r.l/4

srREss MEDrcrNE, vol. 9:51-60 (1993)

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

4th iSIS Conference Monte Carlo, Principality of Monaco,June 2l'I7, 1992

sessiori on: The Managcment of stress: Psychological v. Biological Approachcs

ILLUSTRATIVE CASE STUDY

Faye was a young woman with many psychologicaland physical problems. She suffered from epiiepsy,insomnia, hypertension, frequent migraine head-aches and was hard of hearing. She complainedabout thc sidc-effecs of chc anticonwlsion drugshe was taking. She was unhappy about hcr workin a nursing homc: thc workload was heavy, hersupervisor was very demanding, and somc of hcrcoworkers werc not very nice to her. To makethings worsc, she had to livc with and care foran aging relative, who often intem:pted her sleepwith his groaning and demands foi attention. Shehad not yct got ovcr the hurt of having bcendumpcd by hcr boyfricnd; her fcelings of lonclinesswerc madc morc unbearable by her painful memor-ies.

Yet, thcrc was some strength jn her - shc wasa fighter, and she had ambitions. In spite of hcr

Received 15 August 1992Accepted 3 September 1992

EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF LIFE STRESS:THE RESOURCE_CONGRUENCE MODEL

PAUL T. P. WONG, PhD CPsychTrent Universiry & University otToronto, Canada

SUMMARY

This articlc qucstions traditional-conccptions of strcss aod coping and prcsents a more comprchensivc analysisof strcss managcmcnt. Sourccs ol strcss are cxpanded to inchidc virious intrapsychic and interpcrsonal slrcssors.The.evolution of coping stratcgics is described, culminatiug in proactivc, collcctivi, crcative, cxistcntial and spiritualcoping- Tbc rcsourcc-congrueDce model posits that coping is cffcctive ro the extcot that appropri.t" ,"iour"..are availablc and congrucnl coping-strategies arc cmployed. The modet cmphasizcs rhe imporianie of developiagrcsourccs in anticipation of exigcncies, and thc nccd for acquiring cultural linowlcdge as tqwhat coping strar;gic;arc suitable for a givcn strcssor.

rev wonoe-Strcs management, pcrsonal rcsourccs, social support, hardiness, culture, adaptation, strcss.

No one can claim immunity from life's problems,but everyone can leatn how to be more effectivein coping.

T']rere are vast individual differences in how wereagt to life stress. While some are vulnerable, andbccome easily ovcrwhclmcd by stress, others arevery resilicnt. Why do similar misfortunes lcad oneperson to distress and another person to success?What accounts for thcse differential effects ofstress? What arc the mediating variables? Whar arethe mechanisms for effective coping?

Spacc does not permit a thorough treatment ofthese complex issues. This articlc only shows thatthese questiors can be answered frorn the pcrspec-tive of a rcsource-congruetrce model.

*Addrcs for concspoodcnce DrFaulT. P. Wong. 1449 Caam.plain Drivc, Pctcrborough, ON K9L lN3. Canada. Tcl: (705)74?-8857. Fax: {?05) 749-1580.

0748-8386/93t0 I 005 l-t 0$ I 0.00O 1993 by John Wilcy & Sons, Ltd.

52 P. T. P. WONO

..ix

brutal schedulc, she managed to takc eveningcourses so that she could ger a betterjob. Unfortu-nately, her physical limitations and her lack of for-mal education meant that shc had no rcal prospectsfor a career move. Her many unfulfilled expec-tations only added to her sense ol frustration anddespair. Life to her was full of struggles and pain,but devoid of meaning.

When she first camc to see me, she had largeblotchcs of rash all over her face and ncck; shcwas dcpresscd and she talked about suicide. Ovcra period of several months of counselling, her con-dition improved somewhat. A new prescriptionreduced the side-effects of medication. Her agingrelative was hospitalized, thus providing somc rciiefto hcr burden of caregiving. She got involved ina Christian lellowship that gave her much-neededsocial and spiritual support. She also developeda rnorc positive attitude towards w,ork and morerealisric career expectations. Her need for love andintimacy remaincd unfulfilled, and shc was stiilworried about grand nai attack, but shc hadlearncd how to manage most of hcr psychological'and physical problems and no longer experiencedfrcquent bouts of dcpression.

