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8/14/2019 Eea-Energy and Environment Report 2008
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Energy and environment report 2008
EEA Report No 6/2008
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Cover design: EEACover photo Pawel KazmierczykLeft photo StockxpertRight photo StockxpertLayout: EEA
European Environment AgencyKongens Nytorv 61050 Copenhagen K
DenmarkTel.: +45 33 36 71 00Fax: +45 33 36 71 99Web: eea.europa.euEnquiries: eea.europa.eu/enquiries
Legal noticeThe contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the European Commissionor other institutions of the European Communities. Neither the European Environment Agency nor anyperson or company acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use that may be made of theinformation contained in this report.
All rights reservedNo part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical,including photocopying, recording or by any information storage retrieval system, without the permissionin writing from the copyright holder. For translation or reproduction rights please contact EEA (addressinformation below).
Information about the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europaserver (www.europa.eu).
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008
ISBN 978-92-9167-980-5ISSN 1725-9177
DOI 10.2800/10548
EEA, Copenhagen, 2008
REG.NO.DK-000244
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Contents
Energy and environment report 2008
Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 5
Executive summary .................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 11
1 What is the impact of energy production and use on the environment? ............... 14
1.1 Greenhouse gas emissions ................................................................................17
1.2 Air pollution ....................................................................................................19
1.3 Other energy-related environmental pressures .....................................................26
1.4 Climate change impacts on energy production and consumption .............................29
1.5 Life cycle analysis (LCA) of energy systems .........................................................30
1.6 Scenarios .......................................................................................................34
2 What are the trends concerning the energy mix in Europe and whatare its related environmental consequences? ...................................................... 36
2.1 Energy security ...............................................................................................37
2.2 Has there been a switch in the energy fuel mix?...................................................41
2.3 Scenarios .......................................................................................................43
3 How rapidly are renewable technologies being implemented?.............................44
3.1 Renewable energy deployment ..........................................................................44
3.2 Scenarios .......................................................................................................50
4 Is the European energy production system becoming more efficient? .................51
4.1 Efficiency of energy production ..........................................................................51
5 Are environmental costs reflected adequately in the energy price? ..................... 58
5.1 Estimating external costs of energy production ...................................................58
5.2 The EU ETS .....................................................................................................59
5.3 Estimated external costs ...................................................................................60
5.4 Environmental taxes.........................................................................................625.5 End-use energy prices ......................................................................................63
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6 What are the energy consumption trends in households, and whatpolicies exist to improve energy efficiency? ........................................................ 67
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................67
6.2 Energy efficiency policy for household heating and cooling ....................................69
6.3 Household energy consumption and emissions .....................................................71
6.4 Good practice in policy design and evaluation ......................................................77
7 EU trends compared to other countries................................................................ 80
7.1 The context.....................................................................................................81
7.2 Trends ............................................................................................................82
7.3 Energy efficiency and renewable energy policies in USA and China .........................84
References ............................................................................................................... 85
Annex 1 Background to scenarios............................................................................. 90
Annex 2 Data issues on household energy use ......................................................... 92
Annex 3 List of EEA energy and environment indicators ........................................... 96
Annex 4 Description of main data sources ................................................................ 97
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Taking a long-term perspective, it is also importantto consider the potential impact of climate change onenergy production and consumption.
1. Climate change will alter energy demandpatterns. Electricity consumption in southernEurope and the Mediterranean region willincrease due to projected temperature increasesand the associated increasing demand for spacecooling. Energy demand for space heating innorthern Europe will decrease, but the net effectacross Europe is difficult to predict.
2. Climate change will affect power production.Due to projected changes in river runoff,hydropower production will increase innorthern Europe and decrease in the south.
Furthermore, across Europe, summer droughtsare projected to be more severe, limiting theavailability of cooling water and thus reducingthe efficiency of thermal power plants.
3. Both types of impacts may lead to changes inemissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gasesfrom energy, which are, however, difficult toestimate at present.
2 What are the trends concerningthe energy mix in Europe andwhat are its related environmental
consequences?
The concept of energy security in Europeencompasses a wide range of issues includingenergy efficiency, diversification of energy supply,increased transparency of energy demand andsupply offers, solidarity among the EU MemberStates, infrastructure and external relations.Together with the energy efficiency, the energyimport dependency aspect of security of supplyhas direct environmental consequences. Some ofthe links between the environment and the energy
import dependency are determined by the fuel mixused to deliver energy services, the level of demandfor those services and the speed with which theseservices have to be delivered. Reducing energyimport dependency can have positive or negativeeffects on the environment, both within the EUand outside its borders, depending on the energysources imported and the ones being replaced. InEurope, a higher penetration of renewable energysources in the energy mix, coupled with a switchfrom coal to gas, resulted in reduced energy-relatedGHG emissions and air pollution but also inincreased dependency on gas imports. However,these environmental benefits were partially offset byincreasing energy consumption and, more recently,by the tendency to increase the use of coal in
electricity generation due to concerns about securityof supply as well as concerns over high and volatileprices for imported fossil fuels.
1. The current energy system within the EU isheavily dependent on fossil fuels. The share offossil fuels in total energy consumption declinedonly slightly between 1990 and 2005: fromaround 83 % to 79 %.
2. Over 54 % of primary energy consumption in2005 was imported, and this dependence onimported fossil fuel has been rising steadily(from 51 % in 2000).
3. Dependence is increasing rapidly for naturalgas and coal. Natural gas imports accounted forsome 59 % of the total gas-based primary energy
consumption in 2005, while for hard-coal-basedprimary energy, imports accounted for 42 %. Oilimports accounted for as much as 87 % in 2005 up from 84 % in 2000 driven by substantialincreases in demand from the transport sector,reflecting a lack of real alternatives in this sectorand low EU oil reserves.
4. The largest single energy exporter to the EU isRussia, having supplied 18.1 % of the EU-27 totalprimary energy consumption in 2005 (up from13.3 % in 2000). Russia supplies 24 % of gas-based primary energy consumption, 28 % oil-based of the primary energy consumption and
is the second largest supplier of coal after SouthAfrica, with 10 % of coal-based primary energyconsumption in 2005
5. Between 1990 and 2005, the final electricityconsumption increased on average, by 1.7 %a year, whereas final energy consumptionincreased only by 0.6 % a year.
6. A change in the energy mix is taking place inEurope. Renewable energy has the highestannual growth rate in total primary energyconsumption, with an average of 3.4 % between1990 and 2005. Second comes natural gas, with
an annual average growth rate of 2.8 % overthe same period. The annual growth rate ofoil consumption slowed down, particularly inrecent years due to its partial replacement inpower generation by gas and coal.
7. The switch to gas due to environmentalconstraints (including concerns over climatechange) and a rapid increase in electricitydemand brought about some environmentalbenefits (reduction of CO
2emissions) but
increased dependency on gas imports. Naturalgas consumption increased, between 1990 and2005, by over 30 %.
Baseline (reference) scenarios from POLES, WEMand PRIMES models show a rising dependence
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on imports of fossil fuels. This is particularly truefor gas, with imports (as a percentage of gas-basedprimary energy consumption) rising from around59 % in 2005 to up to 84 % by 2030. Even in scenarios
built on the assumption of a more stringent policyfor energy and climate the import share of all fossilfuels still rises. In these scenarios, improvements inenergy efficiency and the penetration of renewablesoccur more rapidly but the positive effect is morethan offset by the decline in the EU's indigenousfossil production (and consequently, increasedimports of fossil fuels required to meet the growingenergy demand).
3 How rapidly are renewable
technologies being implemented?
Renewable energy technologies usually haveless environmental impacts than fossil fuel,although some concerns exist with respect to theenvironmental sustainability of particular types ofbiofuels. In recent years, they have accomplishedhigh rates of growth but further action is necessaryto achieve the proposed 2020 goals.
1. In 2005, renewable energy accounted, for 6.7 %of total primary energy consumption in theEU-27 compared to a share of 4.4 % in 1990.
Over the period, the share of renewable energyin final consumption has also increased from6.3 % in 1991 to 8.6 % in 2005.
