EFFECTS OF PEER TUTORING ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT …prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/10739/1/Irfan Ullah_Edu_2… · 2.6.2.6 Concept of mediation in the sociocultural

EFFECTS OF PEER TUTORING ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

OF STUDENTS IN THE SUBJECT OF BIOLOGY

AT SECONDARY LEVEL

IRFANULLAH

142-NUN-0504

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

NORTHERN UNIVERSITY, NOWSHERA

PAKISTAN

2018

EFFECTS OF PEER TUTORING ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

OF STUDENTS IN THE SUBJECT OF BIOLOGY

AT SECONDARY LEVEL

IRFANULLAH

142-NUN-0504

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

In

Education

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

NORTHERN UNIVERSITY, NOWSHERA

PAKISTAN

2018

ii

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I Irfanullah hereby state that my Ph. D. thesis titled, “Effects of Peer

Tutoring on the Academic Achievement of Students in the Subject of Biology at

Secondary Level”, is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for

taking any degree from this University (Northern University, Nowshera) or anywhere

else in the country/world.

At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my graduation

the university has the right to withdraw my Ph. D. degree.

Name of Student:

(Irfanullah)

Date:

iii

PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING

I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled, “Effects of

Peer Tutoring on the Academic Achievement of Students in the Subject of

Biology at Secondary Level”; is solely my research work with no significant

contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help whenever taken has been

duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me.

I understand the zero tolerance policy of the Higher Education Commission

and the Northern University, Nowshera towards plagiarism. Therefore, I as an Author

of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and

any material used as reference is properly referred/cited.

I understand that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above

titled thesis even after award of Ph. D. degree, the university reserves the right to

withdraw/revoke my Ph. D. degree and that Higher Education Commission and the

university have the right to publish my name on the HEC/University Website on

which names of those students are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.

Student/Author Signature:

Name:

(Irfanullah)

iv

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This is to certify that the research work presented in this thesis, titled, “Effects

of Peer Tutoring on the Academic Achievement of Students in the Subject of

Biology at Secondary Level”,, was conducted by Mr. Irfanullah under the

supervision of Prof. Dr. Rabia Tabassum. No part of this thesis has been submitted

anywhere else for any other degree. This thesis is submitted to the Faculty of Arts and

Social Sciences (Northern University, Nowshera) in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Education,

Department of Education, Northern University, Nowshera.

Student Name: Irfanullah Signature:

Examination Committee:

a) External Examiner 1: Name Signature:

(Designation & Office Address) Kathleen Norris, MFA. EdD

Department of Educational Leadership, Learning and Curriculum

Plymouth State University, Plymouth, New Hampshire, USA

b) External Examiner 2: Name Signature:Nilgün Tosun

(Designation & Office Address)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nilgun Tosun

Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology

Faculty of Education, Trakya University, Kosova Campus

Edirne – TURKIYE

c) Internal Examiner : Name Signature:

(Designation & Office Address)

Dr. Saqib Shahzad

Associate Professor, Department of Education

Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan.

Supervisor Name: Prof. Dr. Rabia Tabassum Signature:

Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dr. R. A. Farooq Signature:

Name of Dean/HOD: Prof. Dr. R. A. Farooq Signature:

