh, Fellow of All SoulsCollege, Oxford, and recently Lecturer in International Politics in theUniversity College of Wales, Aberystwyth: and a third, whose officialposition deprives me of the pleasureof naming him here. During the pastthree years I have been a member of a Study Group of the Royal Instituteof International Affairs engaged on an enquiry i nt o t he problem ofnationalism, the results of which are about to be published,' The lines ofinvestigation pursued by this Group have sometimes touched or crossedthose which I have been following in these pages; and my colleagues inthis Group and other contributors to its work have, in the course of ourlong discussions, unwittingly made numerous valuable contributions tothe present book, To these, and to the many others who, in one way oranother, consciously or unconsciously, have given me assistance andencouragement in the preparation of this volume, I tender my sincerethanks.

30 September 1939

1 Nationalism: A study by a Group of Members of the Royal Ins ti tu te ofInternational Affairs (Oxford University Press)

Part One

The Science of InternationalPolitics


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CHAPTER ONE

The Beginnings ofa Science

The science of international politics is in its infancy Down to 1914, theconduct of international relations was the concern of persons professionallyengaged in it In democratic countries, foreign policy was traditionallyregarded as outside the scope of party politics; and the representativeorgans did not feel themselves competent to exercise any close control overthe mysterious operations of foreign off ices. In Great Bri tain , publicopinion was readily aroused if war occurred in any region traditionallyregarded as a sphereof British interest, or if the British navy momentarilyceasedto possess that margin ofsuperiorityover potential rivalswhich wasthen deemed essential . In continental Europe, conscript ion and thechronicfearof foreign invasion had created a more general and continuouspopular awareness of international problems, But this awareness foundexpression mainly in the labour movemen t, which from time to t imepassed somewhatacademic resolutions against war,The constitution of theUnited States of America contained the unique provision that treaties wereconcluded by the President 'by and with the advice and consent of theSenate', But the foreign relationsof the UnitedStates seemed too parochialto lend any wider significance to this exception, The more picturesqueaspects of diplomacy had a certain news value, But nowhere, whether Inuniversities or In wider Intellectual circles, W


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4 rite Science cfintemotiona! Politicsgovernments, but to the Indifference of the peoples, Everybodyknew thatsuch treaties were concluded, But before the war of 1914 few people feltany curiosity about them or thought them oblectionable.! The agitationagainst them was,however, a fact ofimmense importance, Itwas the firstsymptom of the demand for the popularization of international politicsand heralded the b ir th of a new sciencePurpose and analysis in political scienceTIlescience ofinternational politics has, then, come into being in responsetoa populardemand. Ithas been created toservea purpose and has, in thisrespect, followed the pattern of other sciences, At first sight, this patternmay appear illogical. Our first business, it will be said, is to collect, classifyand analyse our facts and draw our Inferences; and weshall then be ready toinvestigate the purpose to which our facts and our deductions can be pu tThe processes of the human mind do not, however, appear to develop inthis logical order. The humanmindworks, Soto speak, backwards Purpose,which should logically follow analysis, is required to give it both its initialimpulseand its direction. 'I f society has a technical need,' wrote Engels, 'itservesas a greater spur to the progress of science than do ten unlversitles.fThe first extant textbook of geometry 'lays down an aggregate of practicalrules designed to solve concrete problems: "rule for measuring a roundfrultery": "rule for laying out a field"; "computat ion of the fodderconsumed bygeese and oxen" '.3 Reason, says Kant. mustiWproach nature'not .. . In the character o!J!pupil. who listens to all that his mJ!ter chooses-!.9-J.cll-hLm, b.':lt in that of a judge, who compels the w l t n e s s e ~ t o reply tothose questions which he himself t.!;!f!ks fit to p r o p o s e t . ~ 'We cannot studyeven stars or rocks or atoms', writes a modern sociologist, 'without beingsomehowdetermined, in ourmodes ofsystematization, in the prominencegiven to one or another partof our subject, in the form of the questions weask and a tt empt to answer, by direct and human interests." It is thepurpose of promoting health which creates medical science, and thepurpose ofbuildingbridges which creates the science ofengineering. Desireto cure the sicknesses of the body politic has given its impulse and itsinspiration to political science. Purpose, whether we are conscious of Itornot, is a condi ti on of thought ; and thlnk ing for think ing' s sake is asabnormal and barren as the miser 's accumulation of money for its ownsake 'The wish Isfather to the thought' is a perfectly exact description ofthe origin ofnormal human thinking,

If this istrue of the physical sciences, it is true ofpolitical science in a farmore intimate sense. In the physical sciences, the distinction between theinvestigation of facts and the purpose to which the facts are to be put is

The IJcgirmings of tl Science Snot only theoretically valid, but is constantly Observed in practice, Thelaboratory worker engaged In investigating the causes of cancer may havebeen originally inspired by the purpose of eradicating the disease. But thispurpos e is in the str ic test sense i rrelevant to the investigation andseparable from it . His conclusion can be nothing more than a true reporton facts. It cannot help to make the facts otherthan they are; for the factsexist independently of what anyone thinks about them. In the politicalsciences, which are concerned with human behaViour, there are no suchfacts.The investigator isinspired by tile desire to cure some ill of thebodypolitic. Among the causes of the trouble, he diagnoses the fact thathumanbeings normally react to certain conditions in a certainway. But this isnota factcomparablewith the fact that human bodles react Ina certain way tocertain drugs. It i sa factwhich may bechanged by the desire to change lt:and this desire, already present in the mind of the investigator, may beextended, as th e result ofhis Investigation, to a sufficient number ofotherhuman beings to make it effective. The purpose isnot, as In the physicalsciences, irrelevant to the investigation and separable from it: it is itselfone of the facts In theory, the distinction may no doubt sti ll be drawnbetween the role of the investigator who establishes the facts and the roleof the practitioner who considers the right course of action. In practice,one role shades imper cept ib ly Into the o ther . Purpose and ana lys isbecome part and parcel of a single processA few examples wJlJ illustrate this point Marx, when he wrote Capital,was inspired by the purpose of destroying the capitallst system just as theinvestigator of the causes ofcancerIs inspired by the purposeof eradicatingcancer. But the facts about capitalism are not, like the facts about cancer,Independent of the att itude of people towards it Marx's analysis wasInt ended to alter, and did in fact niter, that attitude. In the process ofanalyslng the facts, Marx altered them. To attempt to distinguish betweenMarx the scientist and Marx the propagandist is idle hair-splitting. Thefinancial experts, who in the summer of 1932 advised the BritishGovernment that i t was possible to convert 5 per cent War Loan at therate of 31;2 per cent, no doubt based their advice al l an analysis of certainfacts; but tile fact that they gave this advice was one of the facts which,being known to the financlal world, made the ope ra ti on successful.Aualystsand purpose were inextricablyblended. Nor Isit only the thinkingof professional or qualified students of politics which constitutes a politicalfact Everyone who reads the polltical columns ofa newspaper orattends apolitical meeting Ordiscusses politics with his neighbour isto that extent astudent of politics; and the judgementwhich he forms becomes (especially,but not exclusively, in democratic countries) a factor In the Course ofpolitical events Thus a reviewer might conceivably criticize thls book 011


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6 TlteScience or Intemationai Politicsthe ground, no t that i t was false, but t ha t it was inopportune; and thiscriticism,whether justifiedor not, wouldbe intelligible, whereas the samecriticismof a bookabout th e causes of cancerwould be meaningless.PRlitlcal judgement hel ps to modify the facts on which i t is passe.d,Political thought isitself a fonn of polltical action. Political science is the~ o only of what is, bu t of what ought to be _.The role of utopianismIf thereforepurpose precedes and conditions thought, it is not surprising tofind that, when the human mind begins to exercise itself in some freshfield, an ini ti al s tage occurs in which the element of wish or purpose isoverwhelmingly strong, and the Inclination to analyse facts and meansweak or non-existent Hobhouse notes as a characteristic of 'the mostprimitive peoples' that 'the evidence of the t ruth of an Idea Is no t yetseparate from the quality which renders it pleasant' ." The same wouldappear to be conspicuously true of the primitive, or 'utopian', stage of thepolitical sciences" Q!,zrimL this stage, the Investigators will pay littleattent!.Qo...1Q.J:;illting 'facts ' or to the analysis of cause and effect, bu t will--- - . - - -devote themselveswholeheartedly to the elaboration of visionaryprojectsj;;"theattainmentorThe ends which mey have trrview - projects wnosesimplicity ana perfectiongive them an easy and umversaI appeal. Itis onlywhen these projects break down, and wish or purpose Is shown to beincapable by itself of achieving the desired end, that th e investigators willreluctantly call in the aid of analysis, and the study, emerging from itsinfantile and utopian period, wil l establi sh its c la im to be regarded as ascience.'Sociology', remarks Professor Ginsberg, 'may be said to havearisenby way of react ion against sweeping general izat ions unsupported bydetailed inductive enquiry,"It may not befanciful to find an illustrationof this rule evenin the domainof physical science, During the MiddleAges,gold was a recognized mediumof exchange. But economic relations were no t sufficiently developed torequire more than a limited amount of such a medium. When the neweconomic conditions of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries introduced aWidespread system of money transactions, and the supply of gold was foundto be i nadequat e for the purpose, the wise men of the day began toexperiment in the possibility of transmuting commoner metals into gold.The thought of the alchemist was purely purposive. He did no t s top toenquire whether the properties of lead were such as to make it transmutableInto gold. He assumed that the end was absolute ( i.e. that gold must beproduced), and that means and material must somehow be adapted to it , I twas only when this visionary project ended in failure that the investigators

The l!egilllliHg.1 o{ fI Science 7wereprompted to apply their thought to an examination of 'facts' , l .e, thenature of matter; and though the initial utopian purposeof making gold ou toflead isprobablyas far asever from fulfilment, modern physical science hasbeen evolved out of this primitive aspiration,Other illustrations may be taken from fields more closely akin to ourpresent subjectIt was in th e fifth and fourth centuries lie that the first serious recorded

attempts were made to create a science of pol it ics These attempts weremade Independently in China and in Greece. But neither Confucius norPlato, though they were of course profoundly Influenced by the polit1calInstitutions under which they l ived, really tried to analyse the nature ofthose Institutions or to seek the underlying causes of th e evlls which theydeplored. Like the alchemists, they were content to advocate highlyimaginative solutions whose relat ion to exist ing fact s was one of flatnegation." The new political order which they p ropounded was asdifferent from anything they saw around them as gold from lead, I twasthe product no t of analysis, bu t of aspiration

In the eighteenth century, trade in Western Europe had become soimportant as to render Irksome the innumerable restrictions placed on itby governmental authority and justified b)' mercanti list theory. Theprotest against these restrictions tool, th e form of a w is hf ul v ision ofuniversal free trade; and out of this vision the physiocrats In France, andAdam Smith 1nGreat Britain, created a science of political economy. Thenew science was based primarily on a negation of existing rcallty and oncertain artificial and unverified generalizations about the bchavlour of ahypothetical economic man, Tn practlce, it achieved some highly usefuland important results. But economic theory long retained i ts utopiancharacter; and even to-day SOIl1l' 'classical economists' insist on regardinguniversal free trade- all imaginary condition which has never existed - asthe normal postulate of economic science, and al l rea li ty as a devia tionfrom this utopian prototype."