2. Wind power remains dominant, representing75 % of the total installed renewable capacity in2006 (excluding electricity from large hydropowerplants and from biomass). The strongest growthtook place in Germany, Spain and Denmark which accounted for 74 % of all installed windcapacity in the EU-27 in that year. In the sameyear, Germany alone accounted for 89 % and 42 %of the installed solar photovoltaics and the solar
thermal systems, respectively.3. The share of renewables in the final energy
consumption varies significantly acrosscountries: from over 25 % in Sweden, Latvia andFinland to less than 2 % in the United Kingdom,Luxembourg and Malta. Newer Member Statesshowed the most rapid growth in shares, withincreases of over 10 percentage points in Estonia,Romania, Lithuania and Latvia.
4. From 1990 to 2005, electricity production fromrenewables increased in absolute terms (anaverage of 2.7 % annually), but a significantgrowth in electricity consumption partially offsetthe positive achievement limiting the RES sharein gross electricity consumption to only 14.0 %in 2005.
Baseline (reference) scenarios from POLES,WEM and PRIMES models show that the shareof renewables in primary energy consumption isexpected to increase, to a value between 10 % in
2020 and 18 % in 2030. In scenarios where morestringent policies to reduce GHG emissions,and promotion of RES and energy efficiency areassumed, higher shares of renewables in primaryenergy consumption are envisaged ranging from13 % in 2020 to over 24 % in 2030. The rising shareis also supported by more rapid improvementsin energy efficiency, which reduces the absolutelevel of energy consumption. The estimations varysignificantly depending on the model used and thespecific scenario chosen, since various scenariosmake different assumptions about costs for the
various technologies, the carbon prices and thespeed of improvements in energy efficiency.
Achieving the proposed new target for renewableenergy will require a substantial effort, to fill the gapbetween the current levels (8.5 % in the final energyconsumption in 2005) and the objective of 20 % ofrenewable energy in the final energy consumptionin 2020. To meet the proposed targets, 15 MemberStates will have to increase their national share ofrenewables in the final energy consumption by morethan 10 percentage points compared to 2005 levels.Substantially reducing final demand for energy will
help Europe achieve the target for renewables.
4 Is the European energy productionsystem becoming more efficient?
Increasing the European energy system's efficiencycan reduce environmental effects and dependenceon fossil fuels and can contribute to limit theincrease in energy costs. Whilst in recent years, theefficiency of energy production has increased, thepotential for further improvement is still significant,
for example, through a greater use of combinedheat and power and other energy-related efficienttechnologies that are already available or close tocommercialisation.
1. Between 1990 and 2005, the total energyintensity (total energy divided by GDP) in theEU-27 decreased by an estimated 1.3 % perannum. The energy intensity decreased threetimes faster in the new Member States.
2. Over the period of 19902005, the average levelof efficiency in the production of electricityand heat by conventional public thermal plantsimproved by around 4.2 percentage points,reaching 46.9 % (48.5 %, if district heating is alsoincluded) in 2005.
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3. Some 25 % of the primary energy is lost ingeneration, transport and distribution of energy.The largest share in the energy losses occurs ingeneration (around 3/4 of total losses), hence, the
urgent need to deploy available state-of-the-arttechnologies.
4. In 2005, the share of electricity generated fromcombined heat and power (CHP) plants, intotal gross electricity production in the EU-27,was 11.1 %. CHP can be a cost-effective optionto improve energy efficiency and reduce CO
2
emissions. It could be further enhanced inthe EU.
5 Are environmental costs reflected
adequately in the energy price?
Current energy prices vary significantly among theEU Member States due to differences in tax levelsand structures, subsidies for different forms ofenergy generation and different market structures.Including all relevant externalities to establish thetrue costs of energy use will help provide the correctprice signals for future investment decisions inenergy supply and demand. It is difficult to identifywithin current energy price structures the shareattributed to the adverse external impacts of energyproduction and consumption on public health and
the environment.
1. In 2007, the nominal end-user electricity pricefor households increased, on average, by17 % compared to 1995 levels. This was dueto a combination of factors including a certainlevel of internalisation of environmentalexternalities (via increased taxation and effectsof other environmental policies, such as theEU Emissions Trading Scheme), increasedenergy commodity prices (particularly coal andgas), and other market factors stemming from
the liberalisation process. Significant increases(around 50 %, compared to 1995 levels) occurredin Romania, the United Kingdom, Poland andIreland.
2. In 2007, nominal end-user gas prices forhouseholds increased, on average, by 75 %compared to 1995 levels, mainly because ofincreasing world commodity prices. Increasesabove the average level occurred in Romania,the United Kingdom, Latvia and Poland.
3. Overall, in 2005, the external costs of electricityproduction in the EU-27 were estimated to beabout 0.6 to 2 % of the GDP. The external costsdecreased, between 1990 and 2005, by 4.9 to14.5 eurocents/kWh and reached an averagevalue of 1.8 to 5.9 eurocents/kWh (depending
on whether high or low estimates for externalcosts are used) in 2005. Among factors thatcontributed to this downward trend are thereplacement of coal and oil with natural gas,
the increased efficiency of transformation andthe introduction of air pollution abatementtechnologies. Further efforts are needed todevelop methodologies to better quantify theseexternalities.
6 What is the role of the householdsector in addressing the needto reduce the final energyconsumption and what are theobserved trends?
End-use energy efficiency measures should beimplemented in the residential sector to ensure thatenergy services (i.e. heating, cooling, and lighting)remain affordable. At the same time, improvedenergy efficiency will also deliver environmentaland social benefits. Despite the significant potentialfor cost effective savings, energy consumption in thehousehold sector continues to rise.
1. In 2005, the residential sector in Europeaccounted for 26.6 % of the final energyconsumption. It is one of the sectors with the
highest potential for energy efficiency. Measuresto reduce the heating/cooling demand inbuildings represent a significant part of thispotential. In Ireland and Latvia, measures in theresidential sector account for over 77 % of theoverall national target under the Energy ServicesDirective, while in the United Kingdom, theproportion is just over 50 %. Cyprus estimatesthat the residential sector can deliver savingsof more than 240 ktoe, 1.3 times the nationaltarget set for 2016 (185 ktoe, representing 10 %of the final inland consumption calculated
in accordance with the requirements of thedirective).
2. Between 1990 and 2005, the absolute level offinal household energy consumption in theEU-27 rose by an average of 1.0 % a year.
3. Final household electricity consumptionincreased at a faster rate attaining an annualaverage of 2.1 %.
4. Final energy consumption of households per m2decreased annually by about 0.4 %.
5. Two key factors influence the overall householdenergy consumption: fewer people living inlarger homes and the increasing number ofelectrical appliances. Together, they contributeto a rise in the household consumption of 0.4 %a year.
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7 EU trends compared to othercountries
During the 13th Conference of Parties to the
UN Climate Convention, parties agreed that thereexists a need for a shared view on how to dealwith climate change in the long-term perspective.Alongside a shared view, there should also bea shared responsibility for action given bothhistoric and current trends in generating globalGHG (particularly CO
2) emissions. These trends
vary from country to country. In the EU and incountries such as China and USA, there is a growingrecognition that it is crucial to improve the energyefficiency and expand renewable energy not onlybecause of the current global context of rising energy
demand and energy prices, but also because theseare important measures to reduce CO2
emissions.Experience accumulated in the EU-27 showsthat the consistent implementation over time ofenvironmental and energy policies can be effectivebut much more has to be accomplished in the nearfuture to ensure the substantial reductions in thelevel of CO
2emissions that are necessary to avoid
irreversible effects of climate change.
1. Between 1990 and 2005, the EU-27 experiencedan average GDP growth rate of 2.1 %, whilereducing its energy-related CO
2emissions by
a total of about 3 %. During the same period,CO
2emissions increased by 20 % in USA and
doubled in China. Energy-related CO2
emissionsin Russia decreased by 30 % due to economicrestructuring.
2. From 1990 to 2005, the EU's per capita CO2
emissions decreased by 6.7 %, having becomeless than half of those in USA and about 25 %lower than per capita emissions in Russia. Percapita emissions in China are now 52 % belowthe EU level but they are growing fast due to thepace of economic development and the increase
in the use of coal for power production.3. Between 1990 and 2005, the CO
2emissions
intensity of the public electricity and heatproduction in the EU-27 decreased by 18.2 %while in many other parts of the world,including Russia, the opposite is true. A slightdecrease occurred in China and USA (0.8 % and2.5 %, respectively), partly because of changes inthe renewable production (less hydroelectricitydue to less rainfall) which offset improvementsresulting from the implementation, in recent
years and particularly after 2004, of energyefficiency policies.