v

DEDICATION

Dedicated to my family

two daughters Hooriya Yousafzai, Anaya Yousafzai

and son Mohammad Omar

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements xvii

Abstract xviii

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 5

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 5

1.3 HYPOTHESES 6

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION 7

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 7

1.6 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY 8

1.7 METHOD AND PROCEDURE 8

1.7.1 Population 8

1.7.2 Sample 8

1.7.3 Design of the Study 8

1.7.4 Research Instruments 9

1.7.5 Data Collection 9

1.7.6 Analysis of Data 10

Chapter 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 11

2.1 METHODS OF TEACHING 12

2.2 STUDENT CENTRED APPROACHES 13

2.2.1 Project Method 13

2.2.2 Problem Based Learning 14

2.2.3 Case Study 14

2.2.4 Role Play 15

2.2.5 Academic Role Play 16

vii

2.2.6 Group Discussion 17

2.2.7 Cooperative Learning 17

2.2.8 Supplemental Instruction 18

2.2.8.1 Objectives of supplemental instruction 18

2.2.9 Pair Work 19

2.3 PEER TUTORING 19

2.3.1 Significance of Peer Tutoring 21

2.3.2 Training Requirement for Peer Tutoring 22

2.3.3 Principles of Peer Tutoring 23

2.3.4 Types of Peer Tutoring 27

2.3.4.1 Reciprocal peer tutoring 27

2.3.4.2 Cross age peer tutoring 28

2.3.4.3 Parent/Volunteer tutoring 29

2.3.4.4 Class wide peer tutoring 29

2.3.4.5 Same age peer tutoring 29

2.3.5 Teacher‟s Role in Peer Tutoring 29

2.3.6 The Role of Tutor in the Tutoring Process 30

2.3.7 Role of the Tutees in the Tutoring Process 31

2.3.8 Major Steps in the Tutoing Process 31

2.4 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 33

2.5 BLOOM TAXONOMY 34

2.5.1 Cognitive Domain 34

2.5.1.1 Revised model of cognitive domain 35

2.5.2 Affective Domain 36

2.5.3 Psychomoter Domain 36

viii

2.6 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF PEER TUTORING

36

2.6.1 Piaget‟s Theory of Cognitive Development 38

2.6.1.1 Piaget‟s theory of learning 38

2.6.1.2 Cognitive stages of development 40

2.6.1.3 Educational implication of Piaget‟s theory 41

2.6.1.4 Piaget‟s theory and peer tutoring 42

2.6.2 Vygotskey‟s Theory of Learning 43

2.6.2.1 Zone of proximal development 43

2.6.2.2 Zone of actual development 44

2.6.2.3 Zone of no development 44

2.6.2.4 Level of mental function 45

2.6.2.5 Sociocultural theory of Vygotsky 45

2.6.2.6 Concept of mediation in the sociocultural theory of

Vygotsky

48

2.6.2.7 Scaffolding in the zone of proximal development

48

2.6.2.8 Effect of society on the sociability of the child 49

2.6.2.9 Educational implication of Vygotsky theory 50

2.6.2.10 The theory of Vygotsky and peer tutoring 51

2.6.3 Social Role Theory 51

2.6.4 Ausubel‟s Learning Theory 52

2.7 EMPERICAL STUDIES ON PEER TUTORING 53

2.8 MOTIVATION 60

2.8.1 Components of Motivation 60

2.8.2 Motivation and Learning 63

2.8.3 Ingredients for Students Motivation 64

ix

2.9 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF MOTIVATION IN

LEARNING

67

2.1

0

EFFECTS OF PEER TUTORING ON MOTIVATION OF THE

STUDENTS

71

Chapter 3: METHOD AND PROCEDURE 75

3.1 POPULATION 75

3.2 SAMPLE 75

3.3 DESIGN OF THE STUDY 75

3.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS 76

3.4.1 Pretest and Posttest 76

3.4.1.1 Reliability of test 77

3.4.2 Participants Observation 78

3.5 PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY 78

3.5.1 Selection of Tutors and Tutees 78

3.5.2 Tutor Training 79

3.5.3 Classroom Arrangement 80

3.5.4 Teaching Contents 80

3.5.5 Treatment 80

3.6 DATA COLLECTION 82

3.7 ANALYSIS OF DATA 82

Chapter 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 85

4.1 INTERPRETATION OF PRE TEST SCORE 85

4.2 INTERPRETATION OF POST TEST SCORE 90

4.3 INTERPRETATION OF POST TEST SCORE WITH RESPECT

TO KNOWLEDGE, COMPREHENSION AND APPLICATION

LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF BLOOM

TAXONOMY

95

x

4.4 PARTICIPANTS OBSERVATION 108

4.4.1 Coding 112

4.4.2 Description of Theme 113

4.4.3 Conclusion 114

4.5 DISCUSSION 115

Chapter 5: SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 120

5.1 SUMMARY 120

5.2 CONCLUSIONS 122

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 125

BIBLIOGRAPHY 127

APPENDICES

A. Pretest 135

B. Postest 140

C. Model Lesson Plan for Experimental Group 145

D. Model Lesson Plan for Control Group 148

E. Pretest and Post test score of both groups 150

F. Pretest score of both groups 151

G. Posttest score of both groups 152

H. Pretest score of high achievers of both groups 153

I. Pretest score of low achievers of both groups 154

J. Posttest score of high achievers of both groups 155

K. Posttest score of low achievers of both groups 156

L. Pretest score of the pairs of tutors and tutees 157

M. Posttest score of the pairs of tutors and tutees 158

N. Post test score of experimental group with respect to knowledge,

comprehension and application levels of cognitive domain

159

xi

O. Post test score of control group with respect to knowledge,

comprehension and application levels of cognitive domain

160

P. Post test score of high achievers of both experimental and

control groups with respect to first three levels of cognitive

domain

161

Q. Post test score of low achievers of both experimental and control

groups with respect to first three levels of cognitive domain

162

R. Score of the students for reliability testing of pretest 163

S. Score of the students for reliability testing of posttest

164

T. Revised model of Bloom‟s cognitive model 165

U. Certificate of completion of research work 166

xii

LIST OF TABLES

S.NO Title Pages

1 Table of Specification of Pretest 77

2 Table of Specification of Posttest 77

3 Frequency distribution of experimental and control group 85

4 Significance difference between the mean of pretest scores of

control group and experimental group

86

5 Comparision of the High Achievers(Tutors) of the Experimental and

High Achievers of the Control Group on the basis of Pretest score

87

6 Significance difference between the mean scores of higher achievers

of experimental and control groups

88

7 Comparision of the Low Achievers(Tutees) of the Experimental

Group and Low Achievers of the Control Group on the basis of

Pretest score.

88

8 Significance difference between the mean scores of low achievers

(Tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups

89

9 Expression of the Posttest scores of both experimental and control

groups in frequency distribution form

90

10 Significance difference between the mean of posttest score of

experimental and control group

91


High Achievers of the Control Group on the basis of Posttest score

91

12 Significance difference between the mean scores of experimental

and control groups of high achievers

92

13 Comparision of the Low Achievers(Tutees) of the Experimental

Group and Low Achievers of the Control Group on the basis of

Posttest score.

93

14 Significance difference between the mean scores of low achievers

(Tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups

94

15 ANOVA table showing significance difference among the mean

posttest scores of experimental and control groups

94

16 Expression of post test score of both experimental and control group

with respect to knowledge level in frequency distribution form 95

xiii

17 Significance difference between the mean of post test scores of

experimental and control group with respect to knowledge level of

cognitive domain.

96


with respect to comprehension level in frequency distribution form

96


experimental and control group with respect to comprehension level

of cognitive domain.

97


with respect to application level in frequency distribution form

98


experimental and control group with respect to application level of

cognitive domain.

99



with respect knowledge level of cognitive domain

99


and control groups of high achievers with respect to knowledge

level of cognitive domain

100



with respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain

101


and control groups of high achievers with respect to comprehension


102



with respect to application level of cognitive domain

102


and control groups of high achievers with respect to application


103

28 Comparision of the Low Achievers (Tutees) of the Experimental

and Low Achievers of the Control Group on the basis of Posttest

score with respect knowledge level of cognitive domain

104


and control groups of low achievers with respect to knowledge level

of cognitive domain 105

xiv



score with respect comprehension level of cognitive domain

105


and control groups of low achievers with respect to comprehension


106



score with respect application level of cognitive domain

107


and control groups of low achievers with respect to application level

of cognitive domain

108

xv

LIST OF FIGURES

Title Pages

1 Pretest Posttest Equivalent Group Design 9

2 Pretest Posttest Equivalent Group Design 76

3 Frequency distribution of pretest score 86

4 Frequency distribution of pretest scores of high achievers of

experimental and control groups

87

5 Frequency distribution of pretest scores of low achievers of


89

6 Frequency distribution of posttest scores of the experimental and

control groups

90

7 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of high achievers of


92

8 Frequency distribution of posttest scores of low achievers of


93


control groups with respect to knowledge level

95


control groups with respect to comprehension level

97


control groups with respect to application level

98


experimental and control groups with respect to knowledge level

100


experimental and control groups with respect to comprehension level

101


experimental and control groups with respect to application level

103

15 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of low achievers of

experimental and control groups with respect to knowledge level

104


experimental and control groups with respect to comprehension level

106

xvi


experimental and control groups with respect to application level

107

18 Coding of participant observation 113

xvii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to Allah Who deserves all praises alone. It is only the blessing of

Allah, Who enabled the researcher to complete this study and contributed a significant

knowledge to the field of pedagogy.