In the opening years of the nineteenth century, the industrial revolutionc re ated a new social problem to engage human thought in WesternEurope Thepioneers who first set out to tacklethis problem were themenun whom posterity has bestowed the name of 'utopian socialists'; SaintSimon and Fourier in Prance, Robert Owen In England- These men did notattempt to analyse the nature of clnss-lnterests or clnss-consclousncssor ofthe class-conflict to which they gave rise. They simply made unverifiedassumptions about human behaviour and, on the strength of these, drewlip visionary schemes of ideal communttles in which men of all classeswould live together In ami ty, sharing the fruits of their l abours inproportion to their needs For all of them, as Engels remarked, 'socialism is


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8 Tire Science of lntematlonal Politicsthe expression of absolute truth, reason and justice, and needs only bediscovered in order to conquerall the world in virtue ofits own power'.I''The utopian socialists did valuable work in making men conscious of theproblem and of the need of tackling it But the solution propounded bythem had no logical connexion with the conditions which created theproblem, Once more, Itwas the product not of analysis, but ofaspiration.Schemes elaborated in this spirit would not, of course, work. Just asnobody has ever been able to make gold In a laboratory, so nobody haseverbeen ableto live InPlato's republicor Ina world ofuniversalfreetradeor In FourIer's phalansterles. But It Is, nevertheless, perfectly right tovenerate Confucius and Plato as the founders of political science, AdamSmith as the founder of political economy, and Fourier and Owen as thefounders of socialism, The Initial stage of aspiration towards an end isanessential foundation of human thi nking. The wish Is father to thethought. Teleology precedes analysis,The teleological aspect of the science of international politics has beenconspicuous from the outset. It took Its rise from a great and disastrouswar; and the overwhelming purpose which dominated and inspired thepioneers of the new science was to obviate a recurrence of this disease ofthe International body politic The passionate desIre to prevent wardetermined the whole initial course and direction of the study. Likeotheri ! 1 1 ~ n L s c i e Q . e s , the science of international politics has been markedlya n ~ ) r a n k l y utopian. It has been in the initial stage in which wiShingprevails over thinking, generalization over observation, and In whichlittle attempt is made at a critical analysis of existing facts or availablemeans. In this stage, attention is concentrated almost exclusively on theend to be achieved. The end has seemed so Important that analyticalcriticism of the means proposed has too oftenbeen brandedas destructiveand unhel pful. When President Wilson, on his way to the PeaceConference, was asked by some of his advisers whether he thought hisplan of a Leagueof Nations would work, he replied briefly: 'If it won'twork, it must be made to wo rk ." ! The advocate of a scheme fur aninternational police force or for 'collective securlty"-;-or or;(;me other-project for an International order, generally replied to the criticnot byan.argument designed to show howand wh he thou lIt his plan wiliwork,but e ithe r by a s ta tement that it mus t be made to wor because the..- .---.----consequencesof its failure to worl< would beso disastrous, or bya demandfiJr some alternative nostrum.J2 This ID.USt be the spiri t InWhiCilthe

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alchemist or the utopian socialist would have answered the sceptic whoquestioned whetherleadcould be turned Into gold ormen made to liveinmodel communities. Thought has been at a discount, Much thatwassaidand written about international politics between 1919 and 1939 merited

the stricture applied in another context by the economist Marshall, whocompares 'the nervous irresponsibility which conceives hasty utopianschemes' to the 'bold facility of the weak player who will speedily solvethe most difficult chess problem by taking on himself to move the blackmen as well as the white' L l In extenuation of this intellectual fallure, itmay be said that, during the earl ier of these years, the black pieces InInternational politics were in the handsof such weak players that the realdifficulties of the game were scarcely mani fe st even to the keenestIntel ligence , The course of events af ter 1931 clearly revealed theinadequacy of pure aspiration as the basis for a science of internationalpollrlcs,and made itpossible for the first limeto embarkon serious criticaland analytical thought about International problemsThe impact of realismNoscience deserves the name until it has acquired sufficient humility notto consider itself omnipotent, and to distinguish the analysis of what isfrom aspiration ahoutwhat shouldbe. BecauseIn the political sciences thisdistinction Gi n never be absolute, some people prefer to withhold fromthemthe right to the title ofscience. Inboth physical and political sciences,the point is soon reached where the Init ial stage of Wishing must besucceeded by a stage of hard and ruthless analysis, The difference is thatpolitical sciences can never wholly emancipate themselves from utopianism,and that the political scientist isapt to lingerfor a longer inltlal periodthan the physical scientist in the utopian stage of development. This isperfectlynatural. Forwhile the transmutation of lead Intogold would be nonearer ifeveryone in the world passionately desired it, it is undeniable thatif everyone reallydesired a 'world-state' or 'collective security' (and meantthe same thingby those terms), it would beeasilyattained: and the studentofinternational politics may be forgiven ifhe begins by supposing that histask isto make everyone desire it Ittakes him some time to understand thatno progressis likelyto bemade along this path, and that no political utopiawill achieve even the most limited success unless it grows out of polltlcalreality Having made the discovery, he will embark on that hard ruthlessanalysis of reality which is the hallmark of science; and one of the factswhose causes he wlll have to analyse isthe fact that few people do desire a'world-state'Or 'collective security', and that those who think they desireItmean different and incompatible things by it. Hewill have reached a stagewhen purpose by itselfis seen to bebarren, and whenanalysis ofreality hasforced itself upon him as an essential ingredient of his study.The impact of thinking upon wishing which, In the development of ascience, follows the breakdown of its first visionary projects, and marks


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10 171e Science at International P o l J t i c ~the end of its specifically utopian period, Is commonly called realism.Representing a reaction against the wish-dreams of the initial stage,realism is liable to assume a critical and somewhat cynical aspect. In thefield of thought, it places its emphasis on the acceptance of facts and onthe analysis of their causes and consequences. It tends to depreciate therole of purpose and to maintain, explicitly or implicitly, thatthe functionof think ing is to s tudy a sequence of events which it is powerless toinfluenceor to alter. In the field of action, realism tends to emphasize theirresistible strength of existing forces and the inevitable character ofexisting tendencies, and to Insist t ha t the highe st wisdom lies inaccepting, and adapting oneself to, these forces and these tendencies.Such an attitude, though advocated in the name of 'objective' thought, mayno doubt becarriedto a point where it resultsin the sterilization of thoughtand the negation ofaction. Butthere Isastagewhere realismisthe necessarycorrective to the exuberance of utopianism, just as in other periodsutopianism must be Invoked to counteract the barrenness of realism.Immature thought Is predominantly purposive and utopian. Thoughtwhich rejects purpose altogether is the thought of old age.Mature thoughtcombines purpose with observation and analysis.Utopiaand realityarethusthe two facets of political science. Sound political thought and soundpoliticaillfe will be found only where both have their place.Notes1. A recent historian of the Franco-Russian alliance, havlng recorded the protestsofa few Frenchradicals against th e secrecy which enveloped this transaction,continues: 'Parliament and opinIon tolerated this complete silence, and werecontent to remain in absolute Ignorance of the provisions and scope of th eagreement' (Michon, L'A/liO/lceFtanco-Busse, p. 75). in 1898, ln the Chamberof Deputies, Hanotaux was applauded for describlng the disclosure of Its termsas 'absolutely Impossible' (ibid, P: 82)

2 Quoted In Sidney Hook, Towards tileUnderstandingo{Karl Marx, p. 279.3. J. Rueff, From tilePhysical to theSocial Sciences (Engl transl .), p . 27.4 Kant, Critique ofPure Reason (Everyman ed.), p . 1L5. Maciver, Community, p. 56..6. 1.. T. Hobhouse, Development and Purpose, P: 100.7. M. Ginsberg, Sociology, p. 258 . 'Plato and Plotlnus, More and Campanella constructed theirfandful socletleswIth those materials whlch were omitted from the fabric of th e actualcommunltles by th e defects of which they were inspired. The Republic, theUtopia, and the City of the Sun were protests against a state of th ings whichthe experience of their authors taught them to condemn' (Acton, HIstory ofFreedom, p. 270).

TIle fJegillllillgs of II Science I I9. 'L'econorniepolltJque llberale a ete un des mellleurs exemples d'utoples qu'onpulsse clter. On avait lrnaglne une societe ou tout seralt rarnene i\ des typescommerclaux, sous la 101 de la plus complete concurrence; on reronnaitaujourd'hul que cette societe ldeale scralt aussl dlIficlle a rcallser que cello dePlaten' (Sorel, IUI/exiom sur 10 violence, p. 47). Compare Professor Robbins'well-known defence of hlisscz-{aire economics: 'The Idea of


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Part Two

The International Crisis


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E. I--t. C.,.('rTlu Sci"m of Itll.rtzationat Politics

time to uricierstandtba.t no prQgressis likely to be made alongthis path, and that no J ' 2 ! i . ! ! c ~ . ! . ~ : o e i a will ~ ~ ~ ! f Y ! J Y . ~ ~ emost l l m i t ~ d Buccessunless it grows out olpohtical reallHavfng made t e recovery, e WI CJl1 art on.. a. . ~ r u t h - .le...;'analYlis of reality which i. the ?allmark of science andone: of the facts whose caueesbe Will have to analyse :15 theface- that few people do desire .at'world';'state "


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CJ'I0>Tlu Scienceoj lntematicmal Politics" ". ' thefermer trained to think mainlyon a prioriu tter emplncilDy.: ..... ~ ( . . ~ . j . ~ the n ~ , t 5 J : i e ..~ th.lng'o,IDal.the intellectuaLshould liiid himoelf in the camp. whlch seeks

.' ", - .' ,. >' . . , .to make. practic. confonn to theory'; ,for. inteJlCctuail areparticularly reluctant to recognise.theirthought' as conditionedby force xternal.to . th.inis.lv.. . and'like .te.think'ofthemselv. .as leaders whcse theorl.s provldethemodve forcefor .O:calledmen of action-.1Moreovc;.the wholeintellectual,outlook o!,thela. t two hundred yem":has been Itrongly 'coloured by' themathematical /md..natural Iclenees, -To'. est.blilh a generalprinciple.and II!testthe particular inthe light 'i f th.atprinciple,h"" been assumed bymo.t.lntellectuals ,to be the nec"saryfoundation and' s ~ a r t i n g . p o i n t of anyscience.!n W. 'W!pect.uto ianism with' its insistence'on" eral rinei les.maybesaid ..to re resent. t e arattulItic.,mt ectua ',,1 coa topolitics. 00 row ISO ",e.mg 'p eel'm ern examp e.: "excened in the.exposiilon offundamentals ' ~ . His'political methOd., was to" base hisappeal upon broadandsimpleprinclplesavoidingcommitmentupon I p e e i f i c m e a s u t e s . : : . ~ : ~ Some .supposedly general-principle,such .as If national sel(..determin'ation u, H free trade U '01' " eol....lell-Iin.ecurity"(alLof.whiCh wdl bee""ily recognised by ther ~ a 1 i s t aI. c o n c r ~ t e e x p r e s s l o n s " of p a r t i ~ l a r ; t c . o n d ~ t i o n s : -and .interests). is taken as an absolute standard,and'pollciq 'area d i u d g e ~ goOd or baa by the extenf toWhich ther conform to.or dlvC;g,e,fr.om,Jt. In 'modem'.tim.. , intel1ectuals..have. been'ih."leaders of evcrr.utopian movement; .aild.tl!e ~ ~ . . whichutopianism has renderedtopoliticafprogress, m\lst be. credited, in large pa rt to them." Dtit' the ' ~ h a r a c t e n s t l c . : w e a k n e s s oCutopianism 'is also the ch,."facteristlciweakriess"olJ'lie pollllciiJmte cua' .' _. erst;," ;,cxlSung": r ~ lty _an . t e..way'm w ich their own""standards artuoottihln"lf....."'4'hey.., .. ;could give to the". p.,litica!:.aspiratlons : . ' , : , w , , ! \ ~ Meinecke ofthe role of intenec.tuals'in German'politics; '.:: a .spitit"o{purityand independence, of p h i l o s o r ~ c a l idealism,and of devation. ,. " . ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' > ' - ; ' ' ' : . ~ . ' ' ' ~ ~ : ' ' ; ' - ' . - . . -. I The.tenn It b u n . u c r a ~ It may.be , ' ~ ~ _ e ~ .cor ddI" purpose ~ -include.thOR~ e m b u . or the fiEhUne ,.e:mcc. who:.r .:'co.nceinedi:With:the,.dinetJOQorpoUer.It 1. pcrhap., unnecellary "to:add'that!n o f ' e _ ~ l i i y ~ p o j ~ O _ ~ , ; o r ~ an lQtelled;.1i auintellectual, or every, occupant ol ...duk lu:.:goYOnUnent.deputnJCDt .. -bureaucratTherre, n....erthelcu, model:01 thought ..blch .-..:e,:brOadly'.Pukln".charade.r4th: oC the II bureaucrat U andtheU lnlel1cctu!&l" ruptctlnl,.., R. S . Baker , JY""JntW JYill#ft.' Lif# 4,,,:1 UJIlrI,lll. p. 90.