4. Policies for energy efficiency and renewableenergy are being implemented in the EU-27,
USA and China, but the overall objectives ofthese policies may differ. For instance, in theEU-27 and USA, environmental protection isone of the key stated policy objectives, whileChina needs to find a balance between theenormous increase in its energy demand andthe subsequent environmental consequences(e.g. increased air pollution). Enhancingsecurity of energy supply is a drivereverywhere.
In all countries, efforts are being made (and are
expected to continue) to boost the renewable energy.Under the WEM (IEA) baseline scenario, by 2030,electricity produced in the EU-27 Member Statesfrom renewable energy could account for as muchas 18 % of the global total, followed by China with17 %, and the United States of America with ashare of 12 %. Under the WEM alternative scenario,electricity generated by China from renewables,could represent as much as 20 % of the global total,followed by the EU-27 with 16 %, and the UnitedStates of America with 11 %. The shares of the EU-27and USA in the global total appear to decrease,because in this scenario all countries are expected
to step up their efforts to increase the share ofrenewables in their energy mix.
Looking at the WEM baseline and alternativescenarios (concerning the possible evolution of theglobal total of CO
2emissions), it is clear that in the
EU-27, as well as in other countries such as Chinaand USA, it is still imperative to take measures todecrease the energy intensity of the economy andto deploy renewable energy faster. According tothe WEM baseline scenario, by 2030, China's shareof the total CO
2emissions in the global total could
be as high as 27 %, surpassing USA and the EU-27with a share of 16 % and 10 %, respectively. Evenconsidering a more stringent energy and climatepolicies, China's share in the global total CO
2
emissions remains significant (26 %), and so doesthat of USA (18 %), followed by the EU-27 (with10 %). Under the alternative scenario, all countriesare expected to reduce their total CO
2emissions,
which explains why the share of USA appears tobe higher and the EU-27 appears to remain at aconstant level.
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Introduction
Energy and environment report 2008
Introduction
The issues
The challenge for the 21st century is how to developsustainably and maintain the quality of life for agrowing population with higher expectations forwell-being. Underlying this challenge is the need
for sufficient and sustainable supplies of energy toprovide the economic activity underpinning theseexpectations.
According to the recent World Energy Outlook(IEA, 2007a), if governments around the worldcontinue with current policies, the world's energyneeds would be 55 % higher in 2030 than in 2005,with China and India accounting for much of thisrising demand. Some 84 % of the increase in primaryenergy demand will have to come from fossil fuels.Energy production and use, particularly of fossilfuels, have a number of environmental impacts
including air pollution, greenhouse gas emissionsand adverse impacts on ecosystems.
In the same IEA reference scenario, if no furtheraction is taken to reduce the energy demand,energy-related CO
2emissions will increase by 49 %
by 2030 compared to 2005 levels and all regionswill face higher energy prices in the medium- tolong-term. In addition, energy security risk willbe greater due to the increased EU dependence onfossil fuel imports from a small group of countrieswith high (existing) oil and gas reserves, notably
Middle Eastern members of OPEC and the RussianFederation.
By contrast, according to the latest report from theInternational Panel for Climate Change (IPCC, 2007),to avoid significant impacts of climate change, themaximum global average temperature rise mustnot exceed about 2 C (the EU target). To make thispossible, global CO
2emissions should peak before
the year 2015 and then decrease by 50 to 85 % by2050 (compared to the year 2000).
Emissions will have to be reduced across alleconomic sectors. The need to reduce CO
2emissions
emerged concurrently with the forecasts for arise in energy demand and prices and increased
energy security risks. All of this stimulated actionin Europe. The EU took a number of initiatives tourgently address its energy demands and aims tolead the global transition to a low-carbon economy.
Building on the EU's three principal goals for
energy policy (security of supply, competitivenessand environmental sustainability) on 10 January2007 the Commission proposed an integratedclimate change and energy package (EC, 2007a). On9 March 2007, the Council endorsed the packageand agreed on a target to reduce greenhouse gasemissions (GHG) by 20 % by 2020 (or 30 %, if otherdeveloped countries join a global post-2012 climatechange agreement). The package also includesmandatory targets to increase the EU contributionfrom renewable energy to 20 % of the total finalenergy consumption with a 10 % binding targetfor renewable energy in transport (provided this
target is achieved sustainably). It also introducesa target to increase energy efficiency by 20 %against a baseline/reference scenario with existingpolicies and measures with 2005 as a base year. On23 January 2008, the Commission proposed a seriesof legislative measures to implement the package(EC, 2008a).
Increased energy efficiency is key for achievingsimultaneously environmental and energy securityas well as competitiveness objectives. . In the climatechange and energy package, the Commission
published a first assessment of the National EnergyEfficiency Action Plans (NEEAPs) (EC, 2008b) wheresome positive trends were revealed. A numberof Member States have higher targets than thoserequired under the Energy Service Directive(EC, 2006f), whilst others introduced ambitioustargets for reducing CO
2emissions in the public
sector. However, while significant energy savingsare expected to come from existing measures, muchless emphasis is put on innovative solutions. Manycountries face significant challenges in addressingtransport and spatial planning adequately. Overall,there seems to be a considerable gap between thelevel of ambition and the actual commitmentsas reflected in current measures and resourcesallocated. One of the key areas with the highest
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12 Energy and environment report 2008
economic potential for reductions is the consumptionofenergy inbuildings as highlighted by the IPCCin its 2007 assessment (IPCC, 2007).
Enhancing renewable energy is another key factorfor reaching the dual goals of security of supplyand reduction in GHG and air pollution emissions.In addition, a more mature market for renewableenergy technologies is expected to bring about anumber of social and economic benefits, includingregional and local development opportunities, exportopportunities, social cohesion and employment. Theglobal market for eco-industries (including renewabletechnologies) is worth about EUR 600 billion a year,and the EU currently holds about one third of theworld market (European Commission, 2007). This
market is likely to grow substantially in the future.
Implemented separately, the three main targets(GHG emissions reduction, renewable energy andenergy efficiency) will not be sufficient for usheringin necessary changes and shifting the Europeanenergy system towards using cleaner and moresustainable energy technologies, whilst ensuringthat the energy supply is competitive and secure.However, if addressed simultaneously, RenewableEnergy Systems (RES) and GHG emissions reductionmeasures are likely to bring about significanttechnological changes. Energy efficiency is,
potentially, the most significant option to reduceEurope's dependency on energy imports. It will alsoplay a key role in helping the Member States to meettheir RES and GHG emissions targets and to maintainenergy services (i.e. heating, cooling and lighting) ataffordable levels.
Enhancing energy efficiency is often a verycost-effective policy, too. As a result of the triplechallenge we are facing today (climate change, energysecurity and rising energy prices), it is crucial to runa systematic assessment of the true cost of energy
supply, complete with external costs includingdamage to the environment and human health. Onthe energy supply side, investment decisions mustbe based upon the true cost of each energy option.On the demand side, energy policies should triggera change in the consumers' behaviour in order tominimise the costs imposed on the society as a whole.However, internalising environmental externalities for instance, via carbon taxes or the introduction of aCO
2price through the EU Emissions Trading Scheme
(EU ETS) in the cost of energy generation tendsto increase prices for the end-consumer. To ensurethat energy services remainaffordable, while at thesame time delivering environmental (e.g. reductionsin CO
2emissions) and social benefits (higher quality
of life), it is necessary to implementend-use energy
efficiency measures, to minimise the overall demandfor energy.
The scope and the objectives of the EER
This report assesses key drivers, environmentalpressures and some impacts from the productionand consumption of energy, taking into account themain objectives of European policy on energy andenvironment: security of supply, competitiveness andenvironmental sustainability.
The energy and climate (CARE) package proposedby the European Commission on energy and climatechange represents a milestone in the process of
integrating energy and environmental policy inEurope. Given the challenges ahead, it is important,for the purpose of the report, to show future scenariosfor energy production and consumption as differentenergy pathways may have different environmentalconsequences. For this purpose, scenarios consideredwere those described in POLES, WEM and PRIMESmodels. The structure of the EER follows the DriversPressures State Impact Responses (DPSIR) conceptualframework used to report on environmental issues,with each of the building blocks identified inFigure 0.1.
The report addresses six main questions.
Chapter 1: What is the impact of energy productionand use on the environment?
Chapter 2: What are the trends concerning theenergy mix in Europe and what are itsrelated environmental consequences?