The researcher is grateful to his most co-operative, knowledgeable,

experienced supervisor Dr.Rabia Tabassum who expanded her all kinds of co-

operation, and support which has empowered the researcher to complete this

dissertation well in time. The researcher is deeply grateful to her for the useful

suggestions, assistance and immeasurable affections. Her positive attitudes provided

the researcher encouragement to overcome the obstacles and hurdles.

The researcher is also very thankful to Dr. R. A. Frooq for his assistance and

useful suggestions during the studies.

Special thanks are paid to the participants of the study, the Principal Tariq

Ameen and the respected teacher Qadir khan, who extended all their efforts for the

smooth conduction of the study.

Special thanks are also paid to his friends Sajjad Hussain, Syed Mohammad

Amir, Dr. Mohammad Kaleem and Assistant Professor Dr. Ayaz Ahmad for their

continuous support and assistance in the study.

The researcher is also thankful to his father and mother for their continuous

moral support and prayers and a very special thanks to the most affected of this study

is to his wife who never expresses any desire and never shared an issue which can

disturb the researcher and always prayed for soon completion of the study.

Irfanullah

xviii

ABSTRACT

The present study was aimed to analyze the effects of peer tutoring on the

academic achievement of students in the subject of biology at secondary level. The

objectives of the study were: (1) To find out the effect of peer tutoring on the

academic achievement of students in the subject of biology; (2) To investigate the

effect of peer tutoring on the academic achivement of tutors and tutees of

experimental group; (3)To examine the effects of peer tutoring with respect to

knowledge, comprehension and application levels of cognitive domain of Bloom

Taxonomy; (4) To explore the effect of peer tutoring on the motivation of the students

towards learning. All 433,405 boys‟ students at secondary level of 10th

grade of

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were the population of the study. Forty (40) students of 10th

grade, who were studying biology as elective subjects, were taken as sample of the

study from Allied National Software Institute (ANSI), a private secondary school in

Mardan through random sampling. The Pretest Posttest Equivalent Group Design was

used. Teacher made pretest, posttest and participant observation were the data

collection tools. The data collected from pretest and posttest, were analyzed through

independent sample t-test and ANOVA. The qualitative data obtained from

participants observation, was analyzed qualitatively.

It was found that the mean score of experimental group was significantly

better than the mean score of control group. It was found through participant

observation that peer tutoring had developed strong motivation in both tutors and

tutees. It was concluded that peer tutoring was the effective method of instruction of

teaching biology at secondary level which had enhanced significantly the academic

achievement and motivation of both tutors and tutees as compared to control group.

Peer tutoring was also found effective in the development of academic achievement of

xix

students at secondary level with respect to knowledge, comprehension and application

levels of bloom taxonomy. It was suggested that peer tutoring may be incorporated

along with other teaching methodologies of teaching for the subject of biology and

due consideration may be given to tutoring strategies in all teacher education practices

in the country. The principles, procedures and rules of peer tutoring should be

followed while conducting any peer tutoring program. The current study is conducted

on male students; therefore, future studies are recommended to use different samples

of male and female students at different academic levels.

1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Individual difference is one of the factors that reduce the impact of all

teaching strategies. Individual instruction is one of the needs of every child which can

better address the needs of the children. Therefore, innovative strategies are usually

adopted to fill the needs of learner. Some of the innovative teaching strategies are

discussions, mentoring, private tuition, group work, counseling, peer-assessment

approach, joint work, peer tutoring and community based activities are the

approaches which are child centered (Ali, Anwer & Abbas, 2015).

Tutoring means to facilitate and support individuals who are not expert by

other who are more expert and trained through interactive, consequential and planned

way. Usually new students learn well through tutoring by sharing their inner feelings

with other colleagues. The practice of tutoring is old and recorded even before Rome

and Greeks and has passed through evolution with up and downs but never ceased

(Topping, 2000).

According to Topping (2000) tutor does not need to be very expert and skillful

in his/her field but just need to know a little more than the tutee. However, in case if

the tutor is very intellectual and has more knowledge than his/her tutee, he/she may

become uninterested and lead to failure of transfer of knowledge. Tutoring does not

need allocation of any special resources, material, and methodologies and tutors

should also not behave like expert teacher due to the lack of much background

knowledge.

Peer tutoring involves one student teaches/trains other student in contents on

which the first is skilled and second is novice or weak (Tiwari, 2014). It is a new

teaching strategy which involves that colleague students support one another and

2

learn to understand the difficult tasks in their academic career. Peer tutoring is a well

organized innovative strategy of teaching, which are organized and planned by the

teacher. Peer tutoring ensure targeted and individualized instruction, which cannot be

done by other method of teaching. Peer tutoring should have mutual benefits and

involve the sharing of information, thoughts and experience between the participants

(Amaka, 2013).

Peer tutoring is an instructional strategy where couples of children act together

for improving academic learning of each other adopting the roles of tutor and tutee

alternatively. The technique of Peer tutoring was found effective in the development

of spelling, reading, and language. The effects are more effective if Peer tutoring

involve a joint venture, among high performing and low performing students

(Mickelson & Yetter, 2003).

Peer tutoring enables the participants to build up their skills to handle

and arrange their own learning practices, working in organization with others,

giving and receiving answers about their actions and evaluation of their own

achievement. In the current time the importance of peer tutoring is rising day by day

and it has become the integral component of many academic courses and activities in

various states (Ali et al., 2015).

