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Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health, Hargiesa Somaliland 1

DECLARATION A

I declare that this dissertation is my original work and has not been submitted for any degree

either undergraduate/ Masters Degree or qualification in any institution. I certify that all the

support and assistance received in preparing this paper and the sources have been acknowledged

in this stated project paper..

Candidate: Mohamed Yassin Abdirahman

Signature:_____________________

Date________________________

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health, Hargiesa Somaliland i

DECLARATION B

I hereby to declare that this thesis project has been carried out under my supervision by the

candidate whose name is Mohamed Yassin Abdirahman in University of Hargeisa , Collage of

Applied Science , Faculty of Environmental Science.

Supervisor: Hamze Ibrahim Muhumed

Signature: ______________________

Date: __________________________

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health Hargiesa -Somaliland ii

APPROVAL SHEET

This thesis entitled the Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health in Hargiesa, Somaliland,

submitted and prepared by Moahmed Yassin Abdirahman to the University of Hargeisa for

the award of Bachelor Degree in Environmental Science. It has been examined and approved

by the supervisor with the grade of _______________________

Supervisor: Hamze Ibrahim Muhumed

Signature: ______________________

Date:__________________________

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health Hargiesa -Somaliland iii

DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to my beloved parent‘s , especially to my Mother Maryama

Ibrahim Ahmed X. Dagaal and My Dear Uncle Yusuf Mohamed Casoowe for

opening my eyes to the world, and also who taught me that even the largest task can

be accomplished if it is done one step at a time.

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health Hargiesa -Somaliland iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful Alhamdulillah, I thank all who in

one way or another contributed in the completion of this thesis .First all praises to Allah for the

strengths and His blessing in completing this thesis. Special appreciation goes to my supervisor,

Prof: Hamse Ibrahim Mohamud, for his supervision and constant support. His invaluable help

of constructive comments and suggestions throughout the investigational and thesis works have

contributed to the success of this research. I give deep thanks to the Professors and lecturers at

the College of Applied Science Especially Faculty of Environmental Science, and other

workers of the faculty. I would like to express my appreciation to the Dean, Prof Abdifatah

Mohamud Abdi and also to the Secretary of the College Mr. Mustafe Ismail Bulaale for their

support and help towards my graduate affairs.

My acknowledgement also goes to all my Classmate students whose challenges and productive

critics, especially at the long Journey of the Study. Thanks for the friendship and memories.

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents and relatives who

encouraged me and prayed for me throughout the time of my Study and research. This thesis is

heartily dedicated to my Mother Maryama Ibrahim Ahmed who took the lead to heaven

before the completion of this work ,Also not forgetting my dear Sister Istahil ,My Brothers

Yusuf , Abdihakin ,Sakariya and Khalid and My beloved Cousin Mohiyadin Mohamed and

His Family.

May the Almighty Allah richly bless all of you

Mohamed Yassin Abdirahman

July 2015

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health Hargiesa -Somaliland v

LISTS OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS WCED Western Cape Education Department

EPC Engineering, Procurement and Construction

SEH Somaliland Environmental Health

UNWHO United Nation World Health Organization

WHO World Health Organization

TDS Total Dissolved Solids

UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

UN United Nation

SIWI Stockholm International Water Institute

UNWATER United Nation Water

UNEP United Nation Environmental Protection

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

USERA United States Endurance Racing Association

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

WQM Water Quality Management

NSP National Sanitation Policy

CWA Clean Water Act

ICRC International Committee of Red Cross

IDPS Internal Displaced Peoples

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

SDWF Safe Drinking Water Foundation

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health Hargiesa -Somaliland vi

List of Tables and Figures

Tables

Table 1: Effects of Water Pollutants

Table 2: Diseases due to Bacterial Pollution of Water

Table 3: Demography of the Respondents

Figures

Figure 1: Sources of Water Pollution

Figure 2: Deaths due to improper water and sanitation

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health, Hargiesa Somaliland 1

Table of Contents

DECLARATION A ..........................................................................................................................

DECLARATION B ......................................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL SHEET ...................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv

LISTS OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................... v

List of Tables and Figures.............................................................................................................. vi

Table 2: Diseases due to Bacterial Pollution of Water .......................................................... vi

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 1

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 4

Chapter One .................................................................................................................................... 5

Problem and Its Scope .................................................................................................................... 5

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5

1.2 Background of the study ........................................................................................................... 5

1.3 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 7

1.4 Purpose of the study .................................................................................................................. 8

1.5 Objectives of the Research ........................................................................................................ 8

Genereal objective ..................................................................................................................... 8

Specific objectives. ..................................................................................................................... 9

1.6 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 9

1.7 Hypothesis................................................................................................................................. 9

1.8 Scope of the study ..................................................................................................................... 9

1.9 Significance of the study ......................................................................................................... 10

1.10 Operational Definitions of the Key Terms............................................................................ 11

Chapter Two.................................................................................................................................. 12

Literature Review.......................................................................................................................... 12

2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 12

2.1 Concepts, Opinion, and Ideas about Water Pollution ............................................................. 12

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health Hargiesa -Somaliland 2

Related Studies .................................................................................................................................... 13

Human Waste ...................................................................................................................................... 13

Ecosystem Impacts .................................................................................................................. 13

Drinking Water Quality ................................................................................................................ 14

Pollution from Industry and Mining ..................................................................................... 14

Pollution from Agriculture ..................................................................................................... 15

Infrastructure Affects Water Quality ................................................................................... 15

Classification of Water Pollution ........................................................................................... 15

Categories of Water Pollution ....................................................................................................... 16

Effects of Water Pollution ............................................................................................................ 17

The food chain is damaged ..................................................................................................... 17

Diseases can spread via polluted water ................................................................................. 17

Acid rain ................................................................................................................................... 17

Effects of Various Water Pollutants ............................................................................................. 18

Effects of Water Pollutants ........................................................................................................... 18

Diseases due to Bacterial Pollution of Water ........................................................................ 23

STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE OF WATER POLLUTION MANAGEMENT ................................. 24

Reducing Nutrient and Pesticide Pollution ........................................................................... 24

Reducing Sewage Pollution .................................................................................................... 24

Reducing Pollution from Oil and Petroleum Liquids .......................................................... 24

Cleaning Up Chemical Pollution ............................................................................................ 24

Fighting Global Warming ...................................................................................................... 24

Water Treatment Process ....................................................................................................... 24

LEGISLATION IN RELATION TO WATER POLLUTION ..................................................... 25

Somaliland National Sanitation Policy .................................................................................. 25

Sanitation and the environment ........................................................................................................... 25

Sanitation and health ........................................................................................................................... 25

Sanitation and water supply ................................................................................................................ 25

The ministry in charge of water .................................................................................................... 26

SOMALILAND CONSTITUTION .............................................................................................. 26

Article 17: Health .................................................................................................................... 26


Article 18: The Environment and the Relief of Disaster ..................................................... 26

The Clean Water Act in USA ....................................................................................................... 27

International Legislation related to Water Pollution ..................................................................... 28

Chapter Three................................................................................................................................ 29

Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 29

Research Design....................................................................................................................... 29

Population of the study ........................................................................................................... 29

Sample size ............................................................................................................................... 29

Sampling procedure ................................................................................................................ 29

Research Instruments ............................................................................................................. 29

Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................................... 30

Data Gathering Procedures ........................................................................................................... 30

Data analysis ............................................................................................................................ 30

Ethical consideration of the study ......................................................................................... 31

Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................................... 31

Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................. 32

Results,Interpretations and Discustions ........................................................................................ 32

Chapter Five .................................................................................................................................. 41

Conclusion and Recommendation ................................................................................................ 41

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 41

Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 42

Appendixes A: References ............................................................................................................ 43

Appendixes B: Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 45

ANEXES 1 .................................................................................................................................... 51


Abstract Water is one of the necessities for existence of mankind. It is also one of the most abundantly

available resources. But indifference of mankind and its abuse of the plentiful resource made

water scarcity a problem for many nations around the globe. Water pollution is one major

problem that demands almost attention to deal with emerging water crisis. This paper is an

attempt to describe the Effect of water pollution on Public Health. The Researcher has proved

that, water pollution is one of the most leading causes of public health issues and mortality.

Water pollution is the outcome of urbanization and overpopulation. Water pollution is caused

due to over utilization of fertilizers by farmers, sewage from hotels, hospitals and homes and

industries in the city. The polluted water has led to spread some dangerous infectious diseases

like Diarrhea, jaundice, gastro and fever etc. in Hargiesa city. Therefore; there is a need of

government intervention with the help of active peoples‘ participation.


Chapter One

Problem and Its Scope

Introduction

The research will examine the impact of Water Pollution on Public health in Hargiesa

Somaliland. This chapter will cover the background of the study where it will try to elaborate

more in the historical, conceptual and contextual perspective of the study. The chapter will also

look at the problem statement, purpose, objectives, research questions and research hypothesis.

The chapter concludes with looking at the scope and significance of the study.

1.2 Background of the study

The pressure of increasing population, growth of industries, urbanization, energy intensive life

style, loss of forest cover, lack of environmental awareness, lack of implementation of

environmental rules and regulations and environment improvement plans, untreated effluent

discharge from industries and municipalities, use of non-biodegradable pesticides/fungicides/

herbicides/insecticides, use of chemical fertilizers instead of organic manures, etc are causing

water pollution. The pollutants from industrial discharge and sewage besides finding their way to

surface water reservoirs and rivers are also percolating into ground to pollute ground water

sources.

Water pollution is any chemicals, physical or biological that changes the quality of water and has

harmful effects on any living organism that uses it. When humans drink polluted water, it often

has serious affects on their health. Water pollution can also make water unsuited for the desired

use. A little negligence on the part of civic bodies can result in the spread of many diseases

Mukhi& Srivastava, (1987).

World Commission on Environment and Development warned in the final report, Our Common

Future, that water was being polluted and water supplies were overused in many parts of the

world. WCED (1987).