Chapter 3: How rapidly are renewable technologiesbeing implemented?
Chapter 4: Is the European energy productionsystem becoming more efficient?
Chapter 5: Are environmental costs reflectedadequately in the energy price?
Chapter 6: What are the energy consumption trendsin households, and what policies exist toimprove energy efficiency?
Chapter 7: EU trends compared to other regions.
The EEA has a set of energy and environmentindicators and Core Set of Indicators (CSI indicators)which are used in this report to underpin the
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13Energy and environment report 2008
analysis. However, to strengthen the analysis,in particular with respect to renewable energy,energy efficiency, security of supply, and energyaffordability, some new indicators have been
developed and some old ones were improved.For example, there are new indicators to monitorthe share of renewable energy in final energyconsumption, energy import dependency, energyefficiency in transformation and energy efficiencydevelopments in the households sector.
A concluding chapter is included to describe trendsin the EU as compared to other countries.
Figure0.1 The DPSIR conceptual framework applied to energy and environment issues
(3) See http://reports.eea.europa.eu/index_table?sort=Thematically for further information.
Drivers
- Energy consumption by economic sectors- Heat and electricity production- The choice of fuel mix for energy production
(also determined by security of supply concerns)
Pressures
- GHG emissions- Air and water pollution- Land-use change- Waste and oil spills
State
- Air quality- Water quality- Land use- Biodiversity- Global temperature (and other changes
in the climate)
Impacts
- Human health- Potential loss of biodiversity- Increased competition for land- Wider economic and social costs
Responses
- Policies to reduce GHG emissions,including targets
- Policies to enhance renewables andenergy efficiency, including targets
- Policies to internalise externalenvironmental costs
However, a number of topics are not covered inthis report, since they are much more extensivelydiscussed and presented in several other EEAreports (3). These are as follows:
Transportandenvironment('TERM');
Greenhousegasemissiontrendsandprojections(analysisofprogresstowardstheKyototargets);
Biodiversityandwaterindicator-basedassessmentreport.
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What is the impact of energy production and use on the environment?
Energy and environment report 2008
1 What is the impact of energyproduction and use on the
environment?
Main messages
The production and consumption of energy placesa broad range of pressures on the environmentand on public health, some of which have beendecreasing. Key trends observed in Europe include:
1. Energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions remain dominant, accounting for80 % of the total emissions, with the largestemitting sector being electricity and heatproduction, followed by transport.
2. Between 1990 and 2005, energy-relatedGHG emissions in the EU-27 fell by 4.4 %but a significant part of this occurred in thebeginning of the 1990s due to structuralchanges taking place in the economies ofthe EU-12 Member States (4). The intensityof CO
2emissions from public conventional
thermal power plants in the EU-27 decreasedby 27 % due to efficiency improvements andthe replacement of coal with gas in the powersector.
3. Between 1990 and 2005, energy-relatedemissions of acidifying substances,tropospheric ozone precursors and particles inthe EU-27 decreased by 59 %, 45 % and 53 %,respectively, mainly due to the introduction ofabatement technologies in power plants andthe use of catalytic converters in road transport.Improvements in reducing air pollution
(e.g. SO2 and NOX) recently showed a tendencyto slow down due to the increased use of coalin power and heat generation.
4. The annual quantity of spent fuel from nuclearpower generation declined by 5 % over theperiod of 19902006 despite a 20 % increase inelectricity production. However, the high-levelwaste continues to accumulate, exceeding atotal of 30 000 tonnes of heavy metal in 2006.Currently, there are no commercially availablefacilities for permanent storage of this waste.
Other energy-related pressures include:
(a) Life-cycle GHG emissions from electricityproduction vary considerably between differentenergy sources. The electricity productionfrom coal and gas generates the highest level of
emissions estimated (in 2000) to be approximately1 000 CO2-eq./kWhel for coal and 500 CO
2-eq./
kWhel for gas, with far lower emissions forrenewable sources such as solar PV, windand small hydro (ranging from 38 CO
2-eq./
kWhel for solar thermal to 166 CO2-eq./kWhel for
wind). Estimated GHG emissions for electricityproduction from woody biomass can varyfrom 1 600 CO
2-eq./kWh to + 200 CO
2-eq./
kWh, depending on the type of feedstock, thecombustion technology used and whether or notit is being used in combined heat and power CHPproduction mode.
(b) Since the 1990s, despite increased production, oildischarges from installations have diminished.
(c) Since 1990, accidental spills from oil tankers havealso decreased significantly.
Baseline (reference) scenarios shown in POLES, WEMand PRIMES models indicate that, compared to 2005,primary energy consumption is likely to increase by1026 %, by 2030, with fossil fuels maintaining a highshare in all cases. If this proves to be the case, futureenvironmental pressures from energy production andconsumption are likely to increase. Only scenarios
involving more stringent policies for energy andclimate change show the possibility that the absoluteincrease in primary energy consumption will slowdown and actually start to decline between 2020and 2030, primarily due to greater improvementsin energy efficiency. In these scenarios, the positivetrend of declining environmental pressures associatedwith the consumption and the production of energywould continue due to significant reductions inprimary energy demand as well as higher penetrationrates for renewable energy. For instance, by 2030,
(4) Member States that joined the EU from 2004 onwards: Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia.
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CO2
emissions can be reduced by about 20 % to 30 %(compared to 2005).
In the long-term, it is also important to consider
the potential impact of climate change on energyproduction and consumption:
Climatechangewillalterenergydemandpatterns. Electricity consumption will increasein Southern Europe and the Mediterraneanregion due to projected temperature increasesand the associated increases in the demandfor space cooling. Energy demand for spaceheating will decrease in northern Europe,
but the net effect across Europe is difficult topredict.
Climatechangewillaffectpowerproduction.Dueto projected changes in river runoff, hydropower
production will increase in northern Europe anddecrease in the south. Furthermore, across Europesummer droughts are projected to be moresevere, limiting the availability of cooling waterand thus reducing the efficiency of thermal powerplants.
Bothtypesofimpactsmayleadtochangesinemissions of air pollutants and greenhousegases from energy which are, however, currentlydifficult to estimate.
Box 1.1 Abatement technologies
Air pollution
Abatement technologies can be used to reduce or eliminate airborne pollutants, such as particles, sulphur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, odours, and other pollutants
from flue or exhaust gases. SO2
emissions can be reduced through flue gas desulphurisation systems. 'Wet
scrubbers' are the most widespread method and can be up to 99 % effective. Electrostatic precipitators
can remove more than 99 % of particulates from the flue gas. Emissions of NOX
can be either abated or
controlled by primary measures or flue gas treatment technologies. The former include burner optimisation;
air staging; flue gas recirculation; and low NOX
burners. Primary measures for NOX
control are now
considered integral parts of a newly built power plant, and existing units retrofit them whenever they are
required to reduce their NOX
emissions. Other examples of NOX
abatement include catalytic converters for
use in vehicles. These technologies will be particularly important for Large Combustion Plants (> 50 MW)
given the formal implementation of the Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD) (EC, 2001c).
Improvements in road transport abatement will continue to be driven by the Euro standards (see EEA,
2008a for further information on transport and environment trends). For Light Duty Vehicles, new Euro 5/6
standards have already been agreed by the Council and the Parliament (EC, 2007b). The implementing
legislation is currently under preparation and Euro 5 will enter into force in September 2009. The main
effect is to reduce the emissions of PM from diesel cars from 25 mg/km to 5 mg/km. Euro 6 is scheduled to
enter into force in January 2014 and will reduce mainly the emissions of NOX
from diesel cars even further:
from 180 mg/km to 80 mg/km. Similar proposals and legislation are being developed for the next stage
of standards for heavy-duty vehicles: Euro 5 (due to enter into force in October 2008) and new Euro 6
proposals (EC, 2007c).
Carbon capture and storageAmong other options for reducing significantly CO
2emissions, in the power sector and energy-intensive
industries, carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) can be a promising solution. This technology is
best applied to large stationary sources such as power generation or oil refineries, which have large,
concentrated streams of CO2
emissions. CO2
can be captured at various stages of the combustion process
and then be transported to storage sites.