The extra activities of the teachers are increasing with passage of time by

demanding more than teaching by the administration of the institution and paying less

attention to teaching learning activities. So in this situation peer tutoring is one of the

techniques to increase time of teaching learning activities. According to many

researches like Austin (2008); Eisenkopf (2008), peer tutoring puts positive impacts

on students leaning, motivation, classroom achievements and socialization. Peer tutors

inculcate innovative ideas of problem solving and understanding in the minds of tutee,

3

which develops creativity in the students. Peer tutor can easily understand the

understanding level of the tutee and can easily draw out the knowledge about the topic

under discussion and can easily be streamlined to the current situation. Outcomes of

peer tutoring are very fruitful if both tutor and tutee are engaged in more meaningful

activities and they work collaboratively and all their process of peer tutoring is

structured and planned (Gordon, 2008).

Peer tutoring has a will ancestry in behaviouristic school of thought in the

development of learning abilities of students. The behaviourists advocate that the

results of peer learning can be enhanced by gratifying the excellent performers in the

tutoring or provision of other favourable situation for peer tutoring, so in this situation

the results of peer tutoring are connected with exterior stimulus which was the main

thought of B.F Skinner‟s theory of learning (Redzuan, Botty, & Shahrill, 2014).

The constructivist, both Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget advocated the approach

of peer tutoring for effective learning. The cognitive theory of Piaget does confess

that intellectual abilities of students develop in the pre and post preparatory session of

peer tutoring. Similarly some other qualities like group discussion, motivation and

self-belief of the students can be improved by peer learning (Rizve, 2012).

Peer tutoring was strongly supported by Lev Vygotsky. He thought that

educational achievements of weak students can be enhanced if they are connected in

the peer tutoring or in other combine work. Lev Vygotsky categorized the students in

three groups on the basis of their intellectual abilities. The “zone of actual

development” in which the learner learn independently, the second is “zone of

proximal development” in which the learner needs little help and Lev Vygotsky

suggested the approach of peer learning for pupils in this phase and the third level is

the “zone of no development” in which student cannot complete a task even with the

4

help (Mehra & Mondal, 2005). According to Rizve (2012) students experiencing peer

tutoring could do better in their “zone of proximal development” than students

experiencing traditional method of teaching.

One of the important aims of educational system of Pakistan is to enhance the

academic achievements of the students and specially much concentration is given at

secondary and higher secondary level for more scores in the annual examinations.

High score is beneficial for admission in high repute colleges. For the achieving high

scores the students are motivated through different techniques towards learning.

Those method of teaching which develops motivation towards learning are highly

appreciated. The trend in achieving the instructional objectives is shifting from

knowledge level to application level at secondary level in Pakistan. According to

some empirical studies Khattak, (2012); Mushtaq & Khan, (2010), peer tutoring is

one of the method which can enhance both academic learning and motivation towards

learning.

Austin (2008); Eisenkopf, (2008); Gok (2012); Razak and See (2010);

Romano and Walker (2010) are some of the important studies which worked on

measuring the effect of peer tutoring on the academic achievements and motivation of

the students at different level of studies and they all found that peer tutoring has a

significant effect on the academic achievements and motivation of the students.

According to the Educational Management Information System (EMIS)

(2015), in most of the Pakistani educational institutions the teacher student ratio is

above 1:43. This ratio has limited the teacher ability to teach according to the

individual needs of students. Peer tutoring is the strategy to overcome burden of the

teacher and may overcome the needs of the students without any extra financial

resources. Some researchers like Galaviz (2009) and Smith (2010) showed that due to

5

lack of proper planning and management peer tutoring some time puts negative

effects on the students. So it was needed to conduct peer tutoring in controlled and

planned manner. Numerous studies like Austin (2008); Swan (2014) have been

conducted on peer tutoring in foreign countries and very few like Rizve (2012),

Haider and Yasmin (2015) in Pakistan and no one in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Most of

the studies conducted on language and technical field and most of the researchers

failed to establish equivalent group design for peer tutoring. So it was needed to set up

an equivalent group design in order to confirm the achievement of the student to the

peer tutoring. So the researcher proposed to study the effects of peer tutoring on the

academic achievement of students in the subject of biology at secondary level in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa through controlled and planned program of peer tutoring.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Keeping in view the above discussion the current study is entitled as to

analyse the effects of peer tutoring on the academic achievement of students in the

subject of biology at secondary level.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To find out the effect of peer tutoring on the academic achievement of

students in the subject of biology.

2. To investigate the effect of peer tutoring on the academic achievement of

tutors and tutees of experimental group.

3. To examine the effects of peer tutoring with respect to knowledge,

comprehension and application levels of cognitive domain of Bloom

Taxonomy.

4. To explore the effect of peer tutoring on the motivation of the students

towards learning.

6

1.3 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

To achieve the above objectives the following null hypotheses were tested;

H01: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of experimental

and control groups.

H02: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of tutors (high

achievers) of experimental and high achievers of control groups.

H03: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of tutees (low

achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups.

H04: There is no significant difference among the mean posttest‟s scores of four

groups on the academic achievement.

H05: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of experimental and

control groups with respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain.


control groups with respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain.


control groups with respect to application level of cognitive domain.


achievers) of experimental and high achievers of control groups with respect

to knowledge level of cognitive domain



to comprehension level of cognitive domain



to application level of cognitive domain.

7


achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with

respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain.


achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with

respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain.


achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with respect


1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

1. How much the peer tutoring contributes into the motivation of students

towards learning in biology at secondary level?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study might be significant for teachers in a sense that how to give

individual attention to every student. Learning through peer tutoring may be long

lasting and more effective from other conventional methods of teaching. Teaching

through peer tutoring might develop socialization, expression of thought of the

students, confidence and motivation of the students towards learning which might be

helpful in effective learning for diverse group of students. This study may provide a

base for future researchers who want to conduct study in this field. The study may

provide an evidence for teacher training institutions in leading the student teachers in

peer tutoring approaches. The study may be, fruitful for policy makers and students.