In Pakistan, 72% population lives in rural area. More of them have not the availability of good

quality drinking water. While we can control (to some extent) the water we drink, the pollution

of our water streams may have long-term effects by reducing the ―drinkable‖ water reserves of

our planet. Additionally, the common filtration methods for water are not efficient for some of

the new emerging contaminants which are many times not tested for either. Water pollution

travels slower than air pollution but still may affect large areas.EPC, (2009) .water the people of

villages have a many diseases like typhoid, stomach problems, kidney problem, food poisoning

and skin problem. Ilyas, (1998).

According to some estimates, every year few millions of Americans are sickened by polluted

water. Water pollution involves the pollution of surface waters and/or groundwater which may

cause a series of diseases referred to as water pollution diseases. These could have serious health


In Africa Waste disposal and management are major challenges, which confront urban centers

throughout the world (Miller, 1994). This is particularly the case in developing countries where,

due to poverty, municipal budgets are often under strain (Jordan, 1984). As a result, they fail to

cope with the ever increasing demand of both spatial and demographic growth (WCED, 1991).

In some cases, heaps of garbage lie in the open for weeks due to shortage of vehicles required to

ferry them to dump sites. On the other hand, raw sewage sometimes flows in the streets due to

pipe bursts and blockages, which frequently occur in some cities and take long to be attended to

due to the lack of equipment, spare parts, and funds, which are required in order to fix them. Yet

in others, rivers, which pass through urban centers, have been turned into sewers as they drain

waste water generated in towns and cities (Mapira and Mungwini, 2005). These conditions are a

threat to human health as they promote the spread of some water-borne diseases (Katyal and

Satake (2001). For example, in recent decades, cases of cholera, typhoid and dysentery havebeen

frequently reported in Southern African countries such as: Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia

(Chenje and Johnson, 1994).

During the last three decades, Zimbabwe has experienced massive rates of urbanization, which

are comparable to those in other parts of Africa (Zinyama, 1994). While in 1982, the country‘s

urban population was only 20% of the national total (7.6 million), by 1992, the figure had risen

to 31% of the 10.4 million citizens (CSO, 1982; CSO, Journal of Sustainable Development in

Africa (Volume 13, No.6, 2011) (1992).

During the last census (2002), at least 34% of its 11.6 million citizens were living in urban areas

(CSO, 2002).

Although these figures are quite low compared to those of Zambia (50%) and South Africa

(59%), their impacts on urban life are remarkable (Chenje and Johnson, 1994). For example,

waste management problems have worsened as urban centers strive to maintain clean

environments (Moyo, 1997). However, this has not been easy due to limited budgets at both

central and local government levels (Mapira and Mungwini, 2005). Cholera, typhoid and

dysentery (water borne diseases) have been reported in several urban centers including: Harare,

Chitungwiza and Mutare(Chenje and Johnson, 1994). Although the problem of river pollution

dates back to the colonial era (Bagg, 1992), during the post colonial period it has worsened due

to rapid rates of urban growth and the failure of municipalities to cope with increasing demands

for urban expansion processes (Mapira, 2001).

Hargeisa city population is 1000,000 (Milyan) persons per capita production of garbage in city

all inclusive street, household, commercial and industrial wastes is .0.45kg per person/ day

Hargeisa city health profile assessments survey document – healthy city initiative( 2008).

People with access to sanitary facilities are 42% (M, CS, 2007). And people with access safe

water supply is 41% (M.C.S). Poor sanitation related and water borne: Diseases.MOHL Annual/

reports,(2005 & 2006).


Diarrhea Diseases rank the second in the top ten diseases morbidity and mortality. Waste

handling practice (collection, storage transportation and disposal) are highly rudimentary and

there is no inter Medical Dump Site. Waste disposal terminal sites (open dumping) and poorly

managed large dug pits found on observation located on landscape depression are subject to lead

contamination of surface and ground water. Integrated quality control for food and water

consumption is lacking.SEH,SomalilandPutland and Mugadisho.(2010)

The sewage disposal ditches of the blood of animals and waste are located near the Nasa-hablood

hills. The lagoons are poorly designed unprotected and allowed to drain liquid into the entire

basin of watershed areas lying below towards the lagoons. Wildbirds and animals and other

carnivores swim in the pools and feed on the refuse and other organic wastes that are

indiscriminately dumped near the cesspools. There is high possibility of episode diseases

outbreak affecting the population living in adjacent or far places in the downstream. Need to

construct proper oxidation ponds which should be treated and protected.SEH,SomalilandPutland

and Mugadisho.(2010)

The proceeding ones from different waste sites demonstrate a great damage and colossal

negligence to the environment and the high risk it poses to the public, who depends on it for

survival. Clearly, these open landfills of both solid and liquid wastes, including human and

animal daily wastes, impact the environment and the ecological systems surrounding all big

towns and cities in the entire city. Even though the city is not heavily industrialized, the

uncontrolled municipal and biomedical wastes are being scattered everywhere and every space

available. Often these wastes are directly washed or are flooded into the rivers and deep into the

local drinking water. Most people and their livestock drink from hand-dig, shallow water wells

or directly from the rivers, Berkeds and other water catchments, especially during the rainy

seasons. There are no effective environmental assessments carried out regarding whether the

potential toxic exposure from these open waste sites find their ways into the public food chain

and into the breathing air.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Water in its fluid form is the material that makes life possible on Earth. For most humans as well

as industrial use, the quality of the water is as important as its quantity. Water must be

sustainably free of dissolved salts, plant and animal waste, and bacterial contamination to be

suitable for human consumption.

Hargiesa City is growing very fast and the populations are increasing exponentially. According

to report from UN habitat on urbanization, Hargeisa is one of the fast growing Urbanization City

in the Somaliland Country. Increase in the urban population must have increase service delivery

facilities in proportion such as health, education, Safe drinking water and sanitation.


However, today in many parts of the world, including Somaliland especially the Capital City of

Hargiesa, there is a lot of waste including Medical waste, animal and House Hold Waste,

Municipal and all pollutants that can effect and reduce the Quality of Water.

Unfortunately, the outlook for the Hargiesa‘s freshwater supply is not very promising. Major

problems include location, quality, quantity, ownership and control of potable water. Though

some areas of the city have abundant freshwater resources, there are others, as the case in Water

Pollution that is facing water shortage. These shortages of potable water in Hargiesa sometimes

contribute to human abuse in the form of pollution. Water pollution has negatively affected water

supplies because people do not have access to safe drinking water. In addition, demand is

increasing for fresh water for personal needs. With an increasing population size that might be

approaching its population doubling in the next Coming 20 years, and with the high rate of

urbanization the whole country is experiencing due to the destitute situation population migrating

to urban areas, as well as severe destruction of the environment through charcoal-burning and

harmful pastoral management practices, the demand for safe drinking water will increase even

more.

Sadly, most of the populations draw water from the unprotected water catchments or wells, and

that the quality of water for human consumption was poor. the general sanitation of the

population and residential areas is inadequate. There are several sources of drinking for the

Capital city of Hargiesa, which includes, rain water (surface water), shallow wells on the

Seasonal water way of the city, and ground water of Geed deeble are included. Very small

fraction of the population of the City receives piped water, and almost none of them receive

chlorinated water, with that said the effect of Water Pollution on Public health in Hargiesa City

is an issue of the concern.

1.4 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of Water pollution on public health in

Hargiesa, Somaliland.

. This section you should state only the reason in a summary statement

The reason why this study is proposed is as follows:

1. To generate new information based on the findings of this study.

2. To bridge the gaps identified in the related studies.

3. To explore the different ways that water pollution will be reduced.

1.5 Objectives of the Research

Genereal objective The main objective of this study was to correlate the Water pollution on

public health in Hargiesa, Somaliland.


Specific objectives.

1. To identify the profile of the respondent such as age, gender, marital status and

educational background.

2. To determine the level of water pollution in Hargeisa Somaliland

3. To examine how water pollution effects the public health in Hargeisa Somaliland.

4. To determine the status of Water pollution in Hargiesa.

5. To determine the association undesired public health.

1.6 Research Questions

To address the above objectives, this paper tries to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the demographic characteristics of the respondents as to:

1.2 Gender?

1.3 Age?

1.3 Marital status?

1.4 Educational background?

2. What are the Causes of Water pollution in Hargiesa Somaliland?

3. How water pollution effects on public health in Hargeisa Somaliland?

4. Is there significance relationship between water pollution and public health?

5. What is the level of vulnerability of societies to effect of water pollution in Hargiesa,

Somaliland?

1.7 Hypothesis

The researcher has in mind that there is no significance relationship between water pollution and

public health in Hargiesa Somaliland.

1.8 Scope of the study

Geographical scope

The study will be conducted within the districts of Hargiesa City. Targeted places including, five

main districts of the city, water source of the city and the agencies of the water, such us Ministry

of the Water Resources, Hargiesa Water agency and the other Stakeholders and the venerable

Community such as IDPs Comps.

Time scope

The study were taken four, five month it is mainly to give the researcher ample time to conduct

the study.


1.9 Significance of the study

The study will be of beneficial to all stakeholders of the issue of Effect of Water pollution on

Public health,. They are many but among them are the Government of Somaliland, especially the

Ministry of Water Resources, Hargiesa Water Agency, Ministry of Health to take actions on the

issue; also Local Government and Non-governmental Organizations will benefit the findings of

the study, and they will use it for improvement of projects success. International Organizations

will use the study as baseline data to their Environmental Health projects, and donors to fund and

implement further studies and carry out mitigation and adaptation projects and programs of

Effect of Water pollution. Decision makers and policy implementers/formulators in central

government will use the finds to evaluate the effect of water pollution on public health.The

findings of this study will also help academicians and future researcher to embark on a related

study.