THE DIAGNOSIS OF LIFE STRESS

The first step lowards effectivc coping is to idcntifythe sources of stress. We nced to know what theproblems arc and whcrc they come from. Sincestrcss is originally an e ngineering concept" refe n-ingto the ariount of external pressure acting upon anobject, traditional stress research tends to focus onnoxious stimulation, aversive situations or outsidepressures. We tend to think of stress as somethingthat life throws at us. For cxample, Holrncs andRahe's social readjustrncnt rating scaler basicallyfocuscs on the iifc events that happen to us, suchas death ofspouse, got fired at work, and changesin financial state or living conditions. If we use thisscale to assess Faye's life strsss, only one itemappiies to hcr, which is 'trouble with boss'. Thc.daily hassies scaie dcveloped by Kanner et al.7 isnot much help either, bccause it only coyers thcmundane tlpcs of frustration and irritations ofeveryday iiving, such as intemrptioos.

The Wheatlcy Stress Profiler is a better diagnostictool, bccause it quantifies stress in nine areas, suchas social .habits, social rclationsh,ips, lile evens.lilheatlcy{ has providcd evjdence based on 300patients that the WPS measurcd strcss-rclatcdsymptoms and was scnsitlve to the resuits olintcr-

vention. Althougtr the WPS is clinically useful, itstill falls short ol being a comprehcnsive mcasureof lifc striss.

A more cornplete dcscriprion of iile strcss iss.lrown in Fig. l. The various circles represent thedifferent domains whcre we are likely to encounterstress.

DOMAINS OF STHESS

Fig. i-Domains of srress in cvcryday life

Thc innermost circle represents thc inner coreof.our being, cail it ego strength, mental toughness,psychic energy or inne r resoruces. This ii- bherewe fall back on in coping with the crises of life.Stress resistance depends on having a vast innerreserve, as depicted in Fig. l. When inner resourcesdwindle to a tiny dot, the individual will becomevery vulnerable to various stress-rclated disordcrs,such as reactive dcprcssion and anxiety.

Ncxt noticc the large jnner circlc of intraperso-nal stress. Most of ourpressures and dcmands cornefrom within. This circle is the centrifugal force thataffects all areas ol our lives. Ifwe arc not at peaccwith ourselves, our inncr turmoil is likcly to spillover, giving rise to scif-destructive actions and poi-sooing intcrpers onal relationships.

Most of Faye's problems, such as unfulfilled

PersonalSEess

ffi,NFinanrSbe:YN

Fa

\sr\

milyreSs

wStres itress

SocletalSfess

R ESO URCE<ONG RUENCS MOD EL 53

.\\

cxpectadons and needs, perceived meaningtessnessof hfe and painful mcmories o[ the breakup withboyfriend, iall inro this catcgory. Becausc of thedeepiy entrenched environmental bias of main-stream psychology,'thcsc inner strcssors havc bcenlargely ignored by researchen.

The circlc of intcrpersonal stress interacts withspecific life domains. Since we bave to engage thcsocial world in most of our activiries, our interac-rions with others and our cvaluation of intcrperso-nal rclationships have a pervasive efhct on howwe fccl. Most problems are pcople problcms. Justthinking about how to avoid conflict with abrasiveand aggressivc individuals is alrcady a drain onour mertal eDergy. How wondcrful lifc would bcif everyone was rearsonable, understanding andkind, and we treat€d each other with dignity andrespect. Unfortunately, the reality is tbat we oftenhave to deal wi*r toxic peopie and work with difr-cult individuals. Cdnflict and mistrtst are fuelledby competition. Sclfishncss and ruthlessness havebecome prcrequisitcs to suwival. Much encrgy isconsumed in turf fighting and selfdefence.

Personal stress

Pcrsonal stress refcrs to what wc do and whathappcns to us as individuals whea we ate not per-forming certain weli-prescribed social rolcs sucbas parent, husband or enployee. It encompassessuch daily hassles as poor health, bad habits, scxualdifficulties, boredom and the lack of recreationalopportunitix. It also includes life transitions suchas menopause, retircmcnt and aging. Cognitivciemotionai problems and rclationship difficulties arcexcluded here because thcy are considered in thcirown right undcr intrapersonal and interpcrsonalstress, respectively.