For a limited number of applications capture of CO2
is a commercially run industrial process, but to transfer
it to large-scale power plants and to reduce costs and associated energy losses, improvements have to
be made. In a pre-combustion capture process, CO2
is removed prior to combustion, leaving a hydrogen-
rich fuel stream. Post-combustion can be applied to existing power plants, but it is the option with the
largestimpact on the overall plant production efficiency. Capture of CO2
with oxy-fuel combustion is based
on the use of oxygen instead of air in combustion, thus producing a more pure CO2
stream for easier
storage. Depending on the power plant type and the capture process, it is possible to avoid some 80 % of
the CO2emissions compared to a plant without CCS. The negative factor is that large scale CCS technologies
require substantial amounts of energy and lead to efficiency losses in the process, ranging from 10 to 40 %
(IPCC, 2005), thus leading to potential increases in upstream environmental pressures.
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Box 1.1 Abatement technologies (cont.)
Storage of CO2in geological repositories, such as depleted oil or gas reservoirs, aquifers and coal beds, is
generally considered a safe option with manageable environmental impacts. Nevertheless, it is imperative to
introduce and maintain rigorous conditions on the selection, operation and closure of the geological storage siteand clear provisions on monitoring for and reporting of leakage.
Further developments in CCS are being pushed by both industry and policy initiatives. The EU Strategic
Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) (EC, 2006b) recognised the need to have CCS demonstration projects in
order to accelerate the learning curve about the real potential of these technologies. In January 2008, the EC
adopted a proposal for a Directive on the geological storage of carbon dioxide. This has been done to enable
environmentally safe CCS development by providing a legal framework to manage environmental and human
health risks, remove barriers in the existing environmental legislation and introduce provisions for ensuring
environmental integrity throughout the life-cycle of the plant (site selection up to post closure) (EC, 2008e).
The CO2captured and stored will be recognised as not emitted under the EU ETS, creating de facto an incentive
for operators to store their CO2emissions instead of venting them to the atmosphere. For this purpose, CCS
installations can be opted into Phase II (20082012) of the EU ETS, and will be explicitly included in Phase III
(20132020) of the scheme. In addition, a Communication on promotion of demonstration plants was issued.
By the end of 2008, the Commission is expected to publish its recommendations on financing CCS as part of a
wider communication on financing its proposed Strategic Energy Technology Plan (EC, 2007d).
There is, currently, a number of CCS projects operational worldwide. The longest running project is Sleipner in
Norway. It is part of an offshore platform in the middle of the North Sea. Since 1996 it has been sequestering,
1 Mt/year (Statoil, 2007). The Weyburn project in southeastern Saskatchewan, Canada, is currently the world's
largest carbon capture and storage project sequestering approximately 2 million tonnes a year (EnCana,
2008). The total global storage capacity for the main geological storage reservoirs was estimated by the IEA
Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (2008) and is summarized in the table below (based on injection costs of up
to USD 20 per tonne of CO2stored). The Commission's CCS Impact Assessment (EC, 2008i) provides storage
estimates per Member State. The calculations were conducted using data from Gestco, Castor and Geocapacity
projects and power generation capacity from the Primes model. The injection capacity was estimated at 0.5 Gt
of CO2up to 2030 (in the most favourable scenario for CCS uptake (5)). Annual energy-related CO
2emissions
in Europe in 2005 were approximately 4 Gt of CO2. Figures estimated in the CCS impact assessment are notdirectly comparable with global capacity estimated by the IEA in the table below.
A number of new pilot plants are being currently
developed around the world. In April 2008, the
TNO-CATO post-combustion pilot plant at the E.ON
coal-fired power plant was officially opened on the
Maasvlakte (TNO-CATO, 2008). This multi-purpose
test facility utilises the post-combustion capture.
The pilot plant diverts flue gases from the power
plant,after which a special amino solvent scrubs
90 % of the CO2
from the flue gases. It is then
regenerated again by heating and extracting the
pure CO2. This is the most advanced capture
technology today. It has the advantage of being easily adaptable to the large existing base of power
stations. In order to reduce the CO2
emissions from existing power plants, post-combustion capture is the
only viable multi-applicable solution. Other methods, such as pre-combustion capture, are only applicable
for new power plants and will, therefore, be only a part of the total solution. However, looking ahead, it is
not yet clear, which option(s) will prove to be more viable in the longer term. For example, Vattenfall are
focusing significant efforts on Oxyfuel technology (with a new 30 MW demonstration plant which opened in
September of 2008), whilst continuing to undertake work on large-scale post-combustion demonstration
projects (Vattenfall, 2008).
(5) The scenario referred to is Option 2, variant 2d, which assumes that from 2020 onwards, apart from enabling CCS under EU ETS, a
mandatory requirement to apply CCS is placed on new coal and gas-fired power plants and that existing plants are being retrofitted
between 2015 and 2020. At the moment, the climate change and energy package does not foresee that such a mandatory
requirement be introduced.
Storage option Total global
capacity Gt CO2
Depleted oil and gas fields 920
Deep saline aquifers 40010 000
Non-minable coal seams > 15
World energy-related CO2emissions in 2005 = 27 Gt CO
2
Source: IEA GHGR&D, 2008; IEA.
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1.1 Greenhouse gas emissions
In 2005, the total greenhouse gas emissions in theEU-27 was 5 177 Mt CO
2-equivalent comprising
82.5 % CO2; 8.1 % CH4; 8.0 % N2O, while theremaining 1.4 % corresponded to the fluorinatedgases. Energy-related emissions continue to be thedominant representing approximately 80 % of thetotal emissions (see Figure 1.1), with the largest
Figure 1.1 Structure of total greenhouse gasemissions by sector, EU27, 2005
Note: (i) Greenhouse gas emissions are those coveredby the Kyoto Protocol and include carbon dioxide(CO
2), methane (CH
4), nitrous oxide (N
2O) and
three fluorinated gases, hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphurhexafluoride (SF
6).
(ii) Greenhouse gas emissions have been calculatedin t CO
2-equivalent using the following global
warming potentials (GWP) as specified in the KyotoProtocol: 1 t CH
4= 21 t CO
2-equivalent; 1 t N
2O
= 310 t CO2-equivalent; 1 t SF
6= 23 900 t
CO2-equivalent. HFCs and PFCs have a wide range
of GWPs depending on the gas, and emissions arealready reported in t CO
2-equivalent.
(iii) Emissions from international marine and aviationbunkers are not included in national total emissionsbut are reported separately to the UNFCCC. Theyare, therefore, not included in the graph.
(iv) The energy production sector includes publicelectricity and heat production, refineries and themanufacture of solid fuels. Energy-related fugitiveemissions include releases of gases fromexploration, production, processing, transmission,storage and use of fuels. The vast majority ofenergy-related fugitive emissions are connectedwith activities of the energy production sector.Only a very small percentage of fugitive emissionsare connected with activities of the transportsector. All energy-related fugitive emissions have,therefore, been attributed to the energy productionsector.
(v) 'Services sector' also includes military andenergy-related emissions from agriculture.
Source: EEA, 2007a, as reported by countries to UNFCCC andunder the EU GHG Monitoring Mechanism Decision.
Total emissions = 5 177 Mt CO2-equivalent
Waste3 %
Services sector6 %
Industry13 %
Agriculture9 %
Electricity andheat production
27 %
Energy production
excl. electricity andheat production
5 %
Transport19 %
Households10 %
Industry(processes)
8 %
emitting sector being the production of electricityand heat, followed by transport (see also EEA,2007a for more detailed information on EU-27 GHGemissions).
Sectors showing the largest decreases in greenhousegas emissions are industry and non-energy related(e.g. industrial processes) (see Figure 1.2). However,over the same period emissions from transport in theEU-27 increased significantly due to a continuousincrease in road transport demand, thus offsettingmuch of the decrease in other sectors (see EEA,2008a for further information on transport and theenvironment in the EU).
Between 1990 and 2005, energy-related emissions fell
by 4.4 %. A decline in the use of coal and lignite andan increase in the use of the less carbon-intensivenatural gas also led to a significant reduction of CO
2
emissions per unit of electricity and heat generationin the public power production (see Figure 1.4). Asa result, during the period between 1990 and 2005,the specific greenhouse gas emissions per unit ofenergy consumption decreased in most Member
Figure 1.2 Trends in greenhouse gasemissions by sector between
19902005, EU27
0
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
5 000
6 000
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Mt CO2-equivalent
Non-energy related Services sector
Households Transport
Industry Energy production(incl. fugitive emissions)
Note: See Figure 1.1.