Conceptual Frame Work

Water Pollution Effects to the Public Health

Decrease of Water

Quality

Diseases can spread

via polluted water

Infections due to

defective sanitation/

polluted water

Severe kidney

complication

Waste

Medical

Household

Industrial

Agricultural

Sewage (

Municipal

Heat (Global Warming)

Acidification

Economy

Policy

Lack of Policy

Lack of National

Legislation and

Regulation


1.10 Operational Definitions of the Key Terms

Water pollution is any chemicals, physical or biological that changes the quality of water and has

harmful effects on any living organism that uses it. When humans drink polluted water, it often

has serious affects on their health. Water pollution can also make water unsuited for the desired

use. A little negligence on the part of civic bodies can result in the spread of many diseases

(Mukhi& Srivastava, 1987)

Public health is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and

promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations,

public and private, communities and individuals. It is concerned with threats to health based on

population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, or

as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). The

dimensions of health can encompass a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being

and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, as defined by the (United Nations' World

Health Organization)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization




Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

The polluted water may have undesirable colour, odour, taste, turbidity, organic matter contents,

harmful chemical contents, toxic and heavy metals, pesticides, oily matters, industrial waste

products, radioactivity, high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), acids, alkalis, domestic sewage

content, virus, bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, worms, etc. The organic content may be biodegradable

or non-biodegradable. Pollution of surface waters (rivers, lakes, ponds), ground waters, sea water

are all harmful for human and animal health. Pollution of the drinking water and that of food

chain is by far the most worry-some aspect. ―Water Quality Management in India‖, Feb. 2008,

Countries throughout the world are concerned with the effects of unclean drinking water because

water-borne diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality (c.f. Clasen et al. 2007; WHO

2010).

Clean drinking water is important for overall health and plays a substantial role in infant and

child health and survival (Anderson et al. 2002; Fewtrell et al. 2005; Ross et al. 1988;

Vidyasagar 2007).

The World Health Organization (2005) estimates that worldwide about 1.8 million people die

from diarrheal diseases annually. Persons with compromised immune systems, such as those

with AIDS, are especially vulnerable to water-borne infections, even those which are not

typically threatening to healthy individuals (Kgalushi, Smits and Eales 2004; Laurent 2005: 6).

The people most vulnerable to water-borne diseases are those who use an unclean drinking water

source. Throughout the less developed world, the proportion of households that use an unclean

drinking water source has declined, but it is extremely unlikely that all households will have a

clean drinking water source in the foreseeable future (c.f. Mintz et al. 2001). UNICEF (2010: 7-

9)

Reports that in 2010, 884 million people in the world use an unimproved drinking water source,

and estimates that in 2015, 672 million people will still use an unimproved drinking water

source. Thus it is important to understand what leads a household with an unclean water source

to treat its drinking water. (Using data for rural African)

2.1 Concepts, Opinion, and Ideas about Water Pollution

Accordingly to concept definition, Water pollution is any chemical, physical or biological

change in the quality of water that has a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or uses or

lives (in) it. Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, and

groundwater).

Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested that it is the

leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases and that it accounts for the deaths of more than

14,000 people daily. Comprising over 70% of the Earth‘s surface, water is undoubtedly the most

precious natural resource that exists on our planet. Without the seemingly invaluable compound

comprised of hydrogen and oxygen, life on Earth would be non-existent: it is essential for

everything on our planet to grow and prosper. Although we as humans recognize this fact, we

disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes, and oceans. Subsequently, we are slowly but surely


harming our planet to the point where organisms are dying at a very alarming rate. In order to

combat water pollution, we must understand the problems and become part of the solution.

Related Studies

Every day, 2 million tons of sewage and industrial and agricultural waste are discharged into the

world‘s water (UN WWAP 2003), the equivalent of the weight of the entire human population of

6.8 billion people.

The UN estimates that the amount of wastewater produced annually is about 1,500 km3, six

times more water than exists in all the rivers of the world. (UN WWAP 2003)

Human Waste

Lack of adequate sanitation contaminates water courses worldwide and is one of the most

significant forms of water pollution. Worldwide, 2.5 billion people live without improved

sanitation. (UNICEF WHO 2008)

Over 70% of these people who lack sanitation, or 1.8 billion people, live in Asia.

Sub-Saharan Africa is slowest of the world‘s regions in achieving improved sanitation: only 31

percent of residents had access to improved sanitation in 2006.

18% of the world‘s population, or 1.2 billion people (1 out of 3 in rural areas), defecate in the

open. Open defecation significantly compromises quality in nearby water bodies and poses an

extreme human health risk. (UNICEF WHO 2008)

In Southern Asia, 63% of rural people – 778 million people – practice open defecation.

Human Health Impacts

Worldwide, infectious diseases such as waterborne diseases are the number one killer of children

under five years old and more people die from unsafe water annually than from all forms of

violence, including war. (WHO 2002)

Unsafe or inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene cause approximately 3.1 percent of all

deaths worldwide, and 3.7 percent of DALYs (disability adjusted life years) worldwide. (WHO

2002)

Unsafe water causes 4 billion cases of diarrhea each year, and results in 2.2 million deaths,

mostly of children under five. This means that 15% of child deaths each year are attributable to

diarrhea – a child dying every 15 seconds. In India alone, the single largest cause of ill health and

death among children is diarrhea, which kills nearly half a million children each year. (WHO and

UNICEF 2000)

Ecosystem Impacts

There has been widespread decline in biological health in inland (non-coastal) waters. Globally,

24 percent of mammals and 12 percent of birds connected to inland waters are considered

threatened.

(UN WWAP 2003)

In some regions, more than 50% of native freshwater fish species are at risk of extinction, and

nearly one-third of the world‘s amphibians are at risk of extinction. (Vié et al. 2009)

Freshwater species face an estimated extinction rate five times greater than that of terrestrial

species. (Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1999)

Freshwater ecosystems sustain a disproportionately large number of identified species, including

a quarter of known vertebrates. Such systems provide more than US$75 billion in goods and

ecosystem services for people, but are increasingly threatened by a host of water quality

problems. (Vié et al. 2009)


The greatest single service freshwater ecosystems provide––marshes in particular is water

purification and the assimilation of wastes, valued at US$ 400 billion (2008$) worldwide

(Costanza et al. 1997).

With the Millennium Development Goals, the international community committed to halving

the proportion of people without access to safe water and sanitation by 2015. Meeting this goal

means some 322 million working days per year gained, at a value of nearly US$ 750 million

(SIWI 2005), and an annual health sector cost saving of US$ 7 billion. Overall, the total

economic benefits of meeting the MDG target have been estimated at US$ 84 billion (SIWI

2005).

Poor countries with access to clean water and sanitation services experienced faster economic

growth than those without: one study found the annual economic growth rate of 3.7 percent

among poor countries with better access to improved water and sanitation services, while

similarly poor countries without access had annual growth of just 0.1 percent (Sachs 2001).

Drinking Water Quality

Point-of- use drinking water treatment through chlorine and safe storage of water could result in

122.2 million avoided DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years, a measure of morbidity), at a

total cost of US$ 11.4 billion. (UN WWAP 2003)

Nearly 70 million people living in Bangladesh are exposed to groundwater contaminated with

arsenic beyond WHO recommended limits of 10 ug/L. (UN WWAP 2009)

The naturally occurring arsenic pollution in groundwater now affects nearly 140 million people

in 70 countries on all continents. (UN WWAP 2009)

Even drinking water quality in developed countries is not assured. In France, drinking water

testing uncovered that 3 million people were drinking water whose quality did not meet WHO

standards, and 97% of groundwater samples did not meet standards for nitrate in the same study.

(UN WWAP 2009)

Costs and Benefits of Water Quality

Sanitation and drinking water investments have high rates of return: for every $1 invested, there

is a projected $3-$34 economic development return. (UN WWAP 2009)

Economic losses due to the lack of water and sanitation in Africa as a result of the mortality and

morbidity impacts is estimated at $28.4 billion or about 5% of GDP. (UN WWAP 2009)

Pollution from Industry and Mining

70% of industrial wastes in developing countries are disposed of untreated into waters where

they contaminate existing water supplies. (UN-Water 2009)

An estimated 500,000 abandoned mines in the U.S. will cost $20 billion in management and

remediation of pollution; many of these sites will require management in perpetuity. (Septoff

2006 and http://www.abandonedmines.gov/ep.html)

In the U.S. state of Colorado alone, some 23,000 abandoned mines have polluted 2,300 km of

streams. (Banks, et al. 1997)

Chlorinated solvents were found in 30 percent of groundwater supplies in 15 Japanese cities,

sometimes traveling as much as 10 km from the source of pollution. (UNEP 1996)


Roughly one unit of mercury is emitted into the environment for every unit of gold produced by

small-scale miners, a total of as much as 1000 tons of mercury emitted each year. (UNEP/GRID-

Arendal)

Pollution from Agriculture

In a recent comparison of domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources of pollution from the

coastal zone of Mediterranean countries, agriculture was the leading source of phosphorus

compounds and sediment. (UNEP 1996) Nutrient enrichment, most often associated with

nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural runoff, can deplete oxygen levels and eliminate

species with higher oxygen requirements, affecting the structure and diversity of ecosystems.

Nitrate* is the most common chemical contaminant in the world‘s groundwater aquifers.