Family stress

Family stress encompasses all thc difficulties ofkeeping thc family togethcr. Household chores,marital problems, sibling rivalry, intergencrationalconfficti, the trial of living with adolesccnts, illncssand death in the family arc some of the commonproblems. Alcoholism, famitry violgnce, sexualabuse and divorcc have bccome cpidcmic in reccntyears.

Work slress

Work strcss tlpically inciudes heavy workload,lack of control, iolc ambiguity and role cpnflict'

In a recession, job insecurity. performance evalu-ation, omce politics, downsizing and ruthless iut-backs and incompetent and unfair managementhavc become the major sources of stress forworkers.

.Soctelalstress

Socictal stress refcrs to problems experienced bytarge segments of a socicty or community, such aseconomic dcpression, povertyr drug abuse, racialtension and discrirnination, These tend to be his-rory-graded events.

Envirownental slress

Environmental stress includes both living con-ditions and natural environments. Air and waterpollutio n, inciement weathcr, crime-infested ncigh-bourhoods, crowding and high noise levcl are allcxamplcs of environmcntal stress.

Financial stress

Financial stress is self-cxplanatory. :\Mhen yourdebt load is greater than your assets, orwben youcannot pay your bills, thcn you are in financialtroublc. However, wben you cannot collect whatothcrs owc you it can be cquaily strcssful,

T}IE TEMPORAL DIMENSiON OFINTRAPERSONAL STRESS

' Intrapersonal stress deservcs closer examinationnot only because of its importance, but also becauseofits past neglect by stress researchers. Fig. 2 showsthe various types of strcssors along the temporaldimension.

Many of our problems have their roots in thcpast. The hurts and pains of growing up in a dys-functioning family; the scars of childhood sexualabuse, unresolved conflicts with parents ... thcscdemons from the past can haunt us for ycars. Shameand guilt are the shackles that chain us to the past-Repressed memorics and bottled-up emotions area perpetual source of tension within us. Both psy-choanalysis and more cognitively bascd remi-niscencc therapy are aimed at de aling withunrcsolved conflicts and healing painful memories.

With respect to present conditlons, again wc arefaced with a host of inner stressors. Existentiai cri-sis is concerned with both meaning in life (pro-visional meaning) and meaning of life (higher,uitimate mcaning). Related to such coocerns arethc philosophicai issucs of suffering: why do I suffer

54 P. T. P. WONO

lntrapersona.l Stress

Present FuturePast

Life events

Childhoodtraumas

Unresolvedconflicts

Fig,2-Types olintrapersonal stressors along the temporal dimcnsion

Anticipatory Stress

Fear of uncertainty

Fear ol aging

Fear of dying

stressful than actual disasters. Fear of aging anddying may bc pushed bcneath the surfacc o] oo.consciousness; ncvertheless, it is alwgrs.there toharass us until we learn to come to teriirs with thisulrimate truth of life.

When the psychic system is fuli of rension andconflicts, one does not need any outside pressureto feel anxious and strxsed out. Our innei tensioncan spill out and create all sons of problcms, rang-ing from constant squabbling to violent acts. WhJnihc.inner pressure reaches a certain point, it canexplode without any provocation. Theiefore, in thcdiagnosis of life stress, we need to pay particularattcntion to internal stressors.

DIMENSIONS OF LIFE STRESS

Thc aforementioned domains of stress serye as auseful guide during interviews in which we canexplore, a'nd map out the various stressors exper-ienced by the client. To know where most olthctroublcs come from is essential in planning inter-vention.

Multiface ted S tress Profile

Another approach to stress management is tofocus on quaiitatively dl{crcnt dimensions. In con-ncction with our research on successful aging, GaryReker and I have developcd the MulrifacercJ StrcssProfile (MSF), a questionnaire that measures boththe presence and impact of potential s{ressorswithin each dimensiou. The six major dimensionarc shown in Fig. 3.

Existential crisis

Ernotional reactivity

lnterpretative stress

Frustration

from epilepsy? Why me? Why this? It also deatswith the larger issues ol idenrity crisis: what is lifeall about? Have I wasred my life? There's got robe more to life than work and rnoney. An increasingnumber of middle-agcd people havc sought pro-fcssional help because ofexistential crisis. Frankl'slogotherapy has given exisrential anxiety the recog-nition and attention it deserves.