8

1.6 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The study was delimited to one private secondary school of boys of district

Mardan due to experimental nature of the study and delimited to three chapters

(Inheritance, Biotechnology, Man and his Environment) of 10th

grade biology because

theses chapters were taught in the intended period of experiment.

1.7 METHOD AND PROCEDURE

The following procedure was adopted for the study:

1.7.1 Population

All 433405 boys‟ students at secondary level of 10th

grade of Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa were the population of study (EMIS, 2015).

1.7.2 Sample

The sample of the study consisted of forty (40) students taken from Allied

National Software Institute (ANSI), a private secondary school for boys Mardan

through random sampling. The sample was further divided into two equivalent groups

that were experimental and control groups on the basis of pretest score by using pair

random sampling techniques. Both groups were further classified into low achiever

and high achiever students. In Experimental group the high achievers were named as

tutors and low achievers were named as tutees.

1.7.3 Design of the Study

This study was experimental as well as qualitative in nature. The investigation

had involved two equivalent groups of students. Therefore the pretest posttest

equivalent Group Design was used for measuring the effectiveness of peer tutoring.

Following is the symbolic representation of this design.

9

Where RE = Randomly Selected Experimental Group

RC = Randomly Selected Control Group

O1 & O3 = Pretests

O2 & O4 = Post- test

T = Treatment

d = Difference between mean scores of Pretest and Posttest

Figure 1.1 Pretest Posttest Equivalent Group Design

1.7.4 Research Instruments

Data were collected through teacher made pretest, post test and participants

observation.

1.7.5 Data Collection

Pretest was administered to the sample of the study in order to form two

equivalent groups. During treatment period experimental group was engaged in peer

tutoring and control group was taught through lecture demonstration method and the

treatment was continued for seven weeks. Soon after the treatment was over post test

was administered for measuring the effectiveness of treatment. The qualitative data

regarding measuring the motivation of the students were collected through participant

observation by the researcher.

RE = O1 T O2

RC =O3 O4

d RE = O2 - O1

d RC = O4 - O3

D = d RE – d RC

10

1.7.6 Analysis of Data

The data collected from pretest and posttest were analyzed through Mean,

Median, standard deviation, standard errors, percentage, independent sample t-test

and ANOVA. The p value for testing the hypotheses of the study was 0.05.

Furthermore, the qualitative data obtained from participant observation to measure the

motivation of the participants were collected and analyzed qualitatively using coding,

recoding and theme development.

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This study is designed to explore the effects of peer tutoring on the academic

achievements of students in the subject of biology at secondary level through

experimental research. Peer tutoring is one of the important methods of instruction to

fulfill the needs of students and help them in developing self-expression, confidence,

motivation and socialization.

Education is a process of bringing positive, desirable, acceptable and

permanent change in the behaviour of individuals through experience. The process is

divided into two levels; one reflects the process by which learning takes place, called

the procedural understanding of the phenomenon, while the other reveals the product

that is, the results in-term of learning concepts, skills or attitudes (Rao, 2014).

Procedural understanding represents the methodologies, techniques and

strategies adopted for the implementation of educational concepts. Changes reflected

by the education are always ensured by the procedural knowledge, for which teacher

education is engaged in research activities to bring more and more productive

methodologies of teaching. Therefore, it is more important and need more

consideration.

The quality of education greatly depends on the way it is imparted. The world

has seen a revolution in the exercise of teaching methodologies. In this regard, in the

last half of this century there is shift towards teaching approaches that are more

learners-centred and less teacher- centred. In this respect, some major methodologies

that are exercised in the class room are discussed in the coming section (Shirvan,

2008).

12

2.1 METHODS OF TEACHING

Teaching methods are varied on the basis of the nature of objectives,

systematic procedures, techniques as well as rules. The quality of education in an

institution is determined by the quality of teaching learning process. Hence, learning

experiences in an institution are one of the factors which are determined by a

teacher‟s teaching style leading to quality education without allocating any extra

resources (Serbessa, 2006).

Teaching methodologies are identified as modern and traditional

methodologies. Traditional methodologies are usually under the control of the teacher

and all the students are working with the teacher and acting in one group. In this

condition all the students are concentrating and the teacher is sure that all students are

getting something and students also feel relax. But in these methodologies all students

cannot get equal attention and teacher is usually ignoring the mental level which is a

bad experience for shy and nervous students. This approach emphasises too much on

teaching and little attention is paid to learning. In contrast, modern methodologies are

student-centred. In these methods the main role of the teacher is that of “helps

learning to happen”. The role of the teacher is to make the environment conducive for

learning by designing activities, involving students in learning activities and enabling

them to proceed at their own level and pace. Here, the teacher encourages the students

to participate, interact, express, do work and talk (Boumova, 2008).

According to the research conducted by Boumova (2008), it was found that

both traditional and modern methodologies bring results if used appropriately. But the

motivation of the students is greatly raised through modern methodologies. Modern

methodologies are also effective for the development of the students‟ interest,

communication power retention and socialisation level.

13

In the current scenario we are facing transition in the education system where

we need to adopt and accept new concepts. We are moving from traditional to

constructive learning, from useful to meaningful activities, from applying old

knowledge to building new knowledge, from analytic to holistic approach and from

teacher centred to student centred approaches (Segura, Deledicque, & Hogh 2012).

In order to maximise the students‟ participation in learning activities, modern

teaching methodologies like problem based learning, projects, pair work, peer tutoring

and group activities should be encouraged and implemented in the class rooms as it

can help in making the environment conducive for it (Bercikova, 2007).

2.2 STUDENT CENTRED APPROACHES

Keeping in view the above discussion some of the important student centred

approaches are described below;

2.2.1 Project Method

Project method is a teacher-facilitated student-centred method in which a

student, or some time group of students work on particular task, and complete it

within due period of time. This method provides opportunity to the students to work

according to their own level of thinking where they plan their work, set targets,

allocate resources and carry out their work according to their own knowledge and

skill and finally draw conclusions (Erdem, 2012).

Project method is supported by constructivist theory of learning which argue

that learning is very effective and long lasting when children are engaged in

developing their own knowledge (Muriithi & Odundo, 2013).