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Utopiaand 1(6alll']above, the cO,ncrete play of interests , , but through theird e f e c t i v ~ ' feehng for the realistic interests of actual state lifetheY' qUIc:Jdr descended from the sublime to the extravagatand ec:centrtc." I ,. n, It hu o ~ e n b a r ~ e d , that the intellectuals are I.. .

d 1 r e C t 1 T , . c o n < ! i t l o n ~ ID thClr thmking than those groups whosecoherence depends on a COmmon economic interest. and that. they thereilre occupy-a vantage-point qU-J ISNU J. ta ",IUa. early as 1905. Lenin !'oUacked" the old-fashlened view :{ ,thelnte!1lgentsia :'" c,apable '. oC Itanding outslde c1ass ". 'M?re recently, thie view haa been r > e 5 u s ~ t a t e d by Dr. Mannhelm, who argues that the inte1ligentaia, being "r.lo/iv.lyc1ass1":,,," and " sllclally uIlaltached ", "subsumes in itaelfallthose m t e r e s ~ wit? which .ocial life is'permeated ", and canthereforeaUama highermeasure ofimpartiality and objectivity In ,a certain !Imited sense. this Is true. But any a d v a n t a ~ ederived from.t would seemto be nullified by a correspondingdisability, l.e..detachment fmm the rng"e, wbose attitude ist ~ d e t ~ politlcallif.. . Evenwhere the illusionof their leadership.wu. strong. .!, modern Intellectuals haveoften found themselves,in the position of officen whose troop.were ready enough to follow them in quiet t imes, but couldbe relied on to desert in any serious engagement. In Genuanyand many Iwaller European tQuntrics; the democratic con.stitutions of'l I were the work of devoted intellectuals. aliil'achieve , a hi h d e of t corellcal ectlon." ut w ena 'q1SlS . er. rake down almost everywhere throughf,Uure to Win tb durable iiilcii/anseot-memassoltlie populabon.n the United Stat .. . the intellectuals played a preponderantpart In creatirig the League of Nations, and most of them remained avowedsupporters of it. Yet the ma.. of the American",.. ,.. I 1 ~ l ' l e ; having appeared to follow their lead. rejected it whenthe Critical moment arrived. In Great Britain, the intc:tectualssecured. by a devoted.and energetic propaganda, o"rwhelming. paper support for the League of Nations. Bu. whentheCovenantappeared to require actionwhichmight have entailedpractical" consequences for the" mass of the people.successivegovernments preferred inaction; and the protests of the in-

I Meinecke, SIIUJI fllfGPwshtlkAu,'" p, 136.I La.Ia-, JYw,b (::t1ld RuuiaD cd.),vii. p. 7" Muabdm.1tIt,uD' -. J f/lIJio, pp. 137"40-

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.....enoTn8 Intemationa] Cnsis

people everywhere throughout.the world". 1n the League olNations -Commission, oC .the Cl?nfercnce. the Japanese hadraised the issue oC race equaUty. ot .Howcan you .treat on. Itsmerits in this quie troom u. en'quired:thc l ~ r e s i d c n t . ! , a.questionwhich will not be ' t reated on. its' merits when it getsout ofthis room 1 .. . Later history p r o v i d e d . m a ~ y , . e x ' ! 1 I l p i e s of thisphenomenon. It b'ecamc' a " c o m m o n p l a c ~ '{or: ,statesmen. at,eneva a n dsewherc' to : e x p l a i n - " J ~ a t mer . t h ' r : s e J , ~ C i h ~ every deslr to e realona6Ict'but,ffiat pUbllC'OplnIOnJO theircountne, was i n c x o r a b J c ; " : : ~ a n d ~ , > t h ~ u g h i { . t h i s . leB./wassometime,- a retext or a tact ell c _ m a J ; u ~ u v r e i ere-,..-8170 teil.aso Ids ~ b s t r a l U m , 0 rea ty benea!. ,.t.,,,: . It p r e s d g c . o l ; p u , ~ . , c . ~ P . ~ . o n .correspondingly declined.;; " ~ I i .It does: n ~ t ' ; h e l ~ ~ h . ' ~ 0 n . c i l i a t o r , .the arbitrator, .the poUceman or Jhc Judge. I . " " . ' r o . ~ e : . a ~ e l 1 ..known supporter . 'of the . Lcague:,of N . t i o l ' l ~ . ; Q n i o ~ . . reeently,tI to be s u r r o u ~ d e q b Y ' , a c r o w d ~ e i r i i l ~ n g : ; ' C ! i t p e r ; a n ~ ..c r c x ~ l t .Ing cheers.":'.' oodrowWUson's'!" lalnmen throughol't the~ ? ~ l d . , , ' / t h . f ! ~ ! p . 9 . k ! t ~ C ! l t h ' e . c o m m o 4 J i j r R , o l e o ~ 1 ' .. .".mankind ", had. somehow t r a ~ s i 9 . o n $ . ! t r . ! ! ! e l v e ! J - ! n t ~ ; . ! . : . d l s , , "orderiY'P!' L i ; n ! ! . t 1 ; ; i " l . ) . ~ o h e r ~ ! ' t ' a n d ' . u ~ E . ~ w . ! . i 1 1 :n?l": , ';Useemed undeniable.. that. In:..interp.ationata J f ~ ~ ; P _ u W . ~ . C ? , ~ p m l o nwas almost 88 o f 1 e n ~ . w r o n g - ~ h e ~ d e d laS' _ i f Y l a , I , ' . i m p o t e ~ t . ~ ; B u twhere so many,of t\1. p r e s u p p o ~ \ i i o r i s of.'919 ",.r.,ciumblini!"'the intellectual leaders of-the -utopian.'school'stuck}othe.urguns:' and in Great .Britain a n c l : t h e : U l ) i t e d S t a t ~ ~ " ' : ' " and. toalesser degree in France - the riCtbetween .theory and 'practiceassumed alarming .dlmenslone. 'Armch-air':students of .international a/fairs were urianimous.ahoutth.'kind.of p o l i ~ which\ ought to b. loUowed ..both.int!,e,political and in.the e c o n ~ m i cfield, Governmcnts of many countries actcd In a.sense preciselycontrary to this advice.-and received the endorsement of public, opinion at th e polla, . : .... ..

.Tilt Pro61tm of Diagnosis '.. ,In ~ ~ c h d i s a s t e ~ s the o b v i ~ u ~ ; x l ' l a n a t i o ~ Is J : l e v ~ r far toseek. The able 'historian of the'Commuriisf'lnternational ,hasno ted t ha t, in the' his tory of that .institutif?n, ." .every failure_ not objective failure, but the failure of the reality to comply, . ' I '

I Miller, Tla"Dr,,/J.fI ,,/IA. C ~ I f f . i J n / . I t . p .101.I Lerd Alleo of Hurhfood, TA. Timtl,.MlIY JO,1938 ,J8

TJu Utopian Ba&kgroundwith the u topi a - supposes a traitor".t The principle has awide application, and touches deepspripgs of human character.Statesmen armorethan one count ha en . Dried b" 'gpo ' " 1 t J ~ utopians a8 wreckers of .the Jnt!:;rnatlonal order. T l i e - . ~ ' . ~ ti.rs oflh. school who have tried 10go behind, .":2.1'0. ] t r e . : ~ t h r o p o m o r p Ie e:xplanat on e 8 I t a ~ e - o e t ~ e e n ' - t v i o! 1 r i l P ! i ( t . & ' : l l a g n ~ s . . . II mankInd. in.ita internatlOni1


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c::n.....

Th International Crisisinternational crisis.' The Impeesslon mede on the ordinary froanwas more accurately recorded in April 1938 in some wordsorM r. Anthony Eden: '

. .........::.:. ..' .... : ..; ..:.:.\. I t is utterly futile to ,imagine that weare involved in aEuropean crisis which may pase a,s it has comev ;Weareinvolved ip a crisis!' liumanityaU the world over. 'Wearel iv ing in one of tho... great periods of history which arc"awe'lnspiririg1in theirf':spon,ibilitiesand in, their ccnsequences.'Stupendous forces rare loose, hurricane forces.2 . ''. '. .It is not true,aa Prcfeeecr Tcynbee believd,tbatwe have beenliving in an exceptionallywicked age. It i. not true, a. ProfessorZlmmern implies.that we have beenliving in .an exceptionallystuptd cne.: StilU. .. i .it true.a.Prores.or,Lauterpachtmoreoptimiaticallyauggeatsrthat what we have .beenaperieiicingis,,;" a. tra.niientperiodor.r.ctrogrenionwhlcbshould.not beaUowedunduly to colour our thought.'. It i. a'meaJ1lllgles.evasion to, retendthatwehavewltnessednotilic liUure ofthe Leagueo atl0n". ut only tea ure of t osew 0 re Ul!Je

M'to makeit:work The brellkdownoCthe nineteen..thfrtieswas

10 0 o v e r w h e l m i n ~ to beSIllamcd m e t i l i d ! ! . J e r i l i i ' o T f n i l i v l < ! ~ ~ !~ - " ! ! . ' ! ! J ~ inaction. Its dovinfan involved the bankruptcy of~ 1 ! ~ . . I ' . o . ~ l a t ~ _ on which it wa. ba.ed. The roundaUons -;;r'nineteenth-century boUef are themselves under-ausplclon, Itmay be not that lOenstupidlyotwickedlr.,Cailed to applyrilr.\J!..l!rinciple., bu.tthat the principles ! . ~ ~ m . e l v " wite'TaI-\..or-.inapplicable... l t ~ a y f i i r n o u t t o b e untrue Uiat n menrea.on rlitbllV .!l0Ut mlcrnalioijal ponues they wDl RI.o act. .cr a ri htrc'llsonin aboutene's ownor one'. nation's. llltere.t. i. the road to an mternalional para ISo. e . . .ump-tilln. o{nineteenth.century b b ~ r a h . m are in lacl untenable, itneed not surprise u. that the utopiaof the internatillnal theoriste:triade "0 little i m p r e s ~ l o n on reality'Butlf they are untenable'ts-day. we shan a ll " have to expIninwhythcy Cound suchMIdespread acceptance. and inspired such splendld achieve: ~ e n t s , in the nineteenth century., ." :: , AI.I reeem ","tet hi' Aid ot therreuc:h elghtt'l!'aLb-nowry ntlon.t1bu,nlhtit .upufidaUtyta7I1la.boclt1ngtsaggnat icD oCtht.lmpl1dtyorLhe problem"Sabine,..A HirtW'}' _/ P,/i/U,u TM,?,s p. 551).