(Spalding and Exner, 1993) And mean nitrate levels have risen by an estimated 36% in global

waterways since 1990 with the most dramatic increases seen in the Eastern Mediterranean and

Africa, where nitrate contamination has more than doubled. (GEMS 2004)

According to various surveys in India and Africa, 20-50% of wells contain nitrate1 levels greater

than 50 mg/1 and in some cases as high as several hundred milligrams per liter. (cited in FAO

1996)

Groundwater Impacts

In Chennai, India, over-extraction of groundwater has resulted in saline groundwater nearly 10

km inland of the sea and similar problems can be found in populated coastal areas around the

world. (UNEP 1996)

Infrastructure Affects Water Quality

Sixty percent of the world‘s 227 biggest rivers have interrupted stream flows due to dams and

other infrastructure. Interruptions in stream flow dramatically decrease sediment and nutrient

transport to downstream stretches, reducing water quality and impairing ecosystem health. (UN

WWAP 2003)

The USEPA (2002) has established a maximum contaminant level of 10 mg/l nitrate because of

concerns that ingestion of nitrate in drinking water by infants can cause low oxygen levels in

their blood. Long-term exposure to nitrate at concentrations as low as 2 - 4 mg/l in community

water supplies has been linked to bladder and ovarian cancer (Weyer et al. 2001) and non-

Hodgkins lymphoma. (Ward et al. 1996)

Classification of Water Pollution

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) divides water pollution into the

following six categories:

1. Biodegradable waste consists mainly of human and animal waste. When biodegradable

waste enters a water supply, the waste provides an energy source (organic carbon) for

bacteria. Organic carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and water, which can cause

atmospheric pollution and acid rain; this form of pollution is far more widespread and

problematic than other forms of pollutants, such as radioactive waste. If there is a large

supply of organic matter in the water, oxygen-consuming (aerobic) bacteria multiply

quickly, consume all available oxygen, and kill all aquatic life.

2. Plant nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrates, enter the water through sewage, and

livestock and fertilizer runoff. Phosphates and nitrates are also found in industrial


Wastes. Though these chemicals are natural, 80 percent of nitrates and 75 percent of

phosphates in water are human-added. When there is too much nitrogen or phosphorus in

a water supply (0.3 parts per million for nitrogen and 0.01 parts per million for

phosphorus), algae begin to develop. When algae blooms, the water can turn green and

cloudy, feel slimy, and smell bad. Weeds start to grow and bacteria spread. Decomposing

plants use up the oxygen in the water, disrupting the aquatic life, reducing biodiversity,

and even killing aquatic life. This process, called eutrophication, is a natural process, but

generally occurs over thousands of years. Eutrophication allows a lake to age and become

more nutrient-rich; without nutrient pollution, this may take 10,000 years, but pollution

can make the process occur 100 to 1,000 times faster.

3. Heat can be a source of pollution in water. As the water temperature increases, the amount

of dissolved oxygen decreases. Thermal pollution can be natural, in the case of hot

springs and shallow ponds in the summertime, or human-made, through the discharge of

water that has been used to cool power plants or other industrial equipment. Fish and

plants require certain temperatures and oxygen levels to survive, so thermal pollution

often reduces the aquatic life diversity in the water.

4. Sediment is one of the most common sources of water pollution. Sediment consists of

mineral or organic solid matter that is washed or blown from land into water sources.

Sediment pollution is difficult to identify, because it comes from non-point sources, such

as construction, agricultural and livestock operations, logging, flooding, and city runoff.

Each year, water sources in the United States are polluted by over one billion tonnes of

sediment! Sediment can cause large problems, as it can clog municipal water systems,

smother aquatic life, and cause water to become increasingly turbid. And, turbid water

can cause thermal pollution, because cloudy water absorbs more solar radiation.

5. Hazardous and toxic chemicals are usually human-made materials that are not used or

disposed of properly. Point sources of chemical pollution include industrial discharges

and oil spills. The Oil Pollution fact sheet includes more detailed information about oil

spills, as well as other sources of oil pollution. Non-point sources of chemical pollution

include runoff from paved roads and pesticide runoff. Many people think industries

produce the greatest amount of chemical pollution. But domestic and personal use of

chemicals can significantly contribute to chemical pollution. Household cleaners, dyes,

paints and solvents are also toxic, and can accumulate when poured down drains or

flushed down the toilet. In fact, one drop of used motor oil can pollute 25 litres of water!

And, people who use pesticides on their gardens and lawns tend to use ten times more

pesticide per acre than a farmer would!

6. Radioactive pollutants include wastewater discharges from factories, hospitals and

uranium mines. These pollutants can also come from natural isotopes, such as radon.

Radioactive pollutants can be dangerous, and it takes many years until radioactive

substances are no longer considered dangerous. EPA, (2006)

Categories of Water Pollution

There are many specific causes of water pollution, but before we list the toppers, it's important to

understand two broad categories of water pollution.

There are two main sources of water pollution; point sources and non-point sources. Point

sources include factories, wastewater treatment facilities, septic systems, and other sources that


are clearly discharging pollutants into water sources. Non-point sources are more difficult to

identify, because they cannot be traced back to a particular location. Non-point sources include

runoff including sediment, fertilizer, chemicals and animal wastes from farms, fields,

construction sites and mines. Landfills can also be a non-point source of pollution, if substances

leach from the landfill into water supplies. (SDWF)

Effects of Water Pollution

The effects of water pollution are numerous (as seen above in causes). Some water pollution

effects are recognized immediately, whereas others don‘t show up for months or years.

Additional effects of water pollution include

The food chain is damaged

When toxins are in the water, the toxins travel from the water the animals drink to humans when

the animals‘ meat is eaten.

Diseases can spread via polluted water

Infectious diseases such as typhoid and cholera can be contracted from drinking contaminated

water. This is called microbial water pollution. The human heart and kidneys can be adversely

affected if polluted water is consumed regularly. Other health problems associated with polluted

water are poor blood circulation, skin lesions, vomiting, and damage to the nervous system. In

fact, the effects of water pollution are said to be the leading cause of death for humans across the

globe.

Acid rain

It contains sulfate particles, which can harm fish or plant life in lakes and rivers.

Pollutants in the water will alter the overall chemistry of the water

Figure 1: This diagram shows some of the major sources of groundwater pollution.

Runoff and percolation transport contaminants to the groundwater.


Pollutants‘ cause changes in acidity, temperature and conductivity. These factors all have an

effect on the marine life.

Marine food sources are contaminated

Marine food sources are contaminated or eliminated by water pollution.

Altered water temperatures (due to human actions) can kill the marine life

Also it can affect the delicate ecological balance in bodies of water, especially lakes and rivers

Effects of Various Water Pollutants

Some of the pollutants like lead (Pb), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr) specially

chromium, nickel (Ni), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), selenium (Se), vanadium (V),

oils and grease, pesticides, etc are very harmful, toxic and poisonous even in ppb (parts per

billion) range. There are some minerals which are useful for human and animal health in small

doses beyond which these are toxic. Zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), etc fall into this category.

For agriculture, some elements like zinc, copper, manganese (Mn), sulphur (S), iron, boron (B),

together with phosphates, nitrates, urea, potassium, etc are useful in prescribed quantities. There

are some compounds like cyanides, thiocyanides, phenolic compounds, fluorides, radioactive

substances, etc which are harmful for humans as well as animals.

In India, water pollution due to industrial wastes and sewage has been assuming menancing

proportions. Large lakes and large stretches of most of the rivers in India have water which is

unsafe for drinking purpose. Survey of industrialized zones show that even ground water has

become unfit for drinking due to high concentration of toxic metals and chemicals along with

bacteriological contamination.

A brief summary of adverse effects of various pollutants on human and animal life and

agriculture are indicated in Table 1.1. It is well known that water borne pathogens cause many

diseases. Some common diseases caused by such pathogens are indicated in Table 1.2.

Effects of Water Pollutants

Sl.

No.

Pollutant Effects

1

Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is essential element for humans, animal

and plants. It is also an important cell

component in several metalloenzymes. Infants

need

3–5 mg/day, adult males 15 mg/day, pregnant

and lactating females

20–25 mg Zn/day. However, heavy doses of Zn

salts (165 mg) for 26

days causes vomiting, renal damage, cramps,

etc.

2 Excess of Cu in human body (more than 470


Copper (Cu)

mg) is toxic, may cause hypertension, sporadic

fever, uremia, coma. Copper also produces

pathological changes in brain tissue. However,

Cu is an important cell component in several

metalloenzymes. Lack of Cu causes anemia,

growth inhibition and blood circulation

problem.

3

Barium (Ba)

Excess of Ba (more than 100 mg) in human

body may cause excessive

Salivation, colic, vomiting, diarrhoea, tremors*,

paralysis of muscles or nervous system, damage

to heart and blood vessels.

4

Iron (Fe)

It is one of the essential mineral for humans and

animals. Degree of absorption depends upon

solubility and stability of compound. It is a

component of blood cells and

liveralmetalloenzymes. However, more than 10

mg per kg of body weight causes rapid

respiration and pulse rates, congestion of blood

vessels, hypertension and drowsiness. It

increases hazard of pathogenic organisms, as

many of them require Fe for their growth.

5

Cadmium (Cd)

Cd is very toxic, 50 mg may cause vomiting,

diarrhoea, abdominal pains, loss of

consciousness. It takes 5–10 years for chronic

Cd intoxication. During first phase,

discolouration of teeth, loss of sense of smell,

mouth dryness occurs. Afterwards it may cause

decrease of

red blood cells, impairment of bone marrow,

lumber pains, disturbance

in calcium metabolism, softening of bones,

fractures, skeletal

deformations, damage of kidney, hypertension,

tumor formation, heart

disease, impaired reproductive function, genetic

mutation, etc.

6

Mercury (Hg)

Mercury is very toxic. Excess mercury in

human body (more than

100 mg) may cause headache, abdominal pain,

diarrhoea, destruction

of haemoglobin, tremors*, very bad effects on

cerebral functions and central nervous system,

paralysis, inactivates functional proteins,

damage

of renal tissues, hyper coagulability of blood,


mimamata disease, and even death. It may cause

impairment of vision and muscles and even

coma. It disturbs reproductive and endocrine

system. Also causes insomnia, memory loss,

gum inflammation, loosening of teeth, loss of

appetite, etc.

7

Lead (Pb)

More than 400 mg of lead in human body can

cause brain damage, vomiting, loss of appetite,

convulsions, uncoordinated body movements,

helplessly amazed state, and coma. It is retained

in liver, kidney, brain, muscle, soft tissues, and

bones. Leads to high rate of miscarriages,

affects

skin, and respiratory system, damages kidney,

liver and brain cells.

Disturbs endocrine system, causes anaemia, and

long term exposure may cause even death.