Negative affecdvity- also prcdisposes us to thcexperience of distress). We rnay have such a highlevel of emotional reactivity rhar we are constantlydisturbed and pained, as if all our nerye endings'have becn exposed.

To add to our miscry, w€ may havc the paranoictendcncy of pcrcciving danger lurking round everycorner. Misrrust and fear are ncver too far fromour consciousness. We are convinced that beingparanoic does not mean that people are Rot outto gct us. Misattributions cnable us to pcrccive ahidden agenda in cvery uttrrance, and malicebehind every smile.

Life can bc unbearable whcn most of our expec-tations remain unfulfillcd and all our cherisheddreams have been shattered. Frustration and disap-pointment eventually lead to bitterness, hostilityand despair. No rnatter where the blame is laid,the perceplion of seil as a failure exacts an enor-mous pricc.

Thc litany of our inner troublcs would not becornplete without including all sorts of foreboding.It has bcen said that fear of faiiure is worse thanfailure itself. Simiiariy, worries about future mis-fortunes, whcthcr real or imagined, can be more

R.ESO URCE-{ONCR UENCE MODEL

DIMEN.SIONS OF STRESS

1. LIFE.EVENT STRE.SS

r/lAJOR EVENTS OR UFE CHANGESErarnpt€r: Oeah ol sporrs€, broak-uP ol an important rehlion8hip

2. EVERYDAY STRESS

FREq.JENT UVI NG E)(PERIENCES' Eramplos: Atgum€ntl, htem.lptons

3. ANrrQrPAroFY_sIFEsS

CONCERNS OR WORFIES ABOUT FUTURE EVENTSElamd€si A'l impeding d€adfine, th€ prospect ol being laid oft

4. INTERPf; ETAI\F STRESS

STR€SS THAT DERIVES FROM OUR INTERPRSTATICI.I OF E1/ENTSoR coa.rolTroNs oF EXSTENGE

Examples: Malicious inlent h othefs, meaninol€s3n€ss h lto

5. SELF-PERPETUATING EMOTIONTT-SJSESS

AN EMO11ONAL REIC'NON TtlAT HAS BECOME SO ESGGEMTEDAI..ID PERSISTENT THAT IT TA'GS ON A UFE OF ITS OWN

F:amples: varktus kinds ol phoHa, pattplogical €ri€t

6. sooElAL STFESS-

SOCIAL ISSUES OR EI.MRONMENTAL EVENTS THAT FI,A\E APERVASI\IE INFLUENCE ON L.ARGE S€GMENTS OF THECOMMUNITY

Examples: Polltltiors, ctlrn€ rate

Fig. !-Dimeosions oltife strcss as measured by thc Multilacctcd Strcss Profrle (MSR

55

:->\

The first threc dimcnsions encompass past, pres-ent and futurc orientations, respectively. Notc thatthe life-event stress inciudes childhood traumas, aslong as tbey still have some impact on the indiv!dual, Thc forth and fifth dimensions focus ou intra-pcisonal stress. The last dimensios has to do withlhc hrger socioenyironmental contcxt. Our pie-liminary data analysis has shown that interpretativcand self-pcrpetuating emotionai stress most clearlydiffcrcn tiatcs bctwccn success ful and unsuccessfulage rs, thus implicating the adverse effects of intra-personal stress on adjustment to aging.

A c ogn it ive-r e I at io na I mo de IHaving detcrmincd the sources of stress, we arc

now ready to examine lhe stress process and themcchanisms of coping. According to Lazarus andFolkman6, strcss is a 'particular reiationshipbctwcen the person and the environmcnt that isappraiscd by tbe person as taxing or cxcceding his

or her resourc€s and endangering his or hcr well-bcing'(p. l9).

Since strcss docs not always originatc from theenvironrnent, WongT has redefined stress as a'pro-biematic intemal or extcrnal condition that cr€atestcasion/rpsct in thc individual and calls for somcform of coping' (p. 70); such conditions stem fromthc individual's appraisal of an imbalance betweenpersonal resources and demands as well as aperceived threat to histrer weil-being. To put itsimply, stress is a.problematic condition rcsuitingfrom the appraisal of an imbalance betweendemands and resources and calls for cfforts to res-tore the balancc.