I AnlhOD1 Edell, P"",ip APrI, p, 'lS.I Irrt".,..hn.JAjf_irl! xriJ. (Seplembu-Odob!ri938),' p 712.

, :CHAPTEIl 4THE HARMONY OF INTEREST"

: l " I t ~ UtopiaN' SyNtlttsiJ' '. . I No poUticalsodcty, national orlnternationlll, can exist unlesspeoplesubmit to certain .rules'of conduct'. he roblem.why!,eo.plc . h o u l ~ ~ u b m i t to .uch n l l ~ . is the fundamental prob em_Q[ ! l l l l ! t l c a ~ phdosop!!'y. The problem presents itself ju. t-;/n.laten.tlyma d e m o c r ~ c y .. .under other form. of governmenta n ~ , l n mternatlonal . . mnauonlil polities; [or such a formula

: . :the. greatest flood .. of thcgaatestnumber It provides .D.P~ s w e r to the?ucstion wbytbc' m l n o d t L . . . 1 Y h s i l o . . E r : : ~ a t e s t cod, ! ~ . ,' " IIl'Pot"."notpu ... u e < 1 . . ~ ~ ~ u l d . s u b m i t to r u l e S - ; " ; " d ~ ' i ; ;f.l!e .inte....t o r t h e g r e a t ~ t 2 ' ~ m b e r . - 'llroidly speaking, the~ n s W ' m j i j v c n t o f ! i e q u e s u ~ n 1 # D l . n t o two categories,.ccrre.spondJog tothcantftltg'a..d'rr:fJucdjn a prefuUJ 'ili! lPo . h ... h ' . _. s.. UP. clj, ~ t w e c n t OJC 1LO reQ',rd 'poUtiNas" I'u_-Uo C t h i ' dl " ............ n 0 e C.J all,..o!!,who r e ~ d etItles lIS a f!!!l.

41


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11:..4 ! n l r t i t ~ / f . o n ( l { C , . i r z " ~to the question ,":hy the i n d l v l d u ~ llqa d bmit. e .h ~ u 1 d

Ie . . . . .,'. '.A!!Q.'. e ' m o r ~ ; ' d [ 5 ! l g r e l ! a b l e , t h a n . t h o g e ofyoliint!yy s u b m i ; l l i o r i ~ . Obllgation'.is us enveu. roma 900(. ,Purious'.ethic 'baaed 'onthc'reasonablem:ss'Qf recognisingthat might 1.1 right. : . . . ' ~ . . . . -- ' _- . .Both these answin .are open to objection. 'Modem man;who has w i t ~ ' m e d 80 ni'ruiY'niagnificent achievements of human

reuon; i. rlluctant to belii:vc'tharreason'and.:obliglltlpn.lIome-.tJmell eon I .' n. t e o.ther p,and.mt;n;o;. .agq aVC,lue t 'find ~ a l i l l f a c t 1 o n : . I n t h ~ ~ : Y I ~ w : t b a e t h e : ~ a t i o n a . 1 b l l S i ~ . , o f : ~ b ! i l ; t a .tion ia merely t h e " r i g l l ~ (If,the 'stronger. One o f the strongeStpoints .0(, .eighteenth- a ~ J ~ i n e t e c n t h ~ c e q . t u r y u t o p i ~ l ! i i m , : w i i sits apparent success:in. i r i e ~ t l n g . b o t ~ : . ~ e s c o b j e c t l ~ n ; , ; ~ t l : o ; c e : .The utopian, . t a r t i n g f ~ m : t h e p r i J t j ~ e Y i ~ f ; ; e t h i C 9 ; j l ~ ! = c : ! l ~ a r l l y ibelieves.in an obUgjltion':"lhi-:!I':ls t . c t h l c a V l n , ~ c b ~ a c ~ e i : . andindependent oC the right oCthe akorigcr. -,But hehu.'llIsobeenable to convince ijlm.elf, on grounds o . . ~ h a r i th'isp:.o{ tlie:

.. realist, that i h e . d u t y o r ~ c d n ~ } v i d u l d i o submif t Q r U . l ~ ; r i i ~ ? , ? } nthe Inter-est'-of the cemmunltyean b=just ified,wtenns cif-.reason,and that the greatestgo.od t:1Qhc'greatest number.Is~ ~ ' r a ~ o n ~ l , 4 1. 1 .,end even (or those who ar.c not mclud,edtn the. g r c a t e s t . ~ u m b . e r -,.!Ie ~ c h j e v ~ s . this . svnth'eshtb>(maintaining, that; t 1 l e W g h e s ~e the individual and thtdii hest I n t e r - e ' t : o r ~ 1 h e ; ; i : o m :"munal 'naturaU 'col . luin 'I "own,intereati!t ellJdM51.1lil ur es that'"o(the ~ c o m m u n l ' ~ : i l r i d in l ' r.omotlnthe:.1nt1:reK , ' '. ' own : i ~ ' i, it. . . . . , .... " _ , ,_ . 1the famous doclrine,of..the JlIl.miony" ~ : : i n ~ e r e s i s ; J i ItiCi$:ainecClII. .. . t. .wroJig "calculation.:,"Burk;c , t ~ ! = l t l t ~ , a c c e p t e ~ - the d o ~ t r . l ~ e : of.ldentlrywhen he defined p : ~ p t : ~ i ~ r i e r as ~ thr !flilc,h:. ~ " i g o o d :for the.community and: f o ! . e v : ~ . . , . . ! . ~ . 9 . ~ ! ~ ~ ~ . l ; l p . ..j_t .:'.1 , : ; t ~ a . s .h a n ~ e d on f r o ~ the e i g h t e F n ~ ~ c o r i ~ u ~ Q ' , . ~ t ; a ~ ~ ; n , ~ ; ~ ~ t s t " ~ e ' n t h . a : m l and ,from Bentham to. the Jflctorian'mors.hsts. ':'l'hq i u t l I l ~ a n a " ,_) h i l o s o p h , : ~ d ' I ~ a t i f ' ( " m g ~ a l i i y : b i ; ' t H ~ ~ ~ J l 1 ~ n ~ " t 1 i a t , . i ~ prf}!!!.Q.!ingthe gQ..o..d oC , o J h e ! l d ! ~ . Y ! . ' ? ! ! 1 a t l c a l l r p r o m Q t ~ gllc I!own., .Honesh' is the best folicI. -,I f people or natiOnJ beJ.1avc;

. , ' I B w k . , W . . , . ~ , T. -t-07.' ,4:1

The Harmony of ftiler6SIs' ..ba?ly;, it, must: be,. as Buckle and Si r Norman Angell .and~ r o f ~ ~ o r ' Zlinmern thlnk, because they ir e unintellectua]: and'shortsigqted and i n u d p l e - h l l a d e d ~ ' . .

T.h4'Pa;w#ri pj L'airiu-Fair,... l...... .... ," . . . I .

". t w. the Ja,sull- ire' chool of olitical ecby" ':lm S ~ whillhwas i n t h e ~ a l n ' r e s p o n a ~ b l e for populas1img)Jic .docttrne ofthe " h a r ; m o ~ y of interests. ,The purpose ofthe schoolwllsto promcte f1ie r e m o v a l o f ~ ' s t a t e ' control ine C l ? ~ ~ m i c mll;tters and in .ordc;.r:d:o j\llltify this polley.: it seto u t . ~ t o demonstrate that the :.individual. could be relied onwhhout'externaypontrol: to_promote the -intereits of the cornmuiUtY.for the very reason that those interests were 'identical' W i t h . ~ i l own, :.ThispTopf was the burden of Till W ~ a / t ; ' (1fNalipns: . The .community is divided Into those who live byrent. those who live by wagc:s and. those who Jive by profit-;and' the- Interests of II those three great orders II are II strictlyand Irlseparaply 'connected with. the g ~ e r a l ' Interest of the:society.",I. :rhci harmony isnone tlle len real if those qmcerned"a r ~ ~ n c ~ n s c l o u s : ?f it. The indIvidual It neither Intends to pro?,ote-til: p U ~ ~ I ~ 'IOtereat. nor' knows how ~ u c h he Is promotingIt-:,:''. ij c lntendll only his-own gain, and he is'iI!.J!!ill. ..!udnm a n y . 9 t ~ ~ tases, l e an11nvisible-hand-to'promote an end\ d i l 1 i = W l ! S : ' J 1 o . - ~ ~ 1 i : } D t e D 1 W o - ; ~ ' ~ : ' : " T . J j i ] , i i V j s i b l e lland,Y ! ' . h ~ ~ ~ ! P _SJ!1i th " ! . o , u 1 d " p e r ! , l ~ p ~ It!lve s : ~ g ~ r : 9 . l t ~ . : ! , ' _ ~ ~ e t ~ i i l i : o r ;. _ ~ ~ e n t e g . . n 2 ~ J ! i f f i ~ . l , l l t t . J . Q . ~ Y i c ~ ~ ~ ! ! ' p . . P . . i ~ . :" It is curious to" o1i,lerv.c ,. f remarks a tract-Issued 'bythe,stlciety for the P ro pagp.,t:Jon .of Christ ian Knowledge.towards-the middle of thenineteenth 'century, II how" through' the ':wile ancrb'eneficent. ~ ~ n g ~ m e n t o(IProvidencei 'menthus do thc"greatest:'al:rvice'-to:ihc'public.when .they"arethinking bt nothingt but their-own~ a j f l . ~ ' J',Aboutthcsamc.tlme an English c lergyman wrote aw ~ r k entitled :TIt, , T ~ m p i J r a l B,lnefitrof Christianity Expla,'nea.The Iiannony'onnterests p r o ~ d e d ',a solid rational 'basis for.mOrl i . l i ty. T ~ ' l b v e one's ndghbour\urned O\,1t to bea thoroughlyenlightencd 'Y'ay of loving oneselfl'.... We now know", wroteMr. Henry Ford as:nicently as i9JO, ," that anythIng'which Js. .:. '. .; ":1;... .". ~ . :. . J.. ':4 t ' " '. ;: 'Adam'Smith, TAt W,,,,/tA , /N"'ti,,,,, BookI. ch. :l