8

Arsenic (As)

Poisonous to fishes, animals and humans.

Greater than 25 mg of arsenic causes vomiting,

diarrhoea, nausea, irritation of nose and throat,

abdominal pain, skin eruptions inflammations

and even death. It binds globulin of blood

haemoglobin in erythrocytes. May cause cancer

of skin, lungs and liver, chromosomal

aberration and damage, gangrene, loss of

hearing, injury to nerve tissue, liver and kidney

damage. Minor symptoms of As poisoning,

weight loss, hair loss, nausea, depression,

fatigue, white lines across toe nails and finger

nails.

9 Vanadium (V) It is very toxic, may cause paralysis.

10

Silver (Ag)

Causes pathological change in kidney, liver and

may even damage kidney. May cause Argyria

(discolouration of skin). Effects mucous

membranes and eyes. In high doses, it may be

fatal to humans.

11

Radioactive

materials/metals/substances

These generally cause ‗Gene‘ mutation,

ionization of body fluids, chromosomnal

mutations and cancers. Destroy body cell tissue,

adversely effects reproductive system. When

mother is exposed to radiation during

pregnancy, it causes severe mental retardation

and leukaemia in infants. Radioactive metals

like heavy metals are nephrotoxic and damage

kidneys.

12 Excess fluoride intake in body results in


Fluoride

progressive crippling scourge

(sponging)/fluorosis of bones, teeth. May cause

metabolic alternations in soft tissues and their

functional mechanism.

13

Selenium (Se)

Signs of Se poisoning (more than 4 mg) are

fever, nervousness, vomiting, falling of blood

pressure, causes damage to liver, kidney and

spleen, loss of nails and hair, causes blindness

to animals. Cats are most susceptible. It affects

enzyme systems and interferes with sulphur

metabolism. It can cause growth inhibition, skin

discolouration, bad

teeth, psychological problem, gastro intestinal

problems, but trace amount of Se is protective

against poisoning by Hg, Cd, Ag.

14

Chromium (Cr)

Any chromium compound is toxic but

haxavalent Cr greater than 70 mg is very toxic.

It causes cancer, anuria, nephritis,

gastrointestinal ulceration, perforation in

partition of nose. It penetrates cell membrane

and badly affects central nervous system.

Causes respiratory trouble, lung tumors when

inhaled. May cause complications during

pregnancy. Have adverse effects on aquatic life.

Trace amount of CrIII is essential for normal

glucose, protein and fat metabolism and hence it

is a essential trace element in diet.

15

Manganese (Mn)

Mn is essential for mammals but in

concentration greater than 100 ppm, is toxic,

and causes growth retardation, fever, sexual

impotence, muscles fatigue, eye blindness.

16

Cobalt (Co)

High dose (27 mg or above) can cause paralysis,

diarrhoea, low blood pressure, lung irritation,

bone defects.

17

Nickel (Ni)

More than 30 mg may cause changes in muscle,

brain, lungs, liver, kidney and can also cause

cancer, tremor*, paralysis and even death.

18

Boron (B)

Essential for plant growth in traces. Harmful to

crops and affects metabolic activities of plants

in higher concentration. Affects central nervous

system.

19

Alkalinity and Acidity

Permissible range of pH value if violated may

cause health problems to human and animals

and loss of productivity in agriculture.

20 Soil nutrient and not toxic in low concentration.


Phosphate and nitrates

Deplete oxygen by excess Algae production-

giving bad odour and taste of water

anddetrimental to aquatic life. They are toxic

for human and animal life if concentration is

beyond permissible limits. Nitrates also cause

cyanosis or blue body disease.

21 Chlorine (Cl) Destroys plant and aquatic life and is a

biocide.

22 Sulphide Gives bad odour, toxic to many aquatic

organisms and animals.

23

Salinity

Very bad for soils which retain salinity.

Destroys agricultural land.

24

Oil/Grease/Oil Sludge

Petroleum product in general are very harmful

for soils, aquatic life, animal, human and plant

life. They are very toxic. Agricultural land may

suffer accumulation of oily waste affecting

aeration and fertility. Many constituents of oily

sludge are even carcinogenic and potent

immunotoxicants.

25

Surfactants and detergents

They are toxic and harmful for aquatic life,

animals and humans. Inhibit self-purification of

water.

26

Phenols

Toxic and impart objectionable odour. Also

subdue plant growth generally. Some phenols

(nitrophenyletc) are carcinogens.

27

Cyanides

Cyanide poses a serious health hazard. Apart

from acute toxicity and chronic toxicity, it leads

to development of iodine deficiency disorders.

28

Pesticides/Insecticides

Highly poisonous for humans and animals. Also

they lower seed germination, plays a role in

development of Parkinson‘s disease,destruction

of nerve cells in certain regions of brain

resulting in loss of dopamine which is used by

nerve cells to communicate with brain.

Some of these are physical poisons, some are

protoplasmic poisons causing liver damage,

some are respiratory poisons and some are

nerve poisons.

29

Aluminum (Al)

Toxic especially for brain, sometimes may lead

to Alzheimer‘s disease in humans.

Water Quality Management, Nagpur India (Feb. 2008,).


TABLE 1.2

Diseases due to Bacterial Pollution of Water

Sl. No. Diseases Bacteria I Virus I Protozoa I Worm

1 Water borne diseases:

Bacterial:

Typhoid

Cholera

Paratyphoid

Gastroenteritis

Bacterial dysentery

Viral

Infectious hepatitics

Poliomycetis

Diarrhea

Other enteric diseases ( prorozoan

)

Amoebic dysentery

Other*intestinal illness

Salmonella typhi

Vibrio cholera

Salmonella parayphi

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli

Variety of Escherichia coli

Hepatitis—A virus

Polio virus

Rota-virus, Norwalk agent, other virus

Echono-virus, Coxsackie-virus

Ent-amoeba hystolitica

Protozoa Glardia sp. and Cryptosporidium sp.

2 Water-washed diseases:

Sabies

trachoma

Bacillary dysentery

Various skin fungus species

Trachoma infecting eyes

E. coli*

3 Water based diseases:

Schistosomiasis

Guinea worm

Schistosoma sp.

Guinea worm

4 Infection through water related

insect vectors:

Sleeping sickness

Malaria

Trypanosoma through tsetse fly

Plasmodium through Anaphelis

5 Infections due to defective

sanitation/ polluted water:

Hookworms

Hookworms, Ascaris

Note: It may be mentioned that ‗Shiga toxin‘ is produced by a virulent form of E. coli bacteria.

This toxin can cause ailments ranging from mild intestinal disease to severe kidney

complications. The Indian Toxicological Research Institute, Luck now has confirmed that water

of river Ganges has become a home to this virulent form of E. coli.Water Quality

Management, Nagpur India (Feb. 2008,).


STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE OF WATER POLLUTION MANAGEMENT

Reducing Nutrient and Pesticide Pollution

Solutions to water pollution caused by excess nutrients and chemical pesticides can be found in

following broad categories:

Encourage smart agricultural practices.

Reduce urban/suburban runoff of lawn fertilizers and pesticides...

Prevent further destruction wetlands, and reestablish them wherever possible.

Improve sewage treatment...

Reducing Sewage Pollution

As societies, we should place the same priority on upgrading out-of-date or under capacity

sewage treatment plants that sometimes spew their contents into our waterways.

More specifically, we should...

Get going on fixing outdated municipal water treatment plants.

Fully fund the Clean Water State Revolving Fund.

Help localities set up programs that ensure system maintenance and monitoring.

Eliminate "straight pipes."

Reducing Pollution from Oil and Petroleum Liquids

The first-level solution to this type of water pollution is to stop letting so much oil and oil by

products get into the water in the first place. Yes, we must reduce the occurrences of oil spills;

but more importantly, we must reduce the amount of petroleum pollution getting into waterways

from non-spill sources, which contribute far more to the problem than spills.

Cleaning Up Chemical Pollution

Chemicals are everywhere, in everything—"better living through chemistry" has turned out to

have a serious pollution downside.

Fighting Global Warming

In terms of water pollution, there are two main threats from global warming

Ocean Acidification

Ocean Temperature

Water Treatment Process

The basic methods of treating municipal wastewater fall into three stages

Primary Treatment: -including grit removal, screening, grinding, and sedimentation.

Secondary Treatment: -which entails oxidation of dissolved organic matter by means of

Using biologically active sludge, which is then filtered off; and

Tertiary Treatment: -in which advanced biological methods of nitrogen removal and chemical

and physical methods such as granular filtration and activated carbon absorption are employed.


Wastewater can be treated completely at the plant and either reused or discharged directly into

receiving waters.

LEGISLATION IN RELATION TO WATER POLLUTION

National Legislation

National legislation constitutes a basis which must be drawn on to improve waste treatment

practices in a country. Many countries are currently drawing up national medical waste

management plans.

Somaliland National Sanitation Policy

Sanitation and the environment

Sanitation focuses on improving the population‘s health, while environmental policies focus on

improving the condition of the environment. Although the aim of both policies is to improve the

way in which waste is disposed of or treated, there can be areas of overlap and even, sometimes,

of conflicting interest (where waste disposal is safe for humans but harmful for the environment,

for example

The National Sanitation Policy does not cover uninhabited areas. Thus, the National Sanitation

Policy includes waste management for inhabited areas only. NSP, (2012 -2013)

Sanitation and health

The ultimate aim of sanitation is to break the cycle of disease through ―continuous preventive‖

action. Sanitation and hygiene are ―upstream actions‖, while health covers disease control,

medicine, food control, etc.

Some health sector information and knowledge will be of use to the sanitation sector and certain

norms, developed as ―health norms‖, will impact sanitation activities.NSP,(2012 -2013)

Sanitation and water supply

Water supply and sanitation pursue the same objective of improving the population‘s health

conditions. Both water supply and sanitation are required to achieve this aim, but neither is

sufficient on its own; they each need the other to achieve real progress towards improving health

conditions.