Twoli (2006) noted that individual project method measures the individual

capabilities of a student that includes cognitive skills, perceptions, motor skills and

attitudes towards science education. However, the project based learning was found to

14

have no significant effect on the test anxiety and attitudes towards academic success

in science (Erdem, 2012).

2.2.2 Problem Based Learning

Problem based learning is an instructional approach that depends on the

constructive theory of learning in which students are assigned chaotic and

unstructured problems, in which students work under the guidance of the teacher and

try to find the solution of the problem on the basis of their prior knowledge (Araz &

Sungur, 2007).

The theory of constructivism states, that learning takes place by creation of

knowledge in the mind of the student. The process of creation of this new knowledge

depends on the prior knowledge and experiences of the student. If the problem is

consistent to the previous knowledge of the student, it can be easily assimilated and

useful learning will occur or vice versa. Problem based learning (BPL) is one of the

applications of this theory in learning environment and it is based on the principle that

problem should be assigned to the students on the basis of prior knowledge which

eliminates the chance of misdirection of new learning. PBL is useful in a sense, that it

enhances decisive thinking, communication power, and joint efforts of the students

(Celik, Onder, & Silay, 2011).

2.2.3 Case Study

Case study is a student centred approach which covers a wide range of

problems. Most of the case studies are based on the real events of the surrounding.

The cases may be complex or simple in nature. Case studies develop students‟

communication skill, critical thinking, and interpersonal skills. It enhances the

student‟s proficiency in both written and oral communication. Case study makes the

15

students to better participate in real life situations and train them in management,

negotiations, presentation and developing the spirit of team (Garvin, 2004).

2.2.4 Role Play

Role playing is one of student-centred instructional strategies that have been

successfully applied in various disciplines. In this method students adopt the role of

different stake holders in the project and try to solve the real life problems

(Bhattacharjee & Ghosh, 2013).

Role play is also considered as a special type of case study in which an open

and clear situation is created in which specific role is played by the students both by

acting and communicating. Role playing is differentiated from the case studies on the

bases of practical experiences involved, while in case studies students just read

characters and situations. Due to the practical involvement and irrespective of the

nature of the job relating to the students it provides opportunities to students for

learning in both cognitive domains, where knowledge and incidents are evaluated in

the affective domains involving values and emotions as well. Role playing is used as a

technique for learning. Some shy students have anxiety with role-playing; hence, such

students should not be assigned role playing (Nickerson, 2008).

According to Nickerson (2008) the following guidelines should be kept in the

mind while designing role playing activities for the students;

i. Teachers must be clear about the learning outcomes.

ii. Teachers must be aware about the latent potentialities of the students.

iii. Role play should be arranged very cautiously. If the students have no

experience of role play, it is suggested to start the activity with small and clear

structure. In this way though it will take more time but be very beneficial.

16

iv. The role of the students should be provided in written; it will help the students

in understanding their roles and should be instructed to behave accordingly.

v. Each student should be given only the description of her/his own task in the

play.

vi. The class should be divided into players and observers. Observers should be

given guidelines for observation.

vii. Both the observers and the actors should be given the chance to exchange their

roles so that everyone gets the chance to experience the role of players as well

as observers. Then students should be allowed to discuss the roles with each

other and the learning which is gained during the experience of the play.

viii. When students get the familiarity with the role play, then players and

observers should be selected on the choice of the students.

ix. When the objectives are achieved then role-play activity should be ended.

2.2.5 Academic Role Play

Among the most effective and commonly used teaching strategies in American

universities, one is academic role play which is used for the preparation of the

prospective teachers. If the instructor wants to implement a new skill through

academic role-playing, he should guide the students and allow them to apply these

skills in realistic safe classroom environment correctly. It also helps the students in

developing confidence level in the real world situation. This blended method was

investigated in an undergraduate university in the contents designed to train the

individuals for the school teaching. The researcher concluded that the students in such

technique not only master the intended skill and techniques but also gained

confidence (Crow & Nelson, 2013).

17

2.2.6 Group Discussion

Class discussion or group discussion is the most popular teaching method. It is

student centred method and democratic in nature and usually facilitated by the teacher

or some time by leader of the group. Discussion method is useful for those topics

which have no clear cut answer rather it includes intricate and controversial issues and

requires conceptual understanding of the contents. Students can do their preparation

for discussion by researching or studying the relevant material. Discussion usually

initiated by responding to an important issue by highlighting its causes and possible

solution through analysing different perspectives. The method of discussion can be

implemented in most of the disciplines, but it is very important that the environment

of the class should be favourable for discussion. Students should be educated for

conducting the discussion sessions. Teacher should motivate and encourage the

students to participate in discussion according to the rules and prohibit any type of

violation on the part of students and support different viewpoints on the basis of valid

arguments (Rizve, 2012).

2.2.7 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy which shifts students from

teacher centred submissive learning situation to the setting where students interact,

depend each other, share their knowledge and resources in the cooperative

environment. Cooperative learning involves pairing and working of two to six

students in order to enhance the learning of each other. Cooperative learning promotes

greater learning and develops cognition of the students, if it is properly utilized and

controlled within their limits. The groups formed during cooperative learning may be

formal, informal discussion group or target oriented group. Usually teamwork,

creativeness, responsibility, clash resolution skills and crisis management skills can be

18

developed through cooperative learning in small groups. Cooperative learning is very

beneficial for those students who are very reluctant in presenting their ideas may feel

some confidence. The main task of the cooperative learning is to enhance the ability

of the students to work in joint and combine task with others and such tasks cannot be

accomplished individually. The role of the teacher is to inculcate the spirit of

cooperation and joint work (Jacobs, 2004).