14/39

.The Inler.nalio1lal Crisiseconomically right jg also morally right. There can be no d d rr I' JI 1. conflict between good econoffilcsangoo mora. 5". ". . .... -;'The 'assumption ora' g e n e r a l a n ~ r u n d ~ e n t a l ~ a n n o n y . ofinterests is'prima fM;' 10 paradoxical ~ a It r e q u ~ e s . carefuls c r u t l n y ~ . In the fcrm which A d a ~ Smith g ~ v e to It,. It bad ad c f i n i t e ~ a p p l i c a t i o n 'to the eccncrruc structureof the cightec.nthcentury: It presupposed. a. society of smel l producers andmerchant" Ilinterested in the. maximisation of production andexchange, Infinitely mobile .and.adaptable, and unconcernedwith th e problem of the distribution of wealth; "Tbose c ~ m -ditions "'vere .ubstantially ful fil led in an age when product ioninvolved no high d e g r ~ e . o r : . p e c i a l i s a t i o n and no s . i n k i n ~ ofeapltal lin fixed equipment, and " ,h en t he el. . . wblch mightbe more Interested in th e equitable distribution oC'\Vealth thanin Itsritaximum produetion :wa. In.ignlficant and wlt?0ut Inf l u e n c e ~ ' l J u t byacurioul coincidencc, the yea r which sawthe publieation of Th, W,a/tho! Natio", w.. al,o the year'in whliohWatt Invented hi , steam-engine, 'Tbus at the very:momeritwhen'/a,ssix.ja.rl.theory wu. receivi.ng its, c 1 u s l ~ a lexposition, its premise.were undermined.by m v ~ n t 1 o n . w ~ l c hw.. destined to call into being Immobile, highly sp.etahs.d,manimoth induslr-iesand a.large and powerful p r o l e t l i r i a t I l 1 ~ r eI terested in dist rlbutlcn than In product ion. Once industr ialc : p i t a U s ~ , a n ~ ! ~ ! . s l a , n , . B Y l l t ~ O l h a d become the. recognised, . t r u ~ . ~ e . ! L . . ! ! I ~ _ t ! ~ c t . r l O e o r _ ~ ~ . h a J ! ! 1 o n y of i n t e r e ~ ~ sa ~ q ~ l r e d a n.W a l ~ n ~ . ~ ! , ' ! . ~ . " a . ! ! ~ ! ' . " - = , ..!:" we shall p r ~ . n t l y. ' i l i . : I ~ . o ( O g y 3 I l . ~ i { o . r : r t l n a n l ~ . ! ! I ! P s ~ ! : e r n e d to m a m t ~ m,'ItI 'predominance h y : g a 5 e r t i n ~ . i t t ~ n t i , t Y . . ~ ! J t s i n t e r ~ t ! :WIllitho,;' othe community a ' a whol. . .. But . this t ransformaUon could not have been effected, andthe doctrine could no t have survlved at an, bu t Coron,. .clr~ m ' t ' n c e . The survival of the belief in a harmony.ofInterestswes .rendered possible by the unparalleled exparlolon oC production/ population' and prosperity, which marked the hund:edyeara :'{!,Ilowing the publlcatlou of T.h,W,a/t? of Nat,o.1Ila nd t he invention' of the steam-englne, Expandmg prosperitycontributed to the..popularity oC the doctrine In three differentway~ I t attenuated . c o m p ~ t i t i o n for .markets :--mong ~ r o d u c e ~ Isince 'Cresh mark.t! wereconstantiy b ~ c ~ m m g available; It

Q U O l ~ InJ Ttualo,.. ~ d a m TA ' E / ; ~ ' 4 ~ " , ~ , , : p . 400, I haTe (.tIedtotnee lb. erip.,). ' . . .. Sn pp. 80-81.

~

The Harmony o/Inlerestspostponed the c l a , ~ s i S 5 ~ e , V { i ~ h its insistence .cn the primaryimportance of equitable distribution,by extending to membersof the Iess proapercus .clasees eome shareIn, the I:cnera,l pro..

! r ; p e r i ~ i . a n d b ! icreatinga.8,enseofconfidence. in present andI future 'WcII..being',it .encouraged men to believe that th e world,wRJordercdon'lorational ..aplan.asthenatural'narmony of!Int.crest!; ': l twas . the contlnUal'l'{ldening oC'he lieIdof\i demand WhICh, Cor half ac.ntury, made capltt


15/39

.Th4Itlldrnaliotlal,Crisiswhich f ~ l f i l l e d its idea c o u t d " ~ Q i t l l i i ; t . with aoy,"we'mid",st orrjglit of general society:',I though.ii;s 1ntetesting to note thatthe i \ u e s t i ~ n ..~ . e g g i n g ' e e i t l i # : ~ ' true ' ~ ; w h i c h , i n the e f & h t e e n ~century' quotation . ; ~ . a t ~ a c b ; c d to. t ~ ~ , .Interests '.of..the nation,has been t r ; l n 5 f e r r e d ~ b y the:,niiu;tl?enth'.~ e n t i l l y " ' ~ o , . t h ~ ' i n t e r e s ~or the. general' .ociety . Matonu.nlons overseas maqe use of their newlywon fiscal eutc-,nomy ..o P l t ~ c l ! " t h e m s e l v e s ' against the manufactures Of themothe.: country. ' :fhe pressure of c o m p e t i ~ i o n was. increasingon aU .slde..Nationalism begari:to' wear' a'sinister aspect,and to d e g e ~ e r . a t e into imperialism . The philo.ophy of.Hegelwho.'identified r.ea riJ:y with DR 'tenuJllc ryocurri:tg\:onfJict oT

} ~ C B l . extended It!ll,Inftuenee: ~ B e h i r i d Hegel stood Marx:,.whomatulabsM the. HCIlCUan canmet into ij d"s.war (Jf economic'mtercst-gropps, andworkin! ..cl1l59 parties came Into: b e i n ~. whiChsteadfastly r e f u s e d t o ~ l i e v c in the harmony of U ; - t ~ ; ; ; t . s~ e ~ ~ ~ l J . capital! ~ , ! d ,Iali.our, . J \ O ~ o y , : )11,: D a ~ l n propoundeda ~ , . P . ? p u . l l I I ' l ! . " ~ ~ . b ! o l o i 1 ' f a l ~ Q S ! " l n e of,evlll\ltlon through ap ~ l l ! l ' a l ~ t : . " ! t ~ ' ~ f?r,life a,!dtht; .eIi'!Jirlation 'of th'-unfit: .~ : ....ltlwilS. the poctrinc 'of J:;volut!onwhich"{or a time enabled

t ! i . ~ : : ~ ~ ! ; S f . - I ' ! ; " ' ! philosophy . t ~ ; p ; a k e ItI i ~ , " , ~ : with "the. ~ ~ comhuons and the new trend of thought. Free competitionhad alway. been worsWpped.as. the beneficent deity of thelaiu-fosr system. The .French,economlst Bastlat, in a worksignificantly.;entltled La 'Horin."i", Eco"om,'uu, had hailed.compctiti.on.a s : ~ that humanitarian force . . . . . which continu....''''''ally 'Wrests progress from the hands ofthe individual to make.i t.the common heritage of the great human family.H., ; Under, t h . ~ , ~ : : , : i n . ,t:ain. of ~ h l ~ t t ~ r half of the nineteenth ~ m i ' y ,. twas . " Ca l l .In ecoJu)mic ap ere

i J E . p . ! k e d : : e X . a C ; i l ' ~ , : # lat win" r : p ~ a J m 88 a. 100g1c a . awof qature- t c survival at .. eo ' t eweaker. T h ..~ ~ a l 1 'prod",ceriQr trader was gradually ~ G i gput o ~ ,.o,r b u ~ , d t j 1 A l ~ . v ~ I ' J a f l [ ~ ~ . 9 c a . l c ~ c Q r n p e ~ ~ . l \ m C . t l i i id e v ~ ~ o : e l I l ; ~ t . w ~ . u v h i t t p . \ ? l l r e s ~ ~ , t l i e ~ ~ f ~ r . e . of the ~ o r i l . '

lJa.tfa\,.ur8""""1'''';111&''''_''''''"1, 'p. 355.;47


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en(J1

Tile International Crisismunity as a whole demanded. Laisses-foire meant a n .openfield, andthe pnzc. fa Diestrongest. The doctrine of the harmonyof interests underwent an "almost imperceptible .modifica.tion.he ad of the communi or as p eople were new Inclinedto say,.o t e species w" stil l ident ical with the g ood of it.individual members, bu t only o f t h o s e i n d ~ ' : . ! d u ~ ~ ~ w h o wereCi!Cctivc competiton in the s t n J g g l e f o r l i f c ~ ...H u ~ a n i o / went .".01l..fro", strtngth to strength, shedding its wealhng .of1liewa It Th!e develc ment of the !II ecies"J3.sMuxfiaid,

" -( I ~ t ere orc e 1 er development at In IV! ua I.can" ' ~ n l Y be sccured t aug . C I st or lca precess, Ul.whidi

i ~ d i v j d u a l s are s a c r i f i c e d ~ i i 1 Such was theooa?mcoftl'ic hewage or JntensU1ed economtccompetitionprcachedby t h ~ D . c h ( ) o lof Herbert Spencer. . .nd, commonly accepted in Great Britainin the;;'scvc:ntiesand 'eighties; . The l a s t ~ r e n c h disciple of .Adam:Smlth,Yve.Guyot, assisted perhaps by the accidentthat the French word ,oneur.rt""means ucollaborationuaswell II competition.If, wrote a work entitled La Morizl,'de itJ.Con,urt'en&I. Among Engllsh writers who applied thls evolu..tionary principle to International politics, th e most popular wBagehot :. ~ ~ n q u e ? ~ J . s : t h ~ . p ~ i ~ g i v e " t w "aMite to those n a t i 0 . ! 1 a ~charii"clen whidttheirnationd. customs havemade most 'ilttowih In war, .anirlii'most'matuJalr&pectslhosc ,.,Inmng.characten ar-9-!:caIlY._tfi!t, best characters... 1 he .. characters

whkh do win In w.r are the char.cters wlilcl1we shouldwisli ',to Win 10 .war.. , - '.About the s.me tim R", . ian sociolollist defin; : ' : c ~ . t i o n . ! . lpaUik, as U the art of conducting- tbe .!ltwggI; {or f;is'tt::ncebetween social organisms" ,J and in 1900a distinguished pro-fessor, . in a once famous book, st .ted the doc tr ine in all Itsnaked 'ruthlcs,nen :. . , J

:.rhe path of progre.s Is strewn with the wreck of nat ion. :traces arc everywhere to.be seenof the h e c ~ t ~ ' i ' J l ~ S of I n r ~ i o rraces, and oCvictim,who found not' the n a r r o ~ way t the,. . , " ' ; l " ~ TAfm". IJ!.,. t I J.'-"".,nt, ILI.p, 3og. DaR'hot , PA,lin _ J P,/itj" (sad ed,), p,"S -. matdo t l flmattirld fImtan in lid. pa.. egel DOlI Itmuelr m e m " r e . l n m t ~ ' 1 01' I. the wri te r Q;nIoclout.or aD UDcomIamble .. .lIthu1. betweu ,. D1&tuial"IlDd " moral Jf 1 t. NoTicow,1A P,Uti,_ I,",",tUJ',,,IJ,, p. 2.42

45

The Harmony of Interest,greater p ~ r f c c l i o n . , Y c t t h c s e dead peoples arc , in very truthth e stepplIlg stones on which mankind has arisen to the hight;intellectual and deeper.emotlonal Hjs of tc-day.s

~ Germany, theisarne view was propounded by TreitschkeliandHouSlon StcwartCharnberlain, The doctrine .of progress;'throughthc ~ 1 i m i n a t i q n of unfit nations aeemed a fair corollary,'of the doctrme of progress throogh the elimination of unfitiindividuaJs; . ~ n d ' ~ o ~ . 8 u c h b e l i ~ f , . though .not .. alwaysopenlylavowed,was . ~ p l l C J t .m . late n Y t ~ t e e n t h : c : e h t u r y i m p c r i a l i s m .lIn . thc.later ninete euth .centuFYr U ,an A r i 1 e r i ~ a n historian!remarks," t h basicproblel11 of inteJ"natian;l1..relauons was:wha should c ~ t ~ u p t h e v i c t i m , u . s T h e h a r m a n y of interests! w . s ~ t . b l i s h e d .through the sacrifice. of .. unfit" Africans and: A ~ i B t i C S . ..'.;. .... .. .c >: . .. . . . '. .....,, _ O ne point b,rJ.Junf'otLuuate1y, been l 7 l " e r l o o k e d . ~ . J ! p i i n o i eJth!!P a . h ~ n d r e d XC a,;,' th e do?trioc or the hJmlQnr: ! ? I ! ! ! t ; r ~Ihad prOVIded r.Uon. 1 bas. .' The individuafa een Interest of the community on t ejllle. th.t that interestw.. .I.o his own. e g roun ha d now"Ibeen shtIted. In the Ion run, the good of the conununityjand'the aodo . c. . ' .. . .. . 1liiiIeventua ... m;.nonY,lmpcccededbyasfrUWe for life betwee;,1ndliilll .1 . 10 whIch not onl bu t the v , existence,Iof&: lpser were eliminated altogetherfrom the picture. or.l:It in these conditlonsh.d no ratlcnal . t t r . 'Ilosersj.nd,thewholee Ic..y.tem w.sbuiltonthe sacrifice10Uhe we.ker broth9'.lnpractlce, nearly every state"hadI mademroads .onthe classic.1 doctrine, ~ n Introduced socialIlegislation to protect the .economlcally weak again.t the ecoinomic.l1ystrong. The doctr ine itself died harder. It, -the, ' s e ~ e n t i ... ])ostoevsky,. "hoh.dnone of the prejudice. of an: Engli.hmanoran economist,m.de Ivan KarlUJlazov declare, that thepriceofadmisslcnto the .. etern.lharmony "was teohigh If It Included tlie.uJferings of the innocent. About thei s a m ~ . time,Winwood .Rc;ade.made an. uncomfortable aensation; In Geeat .Brl ta in with a. book c.l1edTl,. Martyrdom of MDN,. whlch drew attention to the immense laIeofsu(fcringand waste

j involved in the theory of evolution. In the 'nineties;. Huxley,. KarlPunol1,NimilILi/'/rPIIf I M S I " J I j . ' l I t e / ~ I ; J : l . 6 ~ , : -] .. 'y,L, Lenger; TA. P"'/""/iI&)' ,lllIIjni"!u"" u. P,19T.