Source: EEA, 2007a, as reported by countries to UNFCCC andunder the EU GHG Monitoring Mechanism Decision.
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States. However, rapidly rising overall demand forelectricity offset some of these improvements. Since1999, GHG emissions started to rise again, withsome fluctuation over the period of 20042005.
The reduction in energy-related emissions was muchsmaller than that observed for non-energy-relatedemissions in agriculture, waste and other sectors.These sectors reduced their emissions substantially by 19.6 % across the EU-27 due to improvedwaste management, emission reductions inindustrial processes (as well as general restructuringleading away from heavy industry, particularly inthe EU-12) and agriculture. While greenhouse gasemissions from the energy production, servicesand industry sectors all decreased between the
years 1990 and 2005, emissions from transport inthe EU-27 rose by 26.0 % over the same period,offsetting some of the reductions from other sectors.
Energy-related emissions continue to dominateemissions per capita across all Member States(see Figure 1.3). Total emissions per capita inLuxembourg are almost double of what they are inEstonia and higher by a factor of six than in Latviaat the other end of the spectrum. The high levelof emissions per capita in Luxembourg is linkedto a high level of GDP in a country with the smallpopulation. However, it is caused, primarily, by the
high cross-border sales of transport fuels (due to the
Figure 1.3 CO2
emissions per capita by country (split by energy and nonenergy relatedemissions), 2005
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Luxembourg
Estonia
C
zech
Republic
Belgium
Ireland
Finland
Netherlands
Germ
any
Cyprus
Greece
Austria
Denm
ark
UnitedKingdom
Poland
SpainItaly
Slovenia
Malta
Slovakia
Bulgaria
France
Portugal
Hungary
Sweden
Romania
Lithuania
Latvia
EU-27
EU-15
EU-12
t CO2
per capita
Non-energy-related emissions Energy-related emissions
Source: EEA; Eurostat.
tax differential with neighbouring countries), withemissions allocated to the point of sale (IEA, 2000).
Average emissions in the EU-15 are around 17.5 %
higher than in the EU-12. A number of opposingtrends drive the evolution of per capita emissions:higher levels of wealth (which tend to increase theoverall levels of energy demand), higher levelsof energy efficiency, climatic differences anddifferences in the structure of the energy supplysystem.
The intensity of carbon dioxide emissions frompublic conventional thermal power plants in theEU-27 decreased by about 27 % during the periodfrom 1990 to 2005, due to improvements introduced
in all Member States. However, increased gasprices towards the end of the period led to a higherutilisation of existing coal plants in some EUMember States and, as a result, the CO
2emissions
intensity has changed relatively little since 2001.Romania, Latvia and Sweden achieved the largestreduction in the intensity of carbon dioxideemissions in the percentage terms in the EU-27,with an average annual decrease of 6.4 %, 5.5 % and5.2 %, respectively. These reductions were largelydue to a significant reduction in the use of heavyoil in Romania (which was partially replaced by gasand partially by coal), while in Latvia, a high level
of CO2 emissions reductions were achieved due to
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Figure 1.4 Emission intensity of carbon dioxide from public conventional thermal power
production
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
t CO2/toe
1990 2005
Lower than average % reduction Greater than average % reduction
Estonia
CzechRe
public
Belgium
Ireland
Finland
Netherlands
Germ
any
Cyprus
Greece
Austria
Denm
ark
UnitedKingdom
Poland
SpainItaly
Slovenia
Malta
Slovakia
Bulgaria
France
Portugal
Hungary
Sweden
Romania
Lithuania
Latvia
EU-27av
erag
e
Note: Emissions intensity is calculated as the amount of pollutant produced (in tonnes) from the public electricity and heatproduction divided by the output of electricity and heat (in toe) from these plants.
Source: EEA; Eurostat.
the increased use of gas for electricity productionat the expense of coal, lignite and oil. Sweden hadthe lowest CO
2emissions intensity in 2005, mainly
because of a negligible share of coal and lignite inpublic conventional thermal power production.
1.2 Air pollution
Energy production and consumption (6) contributesto approximately 55 % of the EU-27 emissionsof acidifying substances, 76 % of emissions oftropospheric ozone precursors and about 67 %of (primary) particles emissions (see Figure 1.5).Energy-related emissions in transport and energyproduction account for half of all emissions, with thetransport sector particularly dominant in relationto ozone precursors (due to NO
Xemissions). These
have been decreasing steadily since 1990, due to theintroduction of catalytic converters. Agriculture also
contributed with around 25 % of emissions fromacidifying substances due, in part, to the emissionsof ammonia.
Between 1990 and 2005, the energy-related emissionsof acidifying substances, tropospheric ozoneprecursors and particles decreased by 59 %, 45 %and 53 %, respectively (see Figure 1.6).
These emission reductions have been the resultof the increased application and effectiveness ofabatement technologies, improvements in efficiencyand fuel switching. For example, the introductionof flue gas desulphurisation technologies andthe use of low NO
X-burners in power generation
was encouraged by the Large CombustionPlant Directive (EC, 2001c) and the use of bestavailable technologies required by the IntegratedPollution Prevention and Control Directive(EC, 1996). In addition to the use of abatement
(6) The contribution of energy production and consumption includes the following sectors: transport, energy supply, industry (energy)
and other (energy-related).
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Figure 1.5 Emissions of air pollutants by
sector in 2005, EU27
Note: The graph above shows the emissions of ozoneprecursors (methane CH
4; carbon monoxide CO;
non-methane volatile organic compounds NMVOCs; andnitrogen oxides NO
X) each weighted by a factor prior to
aggregation to represent their respective troposphericozone formation potential (TOFP). The TOFP factors areas follows: NO
X1.22, NMVOC 1, CO 0.11 and CH
40.014
(de Leeuw, 2002). Results are expressed in NMVOCequivalents (kilotonnes kt). Data not available:for Iceland (emissions of CO, NMVOC, NO
Xwere not
reported) and Malta (CO). The figure also shows theemissions of acidifying pollutants (sulphur dioxide SO
2,
nitrogen oxides NOX
and ammonia NH3), each weighted
by an acid equivalency factor prior to aggregation torepresent their respective acidification potentials. Theacid equivalency factors are given by: w (SO
2) = 2/64
acid eq/g = 31.25 acid eq/kg, w (NOX) = 1/46 acid
eq/g = 21.74 acid eq/kg and w (NH3) = 1/17 acid eq/g
= 58.82 acid eq/kg. The graph shows the emissions
of primary PM10 particles (particulate matter with adiameter of 10 m or less, emitted directly into theatmosphere).
Source: EEA.
Ozone precursors (2005 total = 27 463 kt)
Other (energy-related)10.3 %
Industry (energy)9.2 %
Transport 41.7 %Energy supply
14.5 %
Waste1.8 %
Agriculture3.1 %
Other (non-energy)14.1 %
Industry (processes)5.2 %
Acidifying substances (2005 total = 893 kt)
Transport17 %
Energy supply25 % Waste
1 %
Agriculture25%
Primary particulate matter (PM10) (2005 total = 2 491 kt)
Waste3 %
Transport21 %
Industry (energy)10 %
Energy supply13 %
Other (energy-related)23 %
Industry (processes)16 %
Other (non-energy)3 %
Agriculture11 %
Other (non-energy)0 %
Industry (processes19 %
Other (energy-related)4 %
Industry (energy)9 %
Figure 1.6 Overall changes in
energyrelated emissions bymain group of air pollutants inthe EU27, 19902005
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Ozone precursors Acidifying substances Particles
%
Note: As per Figure 1.5. However, the change in particulatematter includes emissions of both primary andsecondary particulate-forming pollutants (the fractionof sulphur dioxide SO
2, nitrogen oxides NO
Xand
ammonia NH3
which, as a result of photo-chemicalreactions in the atmosphere, transform into particulatematter with a diameter of 10 m or less). Emissionsof the secondary particulate precursor species areweighted by a particle formation factor prior toaggregation: primary PM
10= 1, SO
2= 0.54,
NOX
= 0.88, and (NH3) = 0.64 (de Leeuw, 2002).
Source: EEA.
technologies,substantial emissions reductions havebeen made in the power production sector due toa combination of factors. These are: fuel switching(from coal and oil to natural gas) closure of oldinefficient coal plants and the overall improvementin generation technology, particularly via theuse of combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT) (seeEEA, 2008b for further information).