The water sector has already developed sector documents (national strategy, national policy,

Water Act), which cover water supply and, to a lesser extent, associated sanitation aspects.

The national water policy does not include sanitation in its scope, only mentioning sanitation as:

necessary activities (along with hygiene promotion) linked to water supply;

An area of collaboration with the Ministry of Health.


There is no overlapping anticipated between the national sanitation and water supply

policies.NSP, (2012 -2013)

Other line ministries

The framework for development of the sanitation sector includes other ministries that conduct or

supervise actions relating to sanitation such as Ministry of Environment and Rural Development,

Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and The Ministry of Livestock.

The ministry in charge of water

Responsibilities of the Ministry Water Resources (with regard to sanitation) include:

Improving access to safe drinking water for the population;

Undertaking all actions required to ensure drinking water quality is within the norms set by

the Ministry of Health for human consumption;

Organising water systems maintenance and, in relation to sanitation, ensuring the cleanliness

of water points and the proper use and transportation of drinking water. NSP, (2012 -2013)

SOMALILAND CONSTITUTION

Somaliland constitution has general principles which concern with policy promoting public

health, to combat communicable disease and the care of public welfare.

Protection and safeguarding of the environment which essential for the well being of the society.

Article 17: Health

1. In order to fulfill a policy of promoting public health, the state shall have the duty to meet

the country‘s needs for equipment to combat communicable diseases, the provision of free

medicine, and the care of the public welfare.

2. The state shall be responsible for the promotion and the extension of healthcare and private

health centers.

Article 18: The Environment and the Relief of Disaster

1. The state shall give a special priority to the protection and safeguarding of the environment,

which is essential for the wellbeingof the society, and to the care of the natural resources.

Therefore, the care of and (the combating of) the damage to the environment shall be determined

by law.

2. The state shall undertake relief in disasters such as famine, storms, epidemics, earthquakes,

and war. Somaliland constitution,(April 2005)


There are many laws that protect the world‘s oceans, rivers and lakes from unnecessary water

pollution. Each continent and country may differ in which laws they enforce but they aim to have

the same overall positive influence.

In Europe for Example

The urban waste water directive aims to protect surface inland waters and coastal waters

from pollution by regulating the collection and treatment of urban waste water.

The nitrate from agricultural sources directive aims to protect waters against pollution

caused by nitrates, especially nitrates from agricultural sources such as fertilizers. This

will enable marine and freshwaters to be protected from eutrophication.

The drinking water directive aims to establish strict standards regarding the quality of

drinking water. The directive provides parameters and analysis methods; these

standards must be met to ensure safe drinking water.

The surface water for drinking water abstraction directive, measurement, and sampling of

surface waters directive and information exchange decision are integrated to form a

framework that deals with water protection of all waters, not just those used by humans.

The fish water directive and shell water directive aims to protect waters from pollution

that are primarily used for fishing.

The groundwater directive aims to protect groundwater from dangerous pollutants by

controlling the direct and indirect discharges of certain substances into the groundwater.

The bathing water directive aims to keep good standards in the quality of bathing water in

freshwater and coastal water areas.

The Clean Water Act in USA

The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the primary federal law in the United

States governing pollution. Passed in 1972, the objective of the Federal Water Pollution Control

Act, commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act (CWA), is to restore and maintain the

chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters by preventing point and

nonpoint pollution sources, providing assistance to publicly owned treatment works for the

improvement of wastewater treatment, and maintaining the integrity of wetlands.

The principal body of law in effect is based on the Federal Water Pollution Control Act

Amendments of 1972which was a significant expansion of the Federal Water Pollution

Control Act of 1948. Major amendments were enacted in the Clean Water Act of 1977and

the Water Quality Act of 1987.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States




International Legislation related to Water Pollution

Various international agreement have been concluded which lay down fundamental principles

concerning public health, environmental protection and the safe management of hazardous

wastes. These principles and conventions are set out below.

Bamako Convention (1991)

This treaty banning the importation of any hazardous wastes into Africa has been signed by 12

nations.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

UNEP, (2004)

This convention aims to reduce the production and use of persistent organic pollutants and to

eliminate uncontrolled emissions of substances such as dioxins and furans.

Polluter pays principle

Any producer of waste is legally and financially liable for disposing of that waste in a manner

that is safe for people and the environment (even if some of the processes are sub-contracted).

Precautionary principle

When the risk is uncertain it must be regarded as significant and protective measures must be

taken accordingly.

Proximity principle

Hazardous wastes must be treated and disposed of as close as possible to where they are

produced.

Agenda 21 (plan of action for the 21st century adopted by

173 heads of State at the Earth Summit held in Rio in 1992

To minimize the generation of waste, to re-use and recycle, treat and dispose of waste products

by safe and environmentally sound methods, placing all residue in sanitary landfills.

WHO and UNEP initiatives concerning mercury and

Decision VIII/33 of the Conference of the Parties to the

Basel Convention on mercury wastes

Measures should be taken as soon as possible to identify populations at risk of exposure to

mercury and to reduce anthropogenic wastes. The WHO is ready to guide countries in

implementing a long-term strategy to ban appliances containing mercury. International

Committee of the Red Cross, November (2011)


Chapter Three

Methodology

Research Design

The research will examine the Effect of Water Pollution on Public health in Hargiesa

Somaliland. In this study representative as a case study design and the reason be behind is it

because of the study identifying a specific area of practicing. to obtain information about target

districts towards Water Pollution. The study would be used both quantitative and qualitative

methods, to collect both numerical qualitative information by describing the Effect of Water

Pollution on health in Hargiesa Somaliland.

Population of the study

The study will be conducted within the districts of Hargiesa City. Targeted places including, five

main districts of the city, where each district is considered those are the venerable Community

such as IDPs Comps Included State House IDPS ,Dami ,Cakaara and those surrounded the

Hargiesa Water Stream and the other one is Local Community which is related in this problem .

therefore the study is going to determine the Effect of water Pollution on Public health in this

areas.The researcher will visit the targeted places to find reliable and adequate information about

the Water Pollution on Public Health in our community.

Categories Population Sample

Ibrahim Kodbur 5 5

26 June 10 5

Gacan Libah 10 5

Ahmed Dhagax 5 5

Mohamud Haybe 5 5

Total 35 25

Sample size

The sample size of this study will be determined using Sloven‘s formula for calculating sample

sizes. Thus, the sample size will be 25 selected from the target population of 35 Respondents in

Hargeisa, Somaliland.

Sampling procedure

The researcher will use non-probability sampling procedure, especially purposive sampling

procedure. This is because the researcher may not have a complete list and information of all the

target population. So that the researcher will be utilized the most available and easily found

respondents.

Research Instruments

The study would use structured questionnaire to collect data pertaining in the field, especially in

primary data collection, the questionnaire would contain both open ended and close ended


questions. The researcher used questionnaires that will be distributed 100 respondents from the

target Places in Hargiesa Region. On the other hand, the interview was used by the researcher to

get additional information from that Venerable to Water Pollution (IDPs) etc.

Validity and Reliability

Content validity index will be used to determine the correctness of the questionnaire by using

pilot test to make sure that the questionnaire is captured with consistent data by testing with

different times for various groups of respondent.

Test-retest technique will be used to determine the reliability of the questionnaire the researcher

will give out 8 questions in the different sections of the questionnaire to 8 respondents. After one

week later, the same 8 questions will be given again to the same 8 respondents to ensure if the

results are consistency and essentially the same in both times.

On the other So the researcher will emphasize the reliability of the research instruments by

seeing the consistence of the respondent‘s answers.

Data Gathering Procedures

The procedures of data gathering will undergo in three faces which are:

Before the administration of the questionnaire: when the research will obtain an introductory

letter approved by the university to conduct the study. The researcher will prepare more than

enough questionnaires for distribution and list the qualified respondents from the five districts

and selected through systematic random sampling from this list and arrived at minimum sample

size.

During the administration of the questionnaires: the respondents will be requested to answer

completely and not to leave any of the questionnaires unanswered and all returned questionnaires

will be checked if all are answered.

After the administration of the questionnaires: the researcher will collect and arrange the

questionnaires from the respondents to check if there is any missing or unanswered

questionnaires in the bucket and prepare for encoding into computer and statistically treated

using the statistical package for social science.

Data analysis

Upon completion of data collection the researcher will analyze data using statistical package of

SPSS and will use charts and tables for representing data.


Ethical consideration of the study

To ensure utmost confidentiality for the respondents and the data provided by them to

reflect ethics that will be practiced in this study, the following measures will be done:

1. The entire questionnaire will be coded to present anonymity of the respondents.

2. The respondents will be requested to sign the informed consent

3. Authors quoted in this study are recognized through citations and referencing

4. The researcher will request for permission through a written request to the concerned

project planners/managers included in the study.

5. And finally, the researcher will get clearance from the ethical body/ethics committee.

Limitations of the Study

In view of the following threats to validity, the researcher will claim an allowable 5%

margin of error at (0.05) level of significance. Measures will also be indicated in order to

minimize if not to eradicate the threats to the validity of the findings of this study.

1. Extraneous variables which will be beyond the researcher‘s control such as

respondents‘ honesty, personal biases and uncontrolled setting of the study.

2. Instrumentation: The research instrument is innovation which is not standardized. A

validity and reliability will be done to produce a credible research tool.

3. Testing: The use of research assistants can bring about inconsistency in the

administration of the questionnaires in terms of time of administration, understanding

of the items in the questionnaires and explanations given to the respondents. To

minimize this threat, the research assistants will be oriented and briefed on the

procedures to be done in data collection.

4. Attrition/Mortality: Not all questionnaires maybe returned neither completely

answered nor even retrieved back due to circumstances on the part of the respondents

such as travels, sickness, hospitalization and refusal/withdrawal to participate. In

anticipation to this, the researcher will reserve more respondents by exceeding the

minimum sample size. The respondents will also be reminded not to leave any item in

the questionnaires unanswered and will be closely followed up as to the date of


Chapter Four

Results,Interpretations and Discustions

This chapter is May Fourth chapter of my research paper, am going to tell the Results,

interpretation and Discussions of my study.