4 .


17/39

, "

0>0>

:Tlte ltitema,tona( Crjs:s;confessed, in the name.of .science, to..the existence of a:dJs.., h' . i - . - . n . 'd th .. hi al .crepancy between t e ~ o s m l c - ' protess..".; c , .et rcproc. .s .. ; '. a n d B a l f o u i , ~ , a p p r o a c h i n g t h e ~ p r o b l e m .from theangle of , philosophy," concluded"that' ", a " ' c o m p l ~ t e h " ' 1 l 1 o n y ;between" egoism' and altruism.' ;.,betwe.en the pursuito[ the.high.est h'appin. . . f?r oncscu,f'and


18/39

.The Itllema/iotlal Crisisand I tl70, and a tt ribu ted their more recent sufferin 8, not to

' ~ i 1 i e war 0 "1914, bu t to-the act t at e bad lost it ; or toItalianswoe war b ut e'treat. '0 a. es.!fhi d ~ f r a u d e d t h e m l n the peace-settlement jo r to Poles a!~ Z ; e c l . l 9 : : ~ J . Q V a k s who. Ja r from deploring ~ war. ' o w ~ d t h e ~national exlstenee-to i t ; . or"to Frenchillen;who could not un..r c i e r v c . ? ~ i " ; ~ "ret a war whlchbad restoted Alaace..LOrralnetof . r ~ l \ ~ e J . . . 2 to . eo le of other nationa Ues who rememberedprofitabJe:11:..q,J.mge by reat "tam'a . te c. tates.in thlL;l!llt. Bu t these people had forttinateirlittle influenceover the onnation of current theories of international relations,which emanated almost exclusively ercim'the English.speakingcountrlei.- -'British ana American writers continued_o assumethat the. uselessness of war had been irrefutably demonstratedby the' experience of '9'4-18, and thatan intellectual graspof this.factiwas aUthatwa3,necessarytoindu'ce the nat ions tokeep t h e p ~ a c e i n . the future i and theywere sincerely puasled'u wen as disappointed at the failure of other countries to sharethis v i ~ w . : ..' '..The confusion was increased by the ostentatious readiness

of o t h ~ r c o u n t r i e s to flatter the AngloSaxoll world bi repeatingits slogans . In the fifteen y ~ a n aft"r the first world war, everyGreat :Pow.er(except,perhaps,;Italy) repeatedly dld Ilp-servlceto the .doctrine by declaring peace to be one of the main objectsof its policy.' But as Leniriobserved' longago,.peace in itselfis a m e ~ i n g I e s s a i m . " Absolutelyeverybody is in favour ofpeace ,iQgenetal n , h e w r o ~ e i n 1 9 1 S . u inc1uding'Kitchener,]offre,'Hindenburg and Nitholas the Bloody, for everyone ofthem wish. . to end the war.'" The common interest in p e a c ~ " ~ e a C f l mUlt pre..n;unlitcomeb,Jore aU ' ; ( l 1 r i ~ , 'LI-.pu -I iI.litIJII:

N;NJA AIl'lffl1. p, 83)-. "The mdattDaan of peal:f It th.6ntobJedI., . . o(Brltbh. foreJppollq"(Edeo. Liqvt 'l N.ti,lU: Si.tHttIAdlm", IIy, p.J06)."P el, l . our de,rutti;e"ufC.".(HltJit, la a ,pltich lDthe Guq$n lleiehttaOilJIIJIU'rr:30,1937. reporttid In TAl Tifffll.Februt'T I , 1937).... "Th, .,'rlndpa', 1m or th. latem'floa,1 policy. of the. Som: 'Union b lba ):lrestm\lon 0 p u . ~ II(Chicherin In TAt' Snrill Un'..." .NJ.P,.n (l929), p. '49): n 111"obJl!elor ].p.o,dupite :prop.g&Dd.. to the CODtnt1.l' h peace f f ( M ~ l I U o \ a , ,L,qw ./ Jt"lfflff;l:Sj",-.lAlmflll,rx9.32


19/39

The Harmony of Interests: ~ i t ~ J j n c J u d ~ n g no t a! fe:w e c o n ~ ~ ~ ~\':rn IS (or,#i1S reuon. iliat.we fuldlh the rnodern period an.extr,lordipazy. d l v e r g e ~ c c .hetween. the. theories of. economic;.Q;perts and .the practice of those responsible for the economic

' p ~ l ! c i e s .p! their rpectlve-countrle .Analy.is will shew that. W ~ . : ~ v e r g e n c c ' 8 p r j n g . froms. simple fact . 'Theveconcmle; e x p . ~ , , , d Q ~ i : ' ~ t e d in the main by laus-/a.'r. doctrine, con, ~ ! ~ . r s , .the, ~ y p o t h e t ! c a l eco.nomio. interest of . the world .'as a I. \ V : h o ~ e . and ,11 c o n ~ e n t . ~ o . a ! l . \ l m e that .this ia .Identlcal with the!~ 4 t ~ e . s t o f . e ~ . c l d n d i v i d u a l couPU'Y. . 'r.he-politician' p ~ r a u e . s thec9"cr.t. i q t . ~ e . t of,his.counlr)'l.and ~ s s u m o s (if h. makes any'asaumptloq a t ~ U ) that.lhe,llller.st of the world as .. whole is, i d ~ t l c ..I-,,wit\1 it .",Jif.arly .yery pronouncement of ,.v.ry interJJatlonal c'conomicSffitete'iC$ IlCld betWeen the tWo wOrld wars, i iated hill Bsaum tian. that there w.oIQp1C ." soludon",. 1 " J, . ' h h .' d' -.----.' R ~ ~ an I. ,wl,if ,..,Y,aJu lClOUL-a ancmg:..9.p l ~ . t ~ ! ~ t s , w ~ l dbl!equally favourable to.flll and'prejudicial to none.

...... : : . _ ~ , . '. 1., . l ; . , .' . ' '. " '. ,- ~ - - - : - . " .. . , A n Y ' ; , ~ ~ ~ c t l y n a h o i l ~ l i s ~ c . p.olic)' , [ d . c h i r , ~ d t1ie:'L.agu.C ~ n f . r . n c ~ , of. . ~ c o n o ' : ' l l c ' exp.!U. 1927] IS .'hartJ.lful 'noto_nly'. to the' natlcn whleh practises It but also to the othersa'nd theteCorc'defeata its"own.endv artd lCit be desired thatthe "n." siat. '-of mind' 'revealed by 'the COnferenee shouldlead rapidly topracticalreiultS. any programme oC executionmust i n d u d ~ ; as '..n ~ s . i l t l a l f..ctor, the prlnclple 'ofpara/III.or i ( ) , , & e r ~ e J -actlon by the ~ i f f c r e n t nallone, Everycountry.will then know that 'the coriceselonalt is . ..ked to make willbe,balanced'by corresponding sacrific.s. on the .part. of. the;other'C\>untries. It "will, b...bl.to accept the proposedmeasures..not merely in view of its own individual position,:out also o',aus. it is i"terest.d i" the succus of lh . gm.ro/.pla" laid.dow" by the. Co"/.rm,,,' . , ."...,;.'.,.;\'...,:.') ~ . : . . ': ~ , t . . . t::" .::1" . ' . . ,; .'. '. .; .' ...!h. ,'.,\'!e!. ~ { t h 7 f ? n ( W h ~ . \ , . ,;,: tll: : o : , ~ . ~ .t. "cglpct of all. 'r ommendB;tion, unaQi 0 __ mA__ Ad if we are.:: .'. o P t e i j ~ ; ~ _ ~ . c f c P t 1 ~ J ~ c j ~ ~ - eJrp'anation t .a. .fitati:srnen , . . , ~ ..... . l ._.... we ma.y.. be I a} ' It,eems. ~ l ..~ o g e t q ~ r ~ s fa. S ~ P : p ' ~ s \ i , . i h a t ~ ~ , ! ~ ~ m i ~ n ~ t i o n a l i s . : n )5 necessarily detrimental to'states which practise it" In the nineteenth

.. century, Gennany and the United .Sta.tes, by pursuhrg. a.. : ~ .. , " : --, ,..,." N t l l j ~ i u IC.E.I:44. p. 21 (Il&UCI in orlainal).. :.1"

T/u Htirflatio,!al Criiis I .,... ~ . .