According to this cogrritive-ielational vicw,stress is an interactive, dynamic process that is trig-gcred by appraisal of the presence of stressor(s),mcdiated by coping, and resuits in certain out-comes. Whcncver the person perceives that thedemand taxcs or cxceeds available resourccsr he/shcwill cxpericncc some teasion and tbc need to do

56 P, T. P. WONG

- -- l

.'b. Primaryappraisal

+tSecondaryappra'sal

something about the problem. Coping is ar attempt1o resolve the problem and rcstore the balance; iiconsists of a combination of behavioural, cognitive,psychodynamic and physiological responses torcmove the tension or threat. Fig. 4 presents a schc-matic view of this proccss.

Appraisal

You can't fix the problem if you don't knowwhatit is. Therefore, the frrst siep in effective copingis appraisal, The importance of cognitive appraisaiin the stress plgcess has gained widc acceptance.Appiaisal ddtermincs whether one expcricnccsstress and how onc copes with it.

Primary appraisal is concerned wilh assessingwhether ws have a problem on hand and how ser-ious it is. It asks such questions as: Am I in troublc?Is the situation harnrful? Is the threat really serious?Is it .central to my well-bcing? Answers to thcsequestions would depend on input from secondaryappraisal. Primary appraisal functions as an cxecu-tivc who decides whether a strcssful condition doesexist and some form of coping is necded.

Secondary appraisal proccsses such relevantinforrnation as: What is troubling me? What kindof problem is it? What can bc done about it? Isit within my control? This is an ongoing process,

Cultural Gontext

Fig. 4-A schcmatic prcscotation of the cognitive-relational model of stress

constantiy monitoring the various components inthe strcss process and lbeding the rcsults to primaryappraisai.

Coping strategies

Just as wc nced to know what the stlessors are,so wi necd to know what kinds of coping strategiesare at our disposal. This article is primariiy con-cerned with psycho)ogical rather thao physiologi-cal and endocrinc responses- There bas been ancvoiution of psychological coping in terms of con-ccptual development, and progression towardsgreater differentiation, as depicted in Fig. 5.

SirWalter Catrnon's discovery ofinstinctual cop-ing pattcrns (ie the fight-or-flight reaction and sur-render) has bccomc part of our cultural knowledge.Such coping pattens are prevalent in the anirnalkingdom, Individuals who depend primarily orrthesc primitive coping pattcrns have very littlechance of succcss in adapting to today's complexsociety: we cannot punch out everyone who givesus trouble; nor can wc constantly seek escapc inalcohol and drugs.

: Fleud's conccption of various defencc mccha-nisms to cope with threats to ego intcgrity has also

'gained wide acceptance. Concepts such as

R, ESOURCE_CONGR UENCE MODEL 57

The Evolution of CoPing

I ?rafug:lnstrumentaland cognitivereactions

strategies. These are uniquely human adaptiveresponses, because they depend on the human caPa-citics for symbolism, projecting into the future, self-reflection and spiritual exercise. We rnay also addcollective and creativc coping to this list. Collectiveis more than receiving social support; it means theconcerted effort involving ail members of a groupto tackle the same problem. For example, all familymembcrs rally together lo cope wirh thc stress olcaring for a terminally ill parent. Creative copingrefers to finding novel soludons to old problems;it is built on past learning but it is gcnerated byimagination and exploration of new avenues.

Cultural contexl

The sociocultural context of stress plays animportant role in effective coping. Culturally basedexpectations influence what is appraised as strcss-ful. The cultural milieu in which onc was socializedprcdisposcs one to react to stress in a certainfashion. More importantly, cultural knowledge isneeded to determinc what coping behaviour isappropriate for a given situation. Finally, ethnicitycan be both a resource for coping and an additionalsourca ofstress. A fuil discussion ofcultural issuesln adapution can be louad in Wong and Ujimoto.'0

A resource-congruence model of efective coping

The model posits that sufficicnt resourccs andappropriate utilizatiou ofthese resourccs are essen-tial to effective coping. Conversely, dcficicntresources and/or gross deviations from congruenccwould lead to ineffectualcoping and make the indi-vidual vulncrable to stress-relatcd disorden' Fig.6 is a schematic presenlation of the rcsources-congruence model of effcctive coping.