However, rapid reductions in the emissions
intensity from power generation seen in the 1990sslowed in recent years for some air pollutants (suchas SO
2and NO
Xemissions), due to the continuing
rise in the overall electricity consumption and arise in the use of coal for electricity generation from1999 onwards.
In the transport sector, the introduction of catalyticconverters contributed significantly to reduceemissions. This was complemented by the EUlegislative measures aimed at improving petrol anddiesel quality, such as reducing the sulphur contentof these fuels.
Despite reduced emissions of air pollutants, urbanair quality still often exceeds the limit values set
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for protection of public health, especially in thestreets and other urban hotspots (EEA, 2006). Eventhough the situation has improved, acidification,eutrophication and high ozone levels continue
to have adverse effects on many ecosystems. The'Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution' calls for furtherreductions in air pollutant emissions by 2020 toachieve long-term air quality targets (EC, 2005a).
It is expected that future emissions of most airpollutants in the EU-27 are likely to continueto fall (IIASA, 2007a), especially those from thetraditionally dominant source sectors (e.g. roadtransport and energy production). Thus, othersectors for which there is currently a less stringentlegislation are likely to become a significant
source of emissions in the future (e.g. emissionsof SO2
and NOX
from maritime activities). Tighteremission standards and policy measures are beingconsidered by the Commission to complementthose set by the International MaritimeOrganisation (IIASA, 2007b). Ceilings for total(i.e. energy- and non-energy related) emissions ofsulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia andnon-methane volatile organic compounds wereset for 2010 in the National Emissions CeilingsDirective (NECD; EC, 2001a). In addition, inApril of 2008, another directive was adopted onambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe.
This new document merges four other directivesand one Council decision into a single directive,
Figure 1.7 Change in the emissions
intensity (per toe) ofenergyrelated air pollutants inthe EU27, 19902005
Source: EEA; Eurostat.
58.9 %
41.5 %
60.4 %
49.3 %
72.8 %
134.5 %
52.5 %
46.8 %
100 50 0 50 100 150
CO
NOX
NMVOC
CH4
SO2
NH3
Primary PM
Secondary PM
%
which introduces standards for air quality in theEuropean Union in terms of fine particle PM
2.5
pollution.
The intensity of most energy-related air pollutantemissions (i.e. in kg of emissions per tonne ofoil-equivalent of energy consumed) declinedsignificantly over the period of 19902005. Inparticular, there was a significant drop in theintensity of carbon monoxide (CO), non-methanevolatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) and SO
2
emissions. A key factor contributing to the decreasein CO and NMVOC intensity was the introductionof catalytic converters in cars and the increasedpenetration of diesel cars into vehicle fleets. Thedecline in SO
2intensity occurred primarily in
the sphere of electricity generation due to theintroduction of abatement technologies and aswitch from high sulphur-containing fuels (suchas coal and heavy fuel oil) to natural gas, coupledwith the use of coal with a lower sulphur content.The increase in intensity of NH
3emissions is due,
partly, to the increasing use of SCR (selectivecatalytic reduction) in power generation used toreduce NO
Xemissions. SCR can utilise various
forms of ammonia as a reducing agent, but if thecatalyst temperatures are not in the optimal rangefor the reaction, or if too much ammonia is injectedinto the process, unreacted NH
3can be released
(known as ammonia slip).
The direct emissions (7) of CO2, SO
2and NO
Xfrom
electricity and heat generation depend on boththe amount of electricity and heat generated andthe emissions per unit produced. The fuel mix inpower generation influences the latter, as well asthe overall generation efficiency, and, in the caseof NO
Xand SO
2, the extent to which abatement
techniques need to be applied.
If the structure of electricity and heat production
had remained unchanged since 1990, i.e. if theshares of input fuels and efficiency had remainedconstant, emissions would have increased in linewith the increase in electricity and heat production.This hypothetical development is indicated in thetop line of the charts.
The estimated effects of the various factors onemission reductions are shown in each of the bars.
The main factors in reducing CO2
emissions fromelectricity and heat generation are the improvementin efficiency and fuel switching (from coal togas), and to a much lesser extent the change inthe contribution of renewables in certain years.However, in 2002 and 2003, the share of renewables(7) Figure 1.8. does not consider life-cycle emissions.
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Figure 1.8 Estimated impact of different factors on the reduction of CO2, SO
2and NO
X
emissions from public heat and electricity generation in the EU27, 19902005
Source: EEA; Eurostat.
1 000
0
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
5 000
Emissions of nitrogen dioxide (Ktonnes)
Change due to efficiency improvement
Change due to fossil fuel switching
Change due to share of nuclear
Change due to share of renewables (excluding biomass)
Change due to abatement
Actual NOX
emissions
Hypothetical emissions if no changes had occurred
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2004
2005
Change due to efficiency improvement
Change due to fossil fuel switching
Change due to share of nuclear
Change due to share of renewables (excluding biomass)
Change due to abatement
Actual SO2emissions
Hypothetical emissions if no changes had occurred19
90
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2004
2005
2 000
0
2 000
4 000
6 000
8 000
10 000
12 000
14 000
16 000
18 000
20 000
Emissions of sulphur dioxide (Ktonnes)
250
0
250
500
750
1 000
1 250
1 500
1 750
2 000
Emissions of carbon dioxide (Mtonnes)
Change due to efficiency improvement
Change due to fossil fuel switching
Change due to share of nuclear
Change due to share of renewables (excluding biomass)
Change due to abatement
Actual CO2 emissionsHypothetical emissions if no changes had occurred
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2004
2005
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was relatively low, due to limited hydroelectricityproduction as a result of low levels of rainfall.The share of nuclear in electricity production in2005 was also below its 1990-levels, which led to
increased emissions (as indicated via the very smallnegative portion of the bar for this year).
For SO2
and NOX
emission reductions, thedominant factor appears to be the use of abatementtechnology, as it accounts for the most significantdifference between the hypothetical line and theactual level of emissions. Efficiency improvementsand fuel switching also played an important role inemissions reductions of these pollutants, although
Figure 1.9 Emissions of acidifying substances, ozone precursors and particulate matter(primary and secondary) per capita, 2005
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
EU-27
EU-15
EU-12
Latvia
Sweden
Germany
Netherlands
Italy
AustriaSlovakia
United Kingdom,
Hungary
France
Lithuania
Belgium
Finland
Luxembourg
Portugal
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Denmark
Romania
Poland
Malta
Spain
Greece
Cyprus
Ireland
Estonia
Bulgaria
Kg/capita of acidifying substances
Energy-related emissions Total emissions
the latter was more significant in the case of SO2
due to an additional switch towards low-sulphurcoal. From around 1999 onwards, the decrease inSO
2emissions slowed significantly, whilst NO
X
emissions have broadly, stabilised.
Due to a range of factors, per capita emissions ofair pollutants vary significantly across the MemberStates. These include: the level of demand forenergy, the energy supply mix, level of efficiencyand abatement technologies employed, as wellas the mix of economic sectors. For example, thegreater prevalence of agriculture in some MemberStates leads to higher non-energy related emissions.
Source: EEA; Eurostat.
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Figure 1.9 Emissions of acidifying substances, ozone precursors and particulate matter(primary and secondary) per capita, 2005 (cont.)
Source: EEA; Eurostat.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
EU-27
EU-15
EU-12
Netherlands
Germany
Slovakia
Romania
Hungary
Cyprus
Malta
Lithuania
United Kingdom
Italy
France
Czech Republic
IrelandSweden
Poland
Austria
Slovenia
Belgium
Latvia
Bulgaria
Portugal
Estonia
Greece
Luxembourg
Spain
Denmark
Finland
Kg/capita of ozone precursors
Energy-related emissions Total emissions
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Figure 1.9 Emissions of acidifying substances, ozone precursors and particulate matter(primary and secondary) per capita, 2005 (cont.)
Source: EEA; Eurostat.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
EU-27
EU-15
EU-12
Germany
Latvia
Netherlands
Italy
Sweden
Lithuania
Slovakia
Hungary
United Kingdom
Austria
France
Belgium
SloveniaCzech Republic
Romania
Luxembourg
Poland
Portugal
Denmark
Finland
Ireland
Malta
Cyprus
Spain
Greece
Estonia
Bulgaria
Kg/capita of particulate matter (primary and secondary)
Energy-related emissions Total emissions
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1.3 Other energyrelated environmentalpressures
Whilst the primary focus of this report relates to the
use and supply of energy as well as emissions ofair pollutants and greenhouse gas, a range of otherenergy-related environmental pressures may alsooccur.