2.2.8 Supplemental Instruction

Supplemental Instruction is one of the new peer assisted instructional model

which was for the first time implemented in the University of Missouri- Kansas City

in 1974 by Deanna Martin. The supplemental instruction is usually used in the

academic courses which are difficult. Supplemental instruction involves informal

gathering, discussion in which students discuss difficult topic and compare contents

and analyze expected test items. This type of assistance is added with the course

contents at the secondary, higher secondary and professional institutes and used in all

over the world. Supplemental Instruction was initially used for the first time for

development of retention level of the students of Health Sciences. After successful

implementation of this programme in the USA in the Educational Deportment, it was

named “Exemplary Education Program” (Congos, 2003), and accepted as

supplementary program in the United States of America. The supplemental

Instruction is also considered by the Education Department as one of the factor to

increase the rate of college graduation (Anderson, 2014).

2.2.8.1 Objectives of supplemental instruction

The most important purposes of supplemental instruction are to decline the

abrasion, truancy and develop the understanding, retention and study habits of the

students as in most of the institutions throughout the world, truancy and dropout of

19

the students is the most threatening problem. According to the findings of the

researcher in the USA more than 50% of the students who started secondary

education at schools, colleges and universities leave the institutes before completing

the graduation. Due to this reason the institutions of higher education started the

experience of the supplemental instruction on the plea to retain maximum students

along with enhancing their academic performance (Green, 2005).

2.2.9 Pair Work

In pair work students study with each other asking question from each other

replying and correcting each other in controlled environment. In pair work students‟

talk time is increased; as compared to traditional classroom teaching. Pair work

includes, individual work, pairs, small group, and whole mixing together as

individual, depending on the nature of the lesson and strategy of the teacher. Two

kinds of pairing, fixed and flexible are always used by the teacher. In fixed pairing

student work with the same partner during completion of the same task or same kind

of task. While in flexible pairs the students can change their partner. Pair work is not

limited to any particular stage of lesson but can be ranged to numerous activities of

reading, listening, discussing, explaining, problem solving, correcting and questioning

and answering (Bercikova, 2007).

2.3 PEER TUTORING

Peer tutoring is a method of instruction in which one or small group of

students are taught individually by his/her colleague or senior students. According to

Topping (2000) Tutoring can be defined as, “people who are not professional

teachers help and support the learning of others in an interactive, purposeful and

systematic way. It is most usually done on a one-to-one basis, in a pair.” The student

who gives instruction is called tutor and the student receiving instruction is called

20

tutee. Peer tutoring may be used as a separate method of teaching or may be used as

technique to supplement traditional teaching. In traditional teaching it is used to help

slow learners among the large group who need remedial measures. Being a colleague

and friend the tutee is free to express him, ask different questions and can express

multiple solutions to the problems. This may develop the comprehension level of both

tutor and tutee (Mehra & Mondal, 2005).

Peer learning was also defined by Topping (2005) as, peer learning is process

of acquiring knowledge and ability within a cooperative environment through helping

and discussion in cooperative manners among students. The members of peer tutoring

are not expert rather both may be of same grade level or different from each other by

one or two grade level. Tutors are a little bit higher in cognitive qualities or some time

experts in particular discipline. Both partners of the pair have challenges in their joint

struggle.

Falletta (2015) the director of the tutor training at Chandler-Gilbert

Community College has defined tutoring as, “a one-to-one or small group activity

where a person who is knowledgeable and has expertise in a specific content area or

discipline provides tutelage, help, or clarification to one or more who do not”. The

main objective of the tutoring process is to help the learner to become independent in

his/her learning and the role of the tutor is like an instrument to assist students.

Peer tutoring is often confused with mentoring, but mentoring is differentiated

from peer tutoring as, it involves encouragement and support of novice learners by

experienced person and it usually occurs in the professional field. Mentoring is

characterized by simulation, modeling, motivation, assistance, guidance and

counseling. It usually occurs in cross age group in the professional field (Topping,

2005).

21

Cooperative learning is also sometime confused with peer tutoring. But

cooperative learning is an interdependent structure of students in which a group of

students is positively interdependent on each other in cooperative manners and they

all proceed to achieve common goals. Cooperative learning is facilitated by teacher

and usually involves a heterogeneous group of having more than six students.

Cooperative learning develops better learning and intellectual abilities of the students

if it is conducted in a structured procedure (Topping, 2005).

2.3.1 Significance of Peer Tutoring

Peer work gives many advantages to students as it gives them opportunities for

speaking and learning in a friendly environment. Peer tutoring offers privacy to shy

students where they can express themselves when they may not perform in front of

the whole class. Peer tutoring is a student centred approach in which students work

independently and go in their own pace. It creates cooperation between students in

completing their task. It also minimizes the rate of usual mistakes which is often not

felt by the tutor or tutee by self. It also enhances the confidence level of the students

and develops the cognitive level of the students (Watcyn, 2002).

When a student is interacting positively to a very competent colleague for

solving any academic problem, it plays a great role in the development of cognitive

level with respect to comprehension and application levels of both, tutee and tutor.

The tutee gets benefits by asking questions, accepting challenges and providing

response to the tutor. The tutor gets benefits by preparation of instructional material

for teaching to tutee and by answers the tutee‟s questions and problem (Mehra &

Mondal, 2005).

Ward and Lee (2005) explored that peer contribution in the learning of new

skills is also significant. Peer tutoring was effective in the learning of physical

22

education and practical talent which can play role in the development of psychomotor

abilities of the students.

Brost (2011) has highlighted some of the benefits of peer tutoring in his thesis,

in which the most important ones are academic achievement and social development.

The other benefits include development of eagerness for learning, and enhance

participation level of the students particularly in discussion. Peer tutoring is helpful

for both tutors and tutees. On the part of tutors, tutoring reinforces their skills and

understanding level which ultimately enhances their confidence level. According to

Jenkins (2002, as cited in Brost, 2011) peer tutoring enhances achievement level twice

than computer based instruction, three times higher than small size class and four

times higher than extending the school time.

Miller argues (2002, as cited in Brost, 2011) that peer tutoring is beneficial for

institutions as it helps in accountability, assessment and enhance outcomes of the

institution. Limited financial resources for recruiting additional teachers is one of the

problems education system is facing. Such problems can be manage by peer tutoring,

utilizing volunteers and free students. Drop out rate can also be controlled by this

technique.

However, the programs of peer tutoring are not devoid of any drawbacks.