An important leaturc of this model is the empha-sis on proactive measures. if the individual con-stantly develops a variety of resoulces, aod avoidsunnecessary risks, then shelhe will rcduce the likeli-hood of stress encounters.

Reactive copiag begins as soon as a problematiccondition is declared by primary appraisal. At thisstage, two types of congruence are important toefi'eitivc coping. First, appraisal should accuratelyreflect rcality and bc based on an objective, rationalassessment of the dcmands and avaiiable resources.Secondly, the srategics selected need to be congru-ent with the nature of thc stressor.

Adequate resources andcongruent coping wouldcventuilly lead to a reduction of stress. One is

able to relax and conselve personal resources

/WI lnstinctual I

I uenaviours I

Fig.5-Thc cvolution of coping strategics

repression, rationalization and denial have be"orrt"household words. Most of thcse mechanisms areassumed to bc innatcly dctcrmined and op€ratcunconsciously. Freud is primarily concerned withhow thc human mind defends itself against neuroticand moral anxjetl, but he has little !o say abouthow to rcduce other types ofstrcss.

The measurement of cognitivc and behaviouralcoping developcd by Folkman and Lazarus'marksan- important slep forward because it emphasizeslearned rather thln lnnate mechanisms' Problem-iocused coping consists of various learned instru-meotal itrategies. Emotion-focuscd copingincludes some Frcud's dclence mechanisms andothcr types of cognitive strategics-

CREATIVE COPING

M.ore recently, Wong and his associatese have de-

velopcd a coping measure that encompasses pre-

vcntiveo self-rlstructuring, existential and spiritual

Wong:Proactive,collective,creative,existentialand spiritualstrategies

58 P.T. P. WONG

A Resource-congruence Model of Effective Adaptation

Proactlvecoplng Beactlve coplng Felaxation

IIII

\i/

Positive outcornes:Fleducing stressReslorino balanceEnhanciig

wellbeing

whea some dcgree of success in adaption isachieved. This cycle may be rcpeated many dmesin the case ola very difficult or chronic problem.

Effective coping is flcxible , creative and resource-ful'in that good use is made of available rcsourccs.Thc following are soine indices of efi'ectivc coping:efficrency in terrns of cxpenditurc of cnergy a:ldresources: cfficacy in achicving thc dcsircd goal ofremoving stress and restoring balance; and per-

.solal growth in terms of enhanced competencc,self-esteem and well-being. Thus, successful copingyiclds both shorr-term and long-term benefiK.

Congruent coping

Secondary appraisal is involved in assessing thenature of the stressor and sejecting appropriatestrategies on the basis ol available resources andcultural knowlcdge. We have already dernonstratedthaf indiviciuals do engage in such assessments andthat there is a linkagc between secondary appraisaiand coping strategies.rr'rz The matching belweenvarious types ol stressors and coping stratcgies isillustrated in Fig. ?.

Congruencc is unlikely to be achieved whcn onereacts to stress emot;onaliy, instinctivcly or habi-tually. The best way to achieve matching is todctach oneself from the situation and ask: Whatwould an ideal coper do in this situation? Whatwould be the most logical answ€r to this problem?

@ r-.---+ I r."t*.] * [ 1,"'.t"=."".l *

[}]"h"J-j--a II lntellectual l-+I Soiritual I

I sbclat I

I Pnvsica.l I

I Rn'anci"t I

I Cuhural I

I Ervironmental I

Fig. 6-A schmatic prcscntation of the rcsource--congruencc model ol eff-cctivc coping

Therefore, one of the lessons of stress managementis the need for rational analysis.

A resource-deficit model of mental health

Resources are the devices aod mcans of supplythat can be drawn on in times ol need. Moif ofthe resources listed in Fig. 6 can be considered aspcrsonai to the exrenr that they can bc developed"possessed and utilizcd by the individual. Theimportance of personal resou.rces in coping hasgained increasing alrention.rr.ta fnis seciioi willlocus on psychological resources.