Table 3: Demographic Information of Respondents Frequency % Percentages

1. Districts

26 June 6 27%

Ahmed dhagah 4 18%

Mohamoud Haybe 3 14%

Ibrahim Kodbur 6 27%

Gacan-Libah 3 14%

Total 22 100%

2.Gender

Male 9 41%

Female 13 59%

Total 22 100%

3.Marital Status

Single 16 73%

Married 6 27%

Total 22 100%

4.Age

Between 20 and 25 15 68%

Between 25 and 35 6 27%

Over 40-45 1 5%

Total 22 100%

5.Education Level

Secondary 2 9%

University 20 91%

Total 22 100%

6.Occupation

Public employ 16 73%

Private employ 2 9%

Other occupation 2 9%

Self employ 2 9%

Total 22 100%


Part One: Demography of The Respondents

Table3: This study assessed the current situation of Five District in Hargeisa, of these (27) were

26 June District while (18%) were Ahmed Dhagah District and (14%) were Mohamoud Hayb

District, While another (27%) Were Ibrahim Kodbur District and the rest (14%) were Gacan

Libah District The intention of the study was not a comparison but obtain the overall picture of

Water Pollution of the Capital City of Hargiesa .In regard to Gender Distribution of Interviewees

(41%) were Male ,While (59%) were Female.The majority (73% ) of respondents were Single

and the rest (27%) were Maried,In regard to age distribution of interviewees, ( 68% ) were 20 to

25 years, (27%) were 25-35 years of age, while only (5%) were 40 and above years of age. Their

Education Leve the Majority (91%) were University Level ,While only (9%) Were Secondary

Level.Occupation of the Respondents (73%) were Public Empolyee,(9%) Were Private

Employee and The rest (9%) Were Self Employee.

Part Two: Current Status of Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical,

physical, radioactive orpathogenic microbial substances. Adverse alteration of water quality

presently produces large scale illness and deaths, accounting for approximately 50 million deaths

per year worldwide, most of these deaths occurring in Africa and Asia In regard to about water

Pollution (91%) Have idea toward water Pollution but they do not Explain or Define what is it or

what the Pollution is ,and The rest only (9%) have not any idea about water Pollution

91%

9%

Q7:Any Idea About Water Pollution

Yes

No

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Health_effects_of_ionizing_radiation

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Zoonotic_diseases


The primary purpose of Drinking-water Quality is the protection of public health. Water is

essential to sustain life, and a satisfactory (adequate, safe and accessible) supply must be

available to all. Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in tangible benefits to health.

5% of these Respondents were replied the water that they drink is better Quality, 55% is good

and 14% is fair and the other 27% have poor quality water .The Question of How do the

Respondents see the Present Condition of Water Pollution of Their District (5%) Were Replied it

is Better,(55%) of the Respondents were Replied Good and (14%) Were Answered Fair and last

(27%) were Replied Poor.

.More than 2 million people in the world die each year from diseases such as cholera, typhoid,

and dysentery that are spread by contaminated water or by a lack of water for hygiene.

In Hargeisa, Somaliland (64%) were answered cholera is the Common Disease of their District

,(23%) were also answer Thyroid is our Common Disease ,and the only (14%) sated Dysentery is

Common Disease of their District.

0%

20%

40%

60%

Better Good Fair Poor

5%

55%

14%27%

Q8: Condition Of Water Pollution In Your District

64%

23%14%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

cholera Typhoid Dysentery

Q9: Common Disease In Your Point Of View Related To The Water

Born Diseases


It is a well-known fact that clean water is absolutely essential for healthy living. Adequate supply

of fresh and clean drinking water is a basic need for all human beings on the earth, yet it has

been observed that millions of people worldwide are deprived of this. More than 2 million people

in the world die each year from diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery that are spread

by contaminated water or by a lack of water for hygiene. The Majority (73%) of the Respondent

Were Actively Participate if the Water Will be Improved, while (27%) were not Participated .

Drinking Water Preferences may vary by community, Cultural background ,Taste,costs,health

benefits and Environmental concerns and depending on the water quality etc. The Question about

where the water of the Highest Quality is found ,only (5%) were confirmed water from wells are

the Highest Quality, The Majority (59%) were said bottled water is the highest quality, while

(36%) prefer water from tap water is the highest quality.

73%

27%

Q10: Activities If It Would Improve Water Quality

Yes

No

0%

20%

40%

60%

From Wells Bottled Water From water taps

5%

59%

36%

Q11: Water Of The Highest Quality


approximately 50 million deaths per year worldwide, most of these deaths occurring in Africa

and Asia due to Water pollution.

In My study Area (36%) were satisfied the quality of water of their district ,while (27%) were

hope to be better ,another (36%) could not satisfy the quality of water of their districts

Safe drinking water is a fundamental human right, but more than 2.0 billion people in the world

still lack access to safe-clean drinking water .Water makes up more than two thirds of the weight

of the human body, and without it, humans would die in a few days. Water is important to the

mechanics of the human body. The body cannot work without it, just as a car cannot run without

gas and oil. In fact, all the cell and organ functions made up in our entire anatomy and

physiology depend on water for their functioning. question about the important of water to the

health of the family Majority of the (64%) were believes water is important to the health of the

Family ,while (36%) don't said that they are so Important ,but they are not understand the

Important of Water to Health

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

Yes Could be better No

36%27%

36%

Q12: Satisfied With The Quality Of Drinking Water In Your District

64%

36%

Q13: Quality Of Water Is Important For The Health Of Your Family

Yes

No


The kidney is one of the most important organs in the human body. Like all internal organs, it

can be adversely affected by some of the chemicals and heavy metals that are found in the water

and air. Every year, about 208,500 new cases of kidney cancer are reported throughout the

world, most commonly in Northern America. The disease in its various forms kills about 13,010

people in the United States in 2008 alone. The causes of kidney cancer as for most types of

cancer are many and varied. But recently, the disease has been attributed to certain forms of

contamination in drinking water. These include arsenic, and radon.

So that in my study area .(68%) of the Respondents Were confirmed that there is no Kidney

Problems o their Children, While the Rest (32%) Were Stated the Cases o the Kidney problems.

Part Three: Level of Impact of Water Pollution on Public Health

Drinking Water is water that is clean and safe for Humans to drink. In recent time, there is an

increasing trend in consumer preference of bottled water over tap water/town supply water. One

of the reasons is due to the convenience of being able to carrying .bottled water around, with that

said, The Question about which water do you prefer (50%) were prefer Tap water,(32%) Were

preferred Mineral water/Bottled Water .While the other (18%) were preferred water from water

tankers or other like { biyoole }.

32%

68%

Q14: Children Had Kidney Problem In The Last 6 Months

Yes

No

50%

32%

18%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Tap water Mineral water( Bottled

Water )

Water tanker ( Biyoole

ama booyad )

Q15: Type Of Water Do You Prefer


Quality drinking water is important to our health and well-being. We use water daily throughout

our homes for cooking, cleaning, bathing, laundry and a host of other purposes. Water is critical

to most items we purchase and consume in one way or another. In this Question (5%) Were

responses that their Quality of water is not Very Bad, (32%) Were Replied No bad, (45%) were

answered Normal, while (14%) were answered Yes they are Good Quality

The decrease in quality of air leads to several respiratory problems including asthma or lung

cancer. Chest pain, congestion, throat inflammation, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease

is some of diseases that can be causes by air pollution. Water pollution occurs due to

contamination of water and may pose skin related problems including skin irritations and rashes.

Similarly, Noise pollution leads to hearing loss, stress and sleep disturbance. The Question is

About The biggest Pollution problems of the respondent's Districts ,The Majority (59%) were

stated Too much trash is the biggest Pollution,(14%) stated toxic Chemicals is the Problem of

their District, while(18%) were replied excess sediment is the Biggest pollution of their District

and the Rest (9%) stated other pollution problem is concern of their district .

0%10%20%30%40%50%

5%32% 45%

18%

Q16: The Water You Drink Is Of Good Quality

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%

Too much

trash

Toxic

chemicals

Excess

sediment

Others

59%

14% 18% 9%

Q17: The Biggest Pollution Problems For Your District


Even though the water delivered by pipe or tanker has been treated, cleaning out the sediment

and disinfecting the household water storage tank at least once a week is necessary to maintain

family health. With that said the respondents were replied only (9%) were stated that they clean

once every day ,(45%) clean 2-3 times a week, (32%) clean once a week ,while (14%) clean

more than a week,

If your water smells like rotten eggs, it may be contaminated with hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

Though H2S contamination at the concentrations found in domestic drinking water supplies

usually does not pose a health risk, it is still a nuisance and gives water a rotten egg smell and

taste. so that (9%) of the respondents replied Yes, The Majority (73) answered No ,while the

other (18%) stated sometimes they smell another type.

9%

45%

32%

14%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Once every day 2-3 times a week Once a week More than a week

Q18: Cleaning Your Drinking Water Container

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Yes No Sometimes they

smell another type

9%

73%

18%

Q19: Water Sometimes Smell Like Rotten Eggs


Q20: This Question is about the recommendation of the respondents so that the

recommendations of respondents is more but i summarize this important points

Water Pollution is one of the major problems of our Country, the pollution is wide spread

because of the attitude, People collect and threw the garbage and rubbish in watershed

areas so that floods can easily transmits into water bodies.

In order to protect water, we should considered source of water, so as to make source of

protection and discharge of sink water.

Tap water must be chlorinated and check every year to maintain the erosive taps.

Water containers in homes must be cleans it regularly.

Increasing Water sanitation Programs can prevent diseases and also the agents of water

pollution.

planting more trees reduce pollution by the sedimentation and protect water pollution.,

plants can make water clean because they are natural filtration

Develop water policy.