" I n I 6 ; n ; , ~ " o t i a l ' E i , ; n d ; ; u & Kat-motiy. ;. ' .10.. .- ..' ~ ' I . \ ~ .... In economic relations, the I assumption DC a. genual harmonyof b i t e r ~ t 9 'Was made.with "even' greater confidence i . for here'weh..v. . . dlrect rellex1on.oC.tli. cardinal doctrine'of ! a i s ~ " - / f l o " r "economica, and if: is. :here, that we:'can sec, most:clearly thedllemm.. ;which results.from tlie -doctrine, Whenth. nine:;teen!b..c c n h l ~ llhctAlIPRWtthc.grcRtcst g n ~ o J . of the grj:ateiinll.!"b.r, h. tacitly. ~ ~ t h . g o Q d 'pC the mlnority 'E!Jiht'h a v ~ to b e . ~ s a c r i f i ~ e d t o i " i V : ~ T ~ . i ! ! ~ i D ~ i p l e ' ~ p p l i ~ d 'eguaIll'to International economic reIabons..-. If.!,Russla:orl Italy. for:example,.werenot. s t r o n ~ n o u g h to.buMU Industries wiffiOu,..lh . protection OCiOriits,. en thela"'",- a.r. ioer .wou .h.ve : i r ~ ~ a ' - ' - ! J f i ; Y sbou!dUC-coptiiiit"tO:impjia Briljshaii'dGerman ~ a n . ~ r l ! : c t ~ r e . s a n d ~ I y ~ 1 ~ l ! ' ! . ( : ~ n ~ ~ , ~ ~ n g e s ~ the'.!lr.iU,hwliGcaiUtnJDJll:kclsiJ.anygn.had ther.upon 0 jeci;;i\',lh..t thl ~ o l i C Y would condemn'.Russii;anif:Jtaly.-to -r.main'sccond.r;;at ,:Oww"iCiiiiQjiif'riDx and' militarily.. dependent onth.ir n. i h u r B ~ t e ' l a j u e . ~ ajr."lib.ral woil1d have ,liii(f'to';"answ.or th..t this 'Was -the will" 0 rovldence-andth..tthls w..swhat ifi;e-encral haWQnv ofintsfcsts d e m a n d e d ~ : - The.modern!utopian int.rn..tlonalist enjoy.'ndn."oC th., ..avantages;"':amI,I i ~ . n ? r i t ; . , ~ L i l i ! L ~ o u ' 1 l i y " e 5 . ~ ; . ~ tlie. " n : 1 i ~ ! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ~ b . i u 1 t i ~ ~ e r a . . C :Tbe m..tenal B U C C " ~ 'Qf th e w.aker" ' l'ow.rS"m b . llig up.protected industries, "',w.Uas the n.w,spirit,of intcm..tion..lism, :pr.dud. him frolb. arguing. th..t the harmony'o(interestsdepends On 'the sacrifice' or;economicaUy unfit'nations.: YetIthe abandonment ",fthis premiss destroys the:whole,baai' ot-the , d o ~ t r i , J l . \v4ich,.h.. .has inherlted ,;'; ,an\l)"!e is , d t i : c ~ n to the,belief that the :co!"mon good can b. '..chi.ved :without anys..crific. 'Qf the good of ..ny individual'm.mber ofthi!: 'comm.lJriity. ".E;ve,y i n t e r n ~ l h ; . i l a l c ~ n l I ! i : t , i ~ : ~ ~ . f o r e ' : u ? ...~ ~ ~ s ~ a i j :and;musory.. It,is.only n ~ c " s ! " Y t Q ' d i ~ c o v e r thC!'common,good;which is..t the .ame time.thehigh.stgood of all \ l J ~ : < 1 i s p u t a n t S I'and:only "lh. folly.of stat m c n " ~ t .. , . d s " ' i n " t h . " l ' l a ~ : o f ' l t S " d i s - ,coyery.,:' } ; ~ e u t o p i ~ U , . ~ i ~ . t : u . r ~ ..~ ~ ~ " ~ i 5 ; ~ . ~ P . ~ . ~ ~ ~ t ' ~ t i ~ ~ ( ~ . l o ( , : ~ ~ i ' ~ ;common good, arrogat to,hlm.c1f,tli.monQpoly'6f. wl.sdoin;iT . h ~ . statesme' . . . . . a ~ d ; ' ~ J F " . '. .'. r l ~ r < : t e d ' r:1 i r i ~ d i b e blindness l t \the 'intcre5t"'of'tliosc(:whom' I ~ c ~ " ' a r c! u p p ' o s c i i 1 D r e P i : C ~ ' ,Sila-1VRR the'UICtu[e at' b i e 1 t ; t t ~ a ; ~ i H lscene p r e s ~ n t e d , in all s e r i o u ~ n : ~ ~ ~ _ ~

S4


20/39

.Tilt [nternaiional' Crisisn strictly nationalistic policy" t had placed themselves in ' aposition to challenge Great Britain's virtual monopoly of worldtrade. No conference of economic experts, meeting in J8Bo,could have evolved a fl general plan" for"'parallel or concerted-actlon " which would h a v ~ allayed the 'ecohomic rivalri es,ofthe t i m ~ . i n a manner. equally' advantageous. to Great 'Brlteln,Germany amI the United States. It was not Ies, presumptuousto suppose that a c o n f e r e n c e t n e e t i n g i n I ~".7.' could allaythe eccncrnle rivalries of the later "period by'\. " plann bene..ficial' to the interests of everyone. Even the econornlc crlsls.of 193-33 failed to b ring home to the economists the truenature of the p robl em which they had to face. The expertswho prepared the" Draft Annotated Agenda" for the WorldEconomic Conference of I933tondemned the II world . wideadoption of ideals of national self-sufficiency which cut unmistakably athwart the lines of economic development ".1 Theydid not-apparently pause to .refiect that those so-called "Huesof economic development ",which mighlbebeneficial to some Jcountries and .even to th e world as a whole,woul? inevitablybe detrimental to other:countries, which.were using weaponsof economic nationalisminscU-deence.TheVan Zeelandreport of January 1938 began by asking, and an.wering in the.affirmative, 'the question ,whether." themethods which, takenas a whole,-form the system of international trade i, are 'f fundamentally preferable n to It autarkic tendencies ". Yet everyPower-at some period of its history, and as a rule for prolongedp c r i o d ~ , ~ has resorted to " autarkic tendencies ". It is difficultto believe that there is any absolute sense in which II autarkictendencies "are alwa.ys detrimental to those who pursue them.Even if,: they could be justi fied only as the l. .ser of two evils,the'lnltial premise of the Van Zeeland report was' invalidated.

'. But there was .worse to come. tl We must .. ,make ou rdlepcaitlons ", continued .M. Van Zeeland; "in sucha. waythat the new system shall offer to all participators'advantagesgreater! than those of the position' in-which they' now finothemselves," J '!hh,is e,conomicUl?planism in its most .purblind' form. The repor t; ' l ike the repor ts of 1927 and 1933.assumed the existence of a fundamentalprinciple of economic, ', r . . ~ , , / N4"t.nU1 C48,.M.18,1933. li, p, 6.

' R l p - ~ r l , _ lA, P6u;MI,'Jy_ 6/ OjlfU;,i"T GnttraJR,alltlitm "I fAIOIt"/11 I, J'U'#,.,,41l#lfJ Tru,. ClIId, 5648.

Tiu Harmony of interests! policy whose application would be equally beneficial to all state'Iand detrimental to none; and-for thi s reason i t remained l ike,its predecessors,a dcadletter., ,_ . '. , conomictheouoppoJcd tc econornle ractice, was sow d o m . J P . ~ lOt eo ryoe . ceo t e two wor warse.suppoaed harrnenycf intenStS that it is difficult to f i i i d ~e mal l em erna lona IIftuSllonlll 0 no;;.:::J; clear exposllOn 0 ,rea fa lemw 1 ba he statesmen

. 1 0 e wor .. . er aps. e . ran est. statement was one "made, b t? e l 'ugo.lav Foreign Miljisler ilt the .e"ion of the Com.ffilsslon for-European Vnion iDlJanuuy 1931. ArthurHender-.son, on behal f of Gte"t Brit ain, following the Nethe rla 'nddelegateDr..Colljn, hod pleaded for an all-round tariff reduc,lion II whichmust. bJr its nature,bring benefit to each and allby allowing that expansion of production and-Internationalexchange or wealth by wbteb the common prosperity of allcan be increased ".I'Marillkovitch,whospoke next. concludedfrom the Iallure tc carry out thcrecom'mendations o f the 19 27Conrerencc,that Ilthe,r:e were extremely Important reasonswhy the govenunents could not apply" these r. .olution... Hewent on : .

The f"ct is that apart from economic considerations thereare also political and social conside:rations-. The old" things.will-right..thcOlsclvcs "sChooloCcconomists >arguedthat ifnothing were done and events were allowed tofollow'theirnatural coursc.fromancconomic point oC.view, economicequllibriumwould come about of it . own accord. That isprobably true (Ida not propose to dleeuee the point ): Buthow would that equilibrium come about 1 At the expenseof theweakest. Now, asyouareaware,formere than I ~ v e n t yj-eers.there has been a powerful and growing reaction againstthis theory of economics. All the socialist parties of Europeand the world are merely the expression of the oppositionto this way of looking at ecenomle problems.Wc'\Vcretold$at ,",cought tolowercuatoms barriersand. even abolish .them. A:5 for a. the agricultural .tatesof, Europe are concernedriftheycould keep the promisesthey made in 1927- admit ti ng that the statements of 1927did containproml.. . - and could corry that policy right

through, ' !"emIght perhaps .find ourselves able to. h ~ l ? ~ ~ LttpJ 4 N4Iilm: C . l ~ . M-4S. 1931. nJ,p.31l1.

S7


21/39

-..JoTiu Jni4r1totionol Crisis

own against.oveti... comp.tiUpn' in the .matter of agri~ u l t u r a l . products, .But. atthe same time we should have toCtC:ltc in Poland, ::Roum;ptia and - " { u g o s ~ a v i a ...the same. ~ o ..d it lons as exist . in Canada and the Arg.ntine, where vastterritcries ere inhabited.'bya scantypopulation and where' machinery and 'other d . v i ~ e s , a r . employed ;W . 'could notsacrlfic. ourp.opl. 'by shooting..them, bu t t ~ . y . wouldnevertheless b . ~ m e d . o t r b y , . f a m i n . - w h i c h . w o u l d . c o m . to .the sam. tMng. ". c. ,, ' "" ' . ,,' .I am sJ re that' t 4 key"to which M; Colijn h a r.f.rreddoes not e J C i s t ~ E c o n o ~ i c a n d " s ~ d a l : l i r c i l too.complicated''to allow DC a soIution;,by any onc,Jonnula f it callsfor 'cern..plicat.d'solution.. ,Wee. shall. havetotake into account themany varieties DC. 'geographic"al, political, social and etherconditions which exiat.1 '. .. ,

Marinkovltch went _(m' to 'dlspose of the' theory of the " long...run ~ J harmony 'of i n t ~ ~ t s : ~ .. '

La;t year, - ; ~ c ~ ( ~ a ! I inthe Y ~ g o s l a V ; " n i ~ u ~ t a i n , , - I heard.that.l.he i n h a ~ i t a ~ t 5 . ~ " o f t ! - small m 9 u n t a i n _ v m ~ g . e i , .. J : a ~ v i n : g . - n omaize or w . ~ e a t " o n : v . : h i c h t ~ , : l i v . e ~ : Y l e r e , i 4 n p l y : c u t t i n g . d ~ w na'wood which belonged to them''';:::. and,were.livi.ng en.what'they earned by lIing.the wood. .. . , .I :wentti) the'village,collected togetll.r '0"" of the.I.ading Inhabitants and en- deavoured to ' reason' with them. just l ike the great induetrial s'tates reason w,ith: ~ s . , :I . 5 a i d : . t ~ , ~ ~ h c n : : ' : "If . : Y ~ U ) l p o s s c s splenty of commonsense.''You e that your for ti . becoming. smaller and .smaller.. Wh.at will.you.de.when.Y9u:"!'I downthe last t!ee 7'' ' 'Th.y repltedtorne. : ~ , ~ : Your ,E"".U\",cy.that is a \ ,o in t which worri .. . u.,:. J : > u ~ o n . J h e . ~ t ! " O \ " .. h ~ n d .what should w. do 'now if we s topped cut ti ng .down ourtrees ? n . . . " "I; '. l c a assure y ~ that: the' agncutturaJ c ~ j t " t r i ~ ; . are..inl ~ a . t l V - t h c " m e 8 d . u ; : ~ J ( m .......You ~ h r e ~ t e n them ~ t 'fu'niri;'dJs.. t . U . ~ :bul i J i e Y 7 : ' . : a 1 r . a d y : i n ~ 01 d,saster.'" ,

I . , : , ' , '. ".',' . _

On . further example of u n w o n t , ' ~ ' f n . . n k n ~ s m a l ' ~ 1 < c . quoted.Sp.aking in September .1931'Oveh"ie"oHh.:,Umted States"'broadca.ting .y.tem., th';;Prident of the Colombian'R.publicsaid :. . , , ~ . W , t

. In no field of human activity are the benC'fits __ o r ' t h e . c r i ~ i sas' clear as inthe 'telationships.between natiom ana especiallyI LA.pl 1/ NtI,,-,,,.r: C. I.... M,4Sf 19)1, vii. p. Jt , II' n'-d. p. 3i.Sa

Th Harmony of l"terestsof the American nat ions, I f it ill true that the economic-relatlone have become rigorous and at times har sh , it is alsotrue that they have fortunately becqme more democratic.. T ~ crisis freed many countries which had up to thenpn ~ u b 9 r d i n a t e d to the, doubl e men ta l .and financial Im.perialj,sm of the nat lona which control led internationalmarkets and policieS. Many n a t i ~ m B learned to trust lessInlernational-cordiality and to see,kanautonomous life, funor initial obstacles but whicJ;rneyerthetcss created strong.IDteresu,wlthin Il short time, . . .