The tradirional approach to rcsilience is to icien-tify traits that are rcsistant to stress. For example,Kobasarl emphasizes the fo1!owing three character-istics ofa hardy personaiity: (1) the beliefthat theycan control or jnfluencc their life events; (2) theability to feel deeply involved and committcd inlife activities; and (3) the oplimisric anricipationto change.

More recent research is concerned with attitudesand cognitive systerns that contribute to resiliencc.Considerable research has been done on the ben-eficial effects of conlrol belie ls'6 and optimism.lT'lEPcrsonal meaning has also becn identificd as amajor psychol ogical rcsource. lF:l

It is important to keep in mind thal psychologicalresources and cjeficits are not oppositc poles of thesame continuurn, such that increase in the lositivewould mean an autonatic reduction ol tle ncga-tive. We have obtained preliminary cvidcnce t6at

IIII

vIIIII

\l/

1_

!to

RESOURCE-4ONGRUENCE MODEL

Congruent CoPing Stt"t"gies-

(o

F-

1) Gontrollable bY sell

2) Controltable bY others

Self-reliance orproblem-focused coping

Socialsuppod ordependence on others

Cognitive restructuring3) Attitudinal Problem

4) Emotional Problem Palliative coPing

5) Philosophical probtem

- Existential coping

Fig. 7-Types oIstressors and congruQnr coping strategies

resources and deficits often coexist in a state ofdynamic tension as depicted by the Chincse symbol

of ying-yang in Fig. 8.

PSYCHOLOGICAL RESOURCES

AND DEFICITS

Fig. 8-A symbolic prescntation of psychological

resourccs and dcficits

The dark sidc inciudcs everything negative -lceiings of hclplessncss and meaninglessness! pcs-

simistic views, selfdcprecation, pcrfectionisticbeliefs, painful memories, and destructivc impulses.

Al1 theie deficits saP our energies, make us fccibad and reduce our effectiveness in coping- Deficitsreprescnt a parallel cognitive-emotional systemthit compctes with psychological rcsources' Thus,optimism and sclf-doubt may bervaging a constantrug-of-war, wh!1e onc's sense of mastery is tryingdesperately to ward off feelings of powerlessness'

The net psychological resources avaiiable to thcDerson depend not on the actual amount ofi"rour".. iossesscd, but on the balancc betweenresources and deficis.

In vicw of the above analysis, to enhance stress

iesistance and improve mental health requires thatwe culdvate psycirologicai resources and reducedeficits at thc same time' To increase rcsourccs,we necd to foster a sense of rnastery while re cogniz-ing cxternal constraints and internal limitations;wJ need to explore sources of personal meaning:

we can also cultivate our capacity for dreamingand hoping, In dealing with the deficits, we need

to work oripersonal lifi history and replace irratio-nal beliefs with more adaptive schemas*; we need

to idcntily the charactei flaw that fre "ilently defeas

the individual's bcst intcntions and efforts'

CONCLUSIONS

The rcsource-congruence model providcs a novel

and comprehensive approach to,stress manage-

ment. It'goes beyond traditional concerns withrcaclive coping and emphasizes the genius of proac-

L

60 P. T- P. WONG

tive measures. Effective strcss management has tobe berter than merely putting out fires; it requires' a new vision and a new approach to resource devc-lopment that would rninimize lhe need to put out. fires.

Another contribution ol the mode! is that ir,:7=:\ recognizes the vital role olcultural knowledge and

rarional analysis in achieving congmence. The eth-nic background of the client and rhc cultural con-text of stress need to be takcn into accoutt ininterventions. Further, the cognirive skills of realis-tic appraisal and selecting appropriate straregiescan be acquired.

Finally, the heuristic values of the model needsto be mentioned. It bas grcatly expanded our vistaof resilience research. Flardiness is no Iongcr alimired ser o[ personaliry trai* bur a long list olpersonal resourccs that can be culCvated andacquired. We can now systematically investigatehow thesc resources operale singly and in differcntcornbinations to enhancc resistance to varioustypcs of stressors. We can also study what kindsof resourccs are most importentiy inyolved in resis-Lance to reactive depression. The concept ol para-llcl cognitive{moLive systcms is aiso a fcrtileground for rcssarch on the interactions ofpsycbo-logicai resources and deficits and their cFects onmcmory, affect and bchaviour.

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