Provide public awareness in our community to tackle the Causes of water pollution.

Water from Water tankers It should be boil it before drinking to remove bacteria and the

other Causes


Chapter Five

Conclusion and Recommendation

Conclusion

Unfortunately, the outlook for the Hargiesa‘s freshwater supply is not very promising. Major

problems include location, quality, quantity, ownership and control of potable water. Though

some areas of the city have abundant freshwater resources, there are others, as the case in Water

Pollution that is facing water shortage. These shortages of potable water in Hargiesa sometimes

contribute to human abuse in the form of pollution. Water pollution has negatively affected water

supplies because people do not have access to safe drinking water. In addition, demand is

increasing for fresh water for personal needs. With an increasing population size that might be

approaching its population doubling in the next Coming 20 years, and with the high rate of

urbanization the whole country is experiencing due to the destitute situation population migrating

to urban areas, as well as severe destruction of the environment through charcoal-burning and

harmful pastoral management practices, the demand for safe drinking water will increase even

more. Sadly, most of the populations draw water from the unprotected water catchments or

wells, and that the quality of water for human consumption was poor. The general sanitation of

the population and residential areas is inadequate. Water Pollution is one of the major problems

of our Country, the pollution is wide spread because of the attitude, People collect and threw the

garbage and rubbish in watershed areas so that floods can easily transmits into water bodies. In

order to protect water, we should considered source of water, so as to make source of protection

and discharge of sink water.

Last of my word but no least Government must take actions and Establishes Legislation towards

Water Pollution.


Recommendations

The findings of the present study may not be as conclusive as the study was limited to a smaller

area.

It is, therefore suggested that more studies on large scale may be undertaken to draw

broad conclusion about the water pollution and human health.

Subject of water pollution should be included in the national curriculum for creating

awareness about the benefits of body water and all effects of poor quality water on

human health.

Mass media can play vital role to create awareness among the public about the problem

of water pollution.

Social workers, local governments and leaders should be involved to seek greater public

participation in seminars and workshops about awareness of water pollution in urban

rural areas.

The municipal corporation with Ministry of Water Recourses, Ministry of Health and

Ministry of Environment and Rural Development should establish the water pollution

legislation.

Programs on T.V. and radio should be presented in easy languages so that illiterate

persons may also get awareness about water pollution.

Water Pollution is one of the major problems of our Country, the pollution is wide spread

because of the attitude, People collect and threw the garbage and rubbish in watershed

areas so that floods can easily transmits into water bodies.

In order to protect water, we should considered source of water, so as to make source of

protection and discharge of sink water.

Tap water must be chlorinated and check every year to maintain the erosive taps.

Water containers in homes must be cleans it regularly.

Increasing Water sanitation Programs can prevent diseases and also the agents of water

pollution.

planting more trees reduce pollution by the sedimentation and protect water pollution.,

plants can make water clean because they are natural filtration


Appendixes A: References

1. Bagg, William 1992: River Pollution in Harare. Geographical Education Magazine Vol.

15: No. 1:7-15.

2. Central Statistical Office (CSO) 1982: The 1982 Population Census: A Preliminary

Report. Harare. Government Printers.

3. Central Statistical Office (CSO) 1992: Census 1992: Zimbabwe National Report. Harare.

Government Printers.

4. Central Statistical Office (CSO) 2002: The 2002 Population Census: A Preliminary

Report. Harare, Government Printers.

5. FAO 1996. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Ricciardi, A. and J.

B. Rasmussen. 1999. Extinction Rates of North American Freshwater Fauna.

Conservation Biology 13: 1220–1222.

6. Jordan, J.D. 1984: Local government in Zimbabwe. Gweru, Mambo Press.

7. Mapira, Jemitias 2001: Urban Geography Module 204. Harare, Zimbabwe Open

University.

8. Mapira Jemitias and Mungwini Pascah 2005: River Pollution in the City of Masvingo: A

Complex Issue, Zambezia Vol. 32. No‘s i/ii: 95-106.

9. WCED, 1991: Our Common Future: World Commission on Environment and

Development, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

10. UN WWAP. 2003. United Nations World Water Assessment Programme. The World

Water Development Report 1: Water for People, Water for Life. UNESCO: Paris, France.


Water Development Report 3: Water in a Changing World. UNESCO: Paris, France.


Water Development Report 2: Water, A Shared Responsibility. UNESCO: Paris, France.

13. UNICEF WHO 2008. UNICEF and World Health Organization Joint Monitoring

Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation:

Special Focus on Sanitation. UNICEF, New York and WHO, Geneva, 2008.

14. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (1996). Groundwater: a threatened

resource. UNEP Environment Library No. 15, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.

15. United Nations Environment Programme Global Environment Monitoring System

(GEMS)/Water Programme (GEMS). (2004). State of water quality assessment reporting


at the global level (R. Robarts). Presentation at the UN International Work Session on

Water Statistics. Accessed 27 July 2009 from

16. United Nations Environment Programme/GRID-Arendal,

http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/waste/page/2858.aspx.

17. United States Environmental Protection Agency. February 2006. The Water

Sourcebooks: Fact Sheets. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/wsb/pdfs/FACTS.pdf.

18. Trivedi, R.C. (CPCB), ―Key Note Address—Water Quality Standards‖, Int. Conf. on

Water Quality Management, Feb. 2003, New Delhi.

19. Trivedi, R.C., ―Water Quality Management in India‖, Int. Conf. on Water Quality

Management, Feb. 2008, Nagpur.

20. Government of Pakistan, 1999. Pakistan Economic Survey, 1999–2000. Government of

Pakistan Economic Adviser‘s Wing Finance Division Islamabad, Pakistan.

21. http://www.grinningplanet.com/2005/09-06/water-pollution-causes-article.htm.

22. http://www.grinningplanet.com/2006/12-05/water-pollution-effects.htm.

23. http://www.grinningplanet.com/2008/01-08/water-pollution-solutions-article.htm.

24. http://www.water-pollution.org.uk/treating.html.

25. http://www.lenntech.com/water-pollution-faq.htm.

26. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/watersess_papers.htm.

http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/waste/page/2858.aspx

http://www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/wsb/pdfs/FACTS.pdf

http://www.grinningplanet.com/2005/09-06/water-pollution-causes-article.htm

http://www.grinningplanet.com/2006/12-05/water-pollution-effects.htm

http://www.grinningplanet.com/2008/01-08/water-pollution-solutions-article.htm

http://www.water-pollution.org.uk/treating.html

http://www.lenntech.com/water-pollution-faq.htm

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/watersess_papers.htm


Appendixes B: Questionnaire

Questionnaire_________________________________________________________________

Effect of Water Pollution on Public Health, Hargiesa -Somaliland

Dear participant.

I am Mohamed Yassin, BSc Environmental Science student at the University of Hargiesa. In

the recent months I am conducting a Research in titled “effect of Water pollution on Public

Health in Hargiesa City”. Under Supervisor of Lecturer Hamse Ibrahim, needed for my

Bachelor Degree thesis project .Could you please set aside several minutes in order to participate

in my research and fill in the Questionnaire, that I am sending you in the Attachment? It will

mean a lot for my thesis, which I believe would be incomplete without the Questionnaire.

Please feel free to add any additional remarks to my study, or leave blank if you have troubles

answering certain questions. Although the Questionnaire is anonymous, at your request I will

include your answers as a reference and give a special acknowledgement to your Organization.

Sincerely,


Sing: ____________________


Part one: Demography

1. Your Gender?

a) Male

b) Female

2. Marital states?

a) Single

b) Married

c) Widower

d) Divorced

3. Your age?

a. Under 20

b. Between 20 and 25

c. Between 25and 35

d. Over 40- 45

4. Level of Education?

a. Secondary

b. University

c. Other skill

5. Occupation?

a. Public employ

b. Private employ

c. Other occupation


d. Self employ

6. Your district?

a. 26 June

b. Ahmed Dhagax

c. Mohamud Haybe

d. Ib./Kodbur

e. Gacan-Libah

Part two: Current Status of Water pollution

7. Do you have any ideas about Water Pollution?

a. Yes

b. No

8. What do you feel about the present condition of Water Pollution in your District?

a. Better

b. Good

c. Fair

d. Poor


9. What is the more common disease in your point of view related to the Water born

diseases?

a. Cholera

b. Typhoid

c. Dysentery

d. Others

10. Would you consider changing some of your daily activities if it would improve water

quality?

a. Yes

b. No

11. Where, do you think, water of the highest quality is found?

a. From wells

b. Bottled water

c. From water taps

12. Are you satisfied with the quality of drinking water in your District?

a. Yes

b. Could be better

c. No

13. Do you think that quality of water is important for the health of your family?

a. Yes

b. No

14. Have you or your children had kidney problem in the last 6 months?

a. Yes

b. No


Part three: level of impact of Water pollution on public health

15. What type of water do you prefer?

a. Tap water

b. Mineral water( Bottled Water )

c. Water tanker ( Biyoole ama booyad )

Each one please justify ……………………………………………………………

16. Do you think the water you drink is of good quality?

a. No, very bad

b. No, bad

c. Average/Normal

d. Yes, good

e. Yes, very good

17. What are the biggest pollution problems for your district?

a. Too much trash

b. Toxic chemicals

c. Excess sediment

d. Others

18. How often do you clean your drinking water container?

a. Once every day


b. 2-3 times a week

c. Once a week

d. More than a week

e. Never until it become dirty

19. Does water sometimes smell like rotten eggs?

a. Yes

b. No

c. Sometimes they smell another type

20. Recommendation

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

Thank you very much for your kind cooperation!



ANEXES 1

Deaths due to improper water and sanitation systems per 1000 population

Source: Map generated by WHO based on data from Fewtrell et al. (2007).

Note: The above Map shows deaths due to improper water and sanitation system. If you look

closely, Somaliland and Somalia highest rate of deaths due to poor sanitation (more than 500

deaths per 1000 population).

Documents

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