Nuclear waste
The European Commission and the EuropeanCouncil, in its conclusions of 8/9 March 2007(EC, 2007e), noted that nuclear energy could alsomake a contribution towards addressing growingconcerns about the security of energy supply
and reduction of CO2 emissions. Following theCouncil's decision, the European Forum for NuclearEnergy (8) was established to provide a platform fora broad discussion among all stakeholders on theopportunities and risks of nuclear energy. Nuclearpower has also been included in the EuropeanStrategic Energy Plan (EC, 2006b) as one of the keylow-carbon technologies. However, the use of nuclearenergy also generates nuclear waste, which must becarefully stored and disposed of. While final disposalmethods exist for low- and medium-nuclear waste,solutions for a permanent disposal of high-levelnuclear waste are yet to be found. To date, Finland
remains the only European country with a clearstrategy and a time frame for implementing measuresfor permanent disposal of high-level nuclear waste.
The annual quantity of spent fuel is determinedby the quantity of electricity produced by nuclearpower plants but also by other factors, such asthe plant type and efficiency. However, even withstable or decreasing annual quantities of spent fuel,the highly radioactive nuclear waste continues toaccumulate. Work is underway to establish finaldisposal methods that can alleviate technical and
public concerns over the potential threat that thiswaste poses to the environment and human health.In the meantime, the waste accumulates in dry andwet storage facilities.
A limited decline in the annual quantity of spentfuel (approximately 5 %) was registered over theperiod from 1990 to 2006, while the electricityproduced by nuclear installations, over the sameperiod, increased by approximately 20 %. Very fewnew nuclear power plants have come online since1990, while several plants in the United Kingdom,
Figure 1.10 Annual quantities of spentnuclear fuel arising from nuclearpower plants in the EU (tonnes of
heavy metal)
0
500
1 000
1 500
2 000
2 500
3 000
3 500
4 000
4 500
United Kingdom
Switzerland
Sweden
Spain
Slovenia
Slovakia
Romania
Netherlands
Lithuania
Italy
Hungary
Germany
France
Finland
Czech Republic
Belgium
198
2
198
6
199
0
199
4
200
0
200
4
198
4
198
8
199
2
199
6
200
2
200
6
Tonnes of heavy metal
Note: No information has been included for Bulgaria due to alack of data.
Source: OECD, 2007; IAEA, 2003b; NEA, 2007.
(8) Further information on the Forum's activities is available at http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/forum/index_en.htm.
Lithuania, Germany, Sweden and Bulgaria havebeen shut down. The reduction in spent fuel arisingper unit of power is driven by a combination ofdifferent factors, including an increase in plantavailability in the past decades (reduced the number
of start-ups), an improvement in net plant electricefficiency and improvements in fuel enrichmentand burnup (WNA, 2003). The large variations inthe United Kingdom are primarily linked to thedecommissioning of a number of older nuclearpower plants. During a normal operation, only afraction of the reactor core is refuelled each year andthe corresponding spent fuel removed hence thelimited correlation between the amount of spent fuelsent to storage and the electric output of the plant.However, during decommissioning the reactor iscompletely de-fuelled.
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Figure 1.11 Total stored amount of high levelwaste
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
30 000
35 000
In storage,2005
Arising,2005
In storage,2006
Arising,2006
Tonnes of heavy metal
Bulgaria
United Kingdom
Switzerland
Sweden
Spain
Slovenia
Slovakia
Romania
Netherlands
Lithuania
Italy
Hungary
Germany
France
Finland
Czech Republic
Belgium
Note: No information has been included for Bulgaria due to alack of data.
Source: OECD, 2007; IAEA, 2003b; NEA, 2007.
Spent fuel is first stored for several years (usually< 10, but sometimes > 20) in spent fuel ponds 'atreactor' until the heat generation and radiationof the spent fuel is sufficiently low to allow forhandling. After this period, fuel is either reprocessedor temporarily stored. Temporary storage, for a
period of 50100 years is required, to decreasefurther radioactivity and the heat generation of thespent fuel before final storage. Spent fuel in the EUis temporarily stored in both wet and dry storagesystems. Facilities are designed to limit radiation tosurroundings and to remove the heat from the spentfuel. Storage capacity in western and eastern Europe'away from reactor' is approximately 66 ktonnes ofheavy metals, of which approximately 53 ktonnes iswet storage (IAEA, 2003b). Interim storage facilitiesrange from bunkers, able to withstand airplanecrashes (such as Habog in the Netherlands), toopen air storage in canisters. There is, at present, nocommercial storage facility for permanent storage ofHLW (HLW = high-level waste). Facilities are beingdesigned and planned to become operational in
20202025 in Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, theNetherlands, Spain, Sweden and France.
Pollution from oil spills
Oil pollution from coastal refineries, offshoreinstallations and maritime transport putsignificant pressures on the marine environment.The consistency of spilled oil can cause surfacecontamination and smother marine biota. Inaddition, its chemical components can cause acutetoxic effects and long-term impacts. Since 1990, oildischarges from offshore installations and coastalrefineries have diminished, despite increases in oilproduction and the ageing of many major oil fields(see Figure 1.12). This improvement is mainly the
result of the increased application of cleaning andseparation technologies.
Discharges of oil from offshore installations canoccur from the production water, drill cuttings, spillsand flaring operations. Despite the one-off increaseof oil discharges from offshore installations in 1997,which was mainly due to an exceptional accidentalspillage, it is expected that further reductions ofoil discharges will continue in the future, partlyas a result of the new regulation on drill cuttings(OSPAR, 2000), which entered into force in 2000.
Figure 1.12 Oil production and discharges
from offshore oil installations inthe northeast Atlantic
0
2 500
5 000
7 500
10 000
12 500
15 000
17 500
20 000
Discharges (tonnes)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Production (million tonnes)
Discharges Production
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2002
2004
2003
Note: Data available only from Denmark, Germany, Ireland,the Netherlands, United Kingdom and Norway; hence,coverage is restricted to the north-east Atlantic;no data for 1991 and 1993.
Source: OSPAR, 2006; Eurostat.
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On the other hand, tanker oil spills continue tooccur, although both their frequency and thevolumes involved seem to have declined over thepast decade (see Figure 1.13). However, this trend
is largely dependent on the occurrence of largetanker accidents, as a few very large accidents areresponsible for a high percentage of the oil spiltfrom maritime transport. Such major accidentsstill occur at irregular intervals. Nevertheless,it is encouraging that the improvement tookplace despite a continued rise in the maritimetransport of oil. Increased safety measures, suchas the introduction of double-hulled tankers (asmandated by the IMO), have contributed to thispositive trend. Further increases in maritime safetyare also supported by the EU in the proposed
third maritime safety package (EC, 2005c) and theproposed accelerated introduction of double-hulltankers (EC, 2006c).
Accidental oil tanker spills into the European seasdecreased significantly over the past 17 years.From the total amount of oil spilt in large accidents(i.e. more than 7 tonnes) during the 19902005
Figure 1.13 Large (> 7 tonnes) tanker spills in European waters 19902007
Source: ITOPF, 2008.
period (553 000 tonnes), two thirds were spilt overthe period of 19901994. During the two five-yearperiods (19951999 and 20002004), around19 % and 14 % were spilt, respectively. In 2005,
2 100 tonnes were released into the environment.However, this trend is largely dependent on theoccurrence of large accidents, as a few very largeaccidents are responsible for a high percentage ofthe oil spilt from maritime transport. For example,during the period 19902005, of 106 accidental spillsover 7 tonnes, just 7 accidents (causing spills ofaround 20 000 tonnes or more) account for 89 % ofthe spilt oil volume (causing spills of around 20 000tonnes or more). The map does not include spillsand discharges below 7 tonnes.
Other environmental pressures.
Further environmental pressures also arise fromthe energy-related use of land for power plants,refineries, transmission lines, mining operations,etc. This can lead to degradation and fragmentationof ecosystems. In addition, combustion plants(particularly coal and lignite) release small
605040
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
-10
-10-20-30-40
60
60
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300 500 1000 1500 Km
Tanker spills above
7 tonnes in Europeanseas 19902007
20052007
20002004
19951999
19901994
770
0
700
20000
>2000
0 tonnes
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quantities of heavy