When the arbitrary 5Y,st.m. that prevail to-day begin to;be re laxed, t he re will be .. .w.aker International trade but~ e t : e will a.!.so bel L ' l ~ r g ~ r humber oC n a t i ~ n s . economically51I'ong. . , '.. Economic co-operation'to:day is very different and morenoble thing than 'the old' co-operat ion which was based onthe convenience of Industrlalcountries' and of bankers whotutored the wor ld . . The certainty acquired by many smallnations that they can subsist.and prosper without subordlnating their conduct and their a c t i v i t i e ~ to foreign' interests hasbegun to int roduce a greater frankness and equ'al1ty in therelations between modem nationa ' I ' ,, It Is t rue that the cri,is has shipwrecked many high and".noble principles. of our civilisation; but it is also t rue thatin this return to a kind of primitive,struggle for existence.peoples are being Ireed of many fiction. and of much hypo,crisy. which they had accepted in the. belief that with themthey were insuring their well-being. , ' " The foundatlcn or lnternatlonal economic freedom lies in'.. the recognlttonfhat when strong n a t i ~ n s place, themselves. on the defensive, they act just l ike the weak ones do, and" that all of . them have an equal right to defend themlves

,,< .witlt their ownrescurees.!: Tb. ' e l a i m ~ mad. on b .ha l f o f 'the' Colombian' Republicwere perhaps cxagg.rated. ' But both the Yugo,lav and' theColomblan statements were powerful challenges. to the.doctrineof. the .harrnony or .Intereata; ') 1 j. (aUaey to' a ~ ? ~ ~ t h ~ . t . .. becausc.Gx:ea.t Britain and t lie United 5tatca have an interest inth.c..rep?-ov,l o ~ A r : r . ! I 1 I , this is a l s ~ , ~ n - i n t e r e s i : ~ f ..Y,!J_go.s.!iriJuuui.Colom.bi!:: Internaflonal iiiif. m ~ 6. 'weaker. Th . Addre.. 'broadeatt by th" C ~ l u m b l . . Broadeuthili! Sylleru., U.S.A:, OD

Srpterubu 19, 1937. and pubU.hed 10Ttl/Mr,Odober 1937S9


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60

Th Harmony of Interestsfor the current ..n f: the a a . r ~ t harmony to the tra..!!,Sparen!'tlash" elfinterests mayp' aced a out t of centu.A : ' J ~ i ' o p r i a t e l y enough; it found Its first OX ression ih colon aIp . ~ t : I e 5 . > n. c. flUS .m l nd,l t wasprim y assocrateo , Ithe'(ents in.South AIrica. M Churchill dates the beginning of~ ~ : ! h " e , v i o l e n t . times "'{rom the Jameson. Raid." In Nor th

) i i , ~ ; " and"the Far Eas t, there was a has ty scramble by the' ~ : E J # ' ~ p ~ e a n Powers to secure', the Je.w eligible sites which were. !!tlyatant. Emigration ofindividuals from Europe, the pointHr."prlncipal.tension, to. America . .sumed unparalleled dlmeniions . . In Europeitse1f,anti..Semit ism- the re-current symptomtit economic stress-s--reappeared afier along interval in Russia,.C;ermally and Frallee. In . Great' Britain; agitation. againstuarestrlctedallen immigration began inthct890', ; and the&st.iet controlling immigration WRI passed in 1 9 0 5 ~

. ":,, The first world war which gtens on, R a v a t e l t tenfold b intcnsif in itl fundamental....iiii.... Inbelllgerent and neutral coun eo in Europe, s.a';n:d"'Ainerlta; industrial . andagrleultur.:t production were~ v e r n v h e r e artificiallystimuiated. Arter thewar every countryItruggled tomain\ain its expanded product ion; and an en.haneed. and Inflamed. national.conscioulnesawu invoked toJUltify 'the sb\lggle.:One reason for the unprecedented v i ~ -dietiveness 'of the eaee t reat ies ' . , Ife ~ o n o m l c .c :;lUses, ... ' W ~ ~ ~ M _ a c t i c a 1 . men DO lqDgei:believed',_.!!. !Ii_ev h a < ! . l ! ' ! ! ! ~ i!f!y"oJ . a . h u n d t c d . ~ ! ! ! ! i l : l ' _ - i n an,underlying b!!:IE.0nr of . ! ~ t ~ ~ ! ! , b ~ ~ W ! v . i ~ l o r s a n d d e ~ e a t C i l .~ ~ l I S t w ..l Q . . ~ c l i i m n a t e &competltor, a reVival ofw h o s ~ p r o s p e r l t y m j g h t menace y o u r o w n . ~ . l n :urope, the"ilfUggle waiintenolfied by the creation or new stat....and neweconomic frontiers. In Asia,Indlaand China built :up large..Bealemanufactures . t o ~ a k e themselves Independent Qf imports

, WhutonCburthlll;W"./Jc-a p. d. I The rue ~ n d i t i o l l ' tm:ouraced the p'lrlh of Zlonhm;' (Ot Zi+ll.rn, uthe 'Palutine Royal CommlaloD. of 1937 remarked.. . on III lI ep t in tide it aereed or dCllpen Cmd .H79. p, Ill. .'6i


23/39

Th6 In lrnationa] Crisisfrom Europe. Japanbecame. a , ! e ~ p o r l ' ; ' . ~ ~ " " t i i .. and othercheap. goods which. undereu.t J . ~ ~ r ~ p . e a n mllpufactures' on theworld' market" M 0 5 t ' i m p o r t a n t , o . f : ~ ~ a . 1 1 : } h ~ ~ .were-no 'moreopen apac. . anYW!fere awaiting cheap. a n f p . r o l i t ~ b l e d . v e l o p . ment and exploitation. 'The ampleavenu. .,ofmIgration 'whichhad relieved the economic p r ~ s ~ ~ ~ ' ( ~ ~ ~ ! J : t e ' p . r . e..w a r p e r l o d w ~ eclosed ;: and in place of the natural . flow::'ofmjgrationcam. theproblem .o f fdrcibly 'evicted refug. . . .r. :The'q,qipl.x -phenornenon knowd as eccnomlc ,nationalJsm s ~ e p t " over.::".t1;le .:W,orld!The fundamental .character." o ( . ' t ~ ! $ "dash. oC..interests:. becam;'obvloua-to all, except those conlirmed'-utoph,ris who domlnatedeconomlc rthoughf In the- Englilh.speaJilng:countri... Thehollowness of the glib..nlneteentli-centuiy.plafltude that nobodycan benefit from.what hanns:',anothcr w a 5 r e v e a l e d ~ Thebaslep r e s u p p o s i t i o l ) o ~ utopianism h a d b r o k ~ ' ! ' d o w n , ' " ,.' : ':::"1 i.What confronts us in intemational'polltics:io-dliy!s, there.fore, nothing' less.than t1ie",com l.te,bankrU t , .o l ".01.' 'con.ccption 0 mora I l tW c' u : om a :P ;C?J i . ',_ . J ; ; c o ~ o n u ethou.ght for a'cen!,"!Y! W ! ! \ " : ! J ! ~ : . : : - ! n t a ! l o ~ a ! ! ' 1 i l ! i i Up ! Q n g ~ ,po.s,ble to deduee 'virtue :.from ,niffit. reaJIoJilng; .because: It 'i i'!'! longer .erlOiiSlY p o s . i 6 I e ~ f o ' ! l c 1 l C v j ; ~ ~ a v e r . y I Itate,' bYpunt,iing t . h e : g r ! , ~ , - ~ o a ' ofTh. ' t h 7 > l ~ , ! ~ r ! ~ ; J ~ _ ' p . m : i J i i i I - : ~ h ew e ! t ~ ~ t !!Qod o L ~ _ ' o , ! n ~ ! ! Z e n ~ , . a n d vitr,w.r. . : ; J ' ; 9 . W ~ : s f i .of morality and r e a B o n / a t ~ a n ra t n the'au . tTil"'m"w lchit was . ' .. C r d l t h : " c ~ n i U r y ~ 1 era 1 8 n i ~ ' ; ; - f i j . i i n t e n ; b l ; ' -e_inner' meaning: oLihe m o ~ C i 1 i . l n t e m 4 t i 0 n a 1 ":J:rlirir-i3...thc ...... collapse of the" w h o l . s l n i t t u r e : ~ r , u t o p i a i i i ' n i ; b i t 5 ~ d , " o n t h e '.concept .of the h a n n o n y . , o f ; i ~ t e r e ~ t ~ ; ; ; i T h r t p i ' g c r i t 'genera-danwill h ~ v S ~ ~ ~ ~ r l r::: ~ ! ~ ~ t r ; ~ ' ! i ' r y ; y ~ ~ ~ f Q ; S , . ~ ' cando thIS, b_Q ta _ _ c __ i. .3 .;:r; :salvEd;fl'


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Tlte International Crisuand not the wisdomof the princefrom good counsels ". Thirdly,olitics Brcnal as theuto ia 5 etendj e function of ethics,but et I en": are .kept honeat by const raint .Machiavel li reca i sed thew ortanceomora tr, ut aug t .__at ere could be no effective.mOT It) ' w ere ere Wa& ,.noeffective authority:, "Morality is the productoC power.!

The-extraordinaryvlgour.and vitality of ~ a c h i a v e m ' s c h ~ I . - - ' .Ienge t orthodoxy" ';;"y be Il.ttested by 'the fact that, more than(our centuries after he w ro te, the most conclcsire-wey- of .d i s c r e ~ i t i n g " a political opponent is still todescrlbe him as&.disciple of Machiavelli.- l1,!!,on wa. 9ne oL*.",fir.lf;J!l..prais!, him for "!fay ing openJ:g and without hYR2!=risy what men arein the habit of doing. not whet they ought to do.:':" Henceforthno pol it ical t hinker could ignor e him, In. Fr ance Bodin, inEngland. Hobbes. in the Nethe rl ands .Spino.a. professed tofind a;compromise between the new doctrine and the conceptionof a II law of nature"copaUtutinga.suprtmeethicalstandard.But aU three were in substance realists: andthe age or Newtpnfor the first time conceived the possibility of a physical scienceof politics.- The work of Bodin and Hobb.......rit.. Prof.. sor

H to se arate ethics from. oliilcsjand'to com lete.bytben:) ::;n, tbe divislon which M..chlav l' ad ecte

iIIII!IIIIIIIi!III

Th Realist Critiquehad contr ibuted more to the understanding of poli tics thanmen of theory II and, above all , theologians"; for fI they haveput t h e m s e l v ~ s t O t h e s c h Q o l ' ( J r ex.perience. anq have thereforetaught nolltingwhich does not bearupon ou r practical needs"'.'In .antlcipationof Hegel. Splno:z:a declarea jhat II every m:mdoes:wha.t h c d o e , a c ~ o r d i n g t o t h e laws of

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Edward H Carr - The Science of International Politics