There are some of the shortcomings which are mostly related to the structure and

management of the program. Hence it is needed that peer tutoring activities should be

highly structured and comprehensive. Peer tutoring programs should be conducted

under strict supervision and controlled environment (Brost, 2011).

2.3.2 Training Requirement for Tutoring

Maynard and Almarzouqi (2006) pointed out that peers as a tutors do not

always provide right scaffolding to the tutees due to the lack of relevant experience

23

and skills, therefore tutors need supplementary instruction and training and also needs

to obey rules and regulations of the system and the process of tutoring. According to

Leung and Bush (2003) tutors should be briefed about their roles before the

commencing of the tutoring process. The conflicts and ambiguities in the minds of

tutors should be removed before starting the peer tutoring.

Due to the lack of experience and especially in the case of peer tutoring in

secondary schools the tutors need trainings most of the renown colleges and

universities have arranged regular tutor training programs and have developed

training manuals like, Tutor Training Manual in Chandler-Gilbert Community

College. Falletta (2015) provides a learning and resource centre for peer tutors and

provides tips and techniques for peer tutoring. Guide for Tutors and Tutees State

University of New York Oswego Office of Learning Services (Smith and Nicolai,

2013), have developed and compiled contents for instructors, tutors, tutees and for

other administrators. Tutoring and Writing services Peer tutor Training Hand book

Monmouth University (Cleary, 2016) has developed a hand book and training manual

for the selected peer tutors. Peer Tutor Program of Skidmore College (Pashley, 2015),

provides training to tutors on various perspectives of peer tutor training programs.

Peer Tutoring Hand Book is developed by Haverford College (USA) for guidance of

peer tutors for peer tutoring. The college also provides training for peer tutors with

out any financial charge. During the year 2013-14 the college has provided training on

peer tutoring to 90 students of Haverford college (Wilcox, 2015).

2.3.3 Principles of Peer Tutoring

Topping (2000) has identified and discussed ten principles of peer tutoring in his

book, „Tutoring‟. These principles were;

24

i. Management of time and give importance to the real life goals of the tutee

Management of time is one of the important components of successful learning.

Small and frequent sessions of learning are more effective than prolong sessions. The

real life goals of the tutees are important but the tutor will focus on the importance of

task. Tutors should keep the mental level of the tutee in their minds and should try to

explore misunderstanding of the minds of the tutees. Tutoring process should be

consisting of small steps and the process should be proceeded after following these

steps using specific learning strategy.

ii. Ask question, give time for thinking and then proceed

Irrelevant discussion should be avoided, and allocated time must be used up in

tutoring activities. Different types of activities should be designed for the tutoring

session in order to develop interest of the tutors and tutees. Different types of

questions should be asked from the tutees about performing some tasks. Then they

must be allowed to think on the basis of their knowledge for solving the problem or

performing the task and then allowed to answer and perform. In case of no answer

they should be given some clues so as to assist them in guessing the right answer.

iii. Checking of performance and correction of errors

Tutor should regularly check the performance of the tutees and try to find the

errors. The reason behind is that identification of errors gives the opportunity for

learning while ignoring mistakes develops faulty learning. When you find an error,

then motivate and encourage the tutee to find the answer. This will develop self-

correction ability and may raise confidence level of the tutees.

iv. Discussion and praise

Discussion is the main theme of the tutoring process. Discussion initiates the

development of information in the mind of the tutee and promotes deeper

25

understanding. In case of good performance the tutee must be encouraged by praising

and commending or in some other words. At the end of the tutoring session the main

contents should be discussed.

v. Support and help the tutee in challenging tasks in order to develop deep

understanding

In many researches and school practices the tutoring activity has been

conducted in language learning classes, especially in the development of the reading

ability. According to this principle the tutee should be supported in the correct reading

of difficult words, but the principle is general; therefore, the tutee should be supported

in the difficult tasks in any tutoring activity.

vi. Developing the writing ability of the tutee by generating their ideas

This principle is related, how to develop the writing of the tutee? The steps

involved in this principle are; developing idea of the tutee by asking various

questions, naming the ideas by a single word, reviewing and arranging the ideas in

order and then linking the related ideas by mind mapping. The tutee will be asked to

write out a rough draft of the text on the basis of mind mapping. Here the tutor will

write only the difficult words and will tell tutee to copy them or will teach the

spellings of these words. Next the tutor will read the draft aloud, and highlight the

problematic words. After this he will be provided with suggestions for changes.

Finally the last draft might be written either by tutor or tutee and will be signed by the

both as mutual authors. The last draft then may be evaluated by exchanging it with

other pairs.

vii. Finding the problems of the tutee and ask probing questions

Provide opportunity to your tutee, to explain his/her difficulty. If he/she has

problem in the pronunciation, then pronounce for it and check their level of

26

understanding. Ask such questions from the tutee which can provide clues and

stimulate intellectual abilities of the tutee. Wait for their answer, and encourage them

to share with you their inner feelings to enable you to find the reasons of wrong

directions so as to easily solve the problem. Always try to make the problem real and

according to real life situations.

viii. Recruiting tutors and pairing with tutees

This principle is related to how tutors will be recruited for tutoring sessions?

Therefore clearly mention how tutors are recruited and how they will be rewarded?

Permission from parents is also necessary. The objectives of the lesson should be

known to both tutors and tutees. The difference between the level of the tutors and

tutees should also be clear to them as well as the organizers of the tutoring session.

During pair formation the relationships of the students and individual differences

should be kept in the mind. Close friends usually work well if paired with each other.

Time, location, number of sessions per week all should be clearly mentioned. The

strategy that will be adapted should also be mentioned clearly in case of absentees of

tutees or tutors.

ix. Provision of training and materials

The method adapted for peer tutoring should be clearly mentioned. Training of

tutors is necessary. If possible, give training to both tutors and tutees. The contents of

the training and other relevant material should be provided to the tutors. During

training all the relevant skills required for peer tutoring should be explained and

inculcated in the minds of the tutors.

x. Monitoring, intervention and feedback

Monitoring of the tutoring process is the important factor for the achieving

objectives of the tutoring session. In case of wrong proceeding, the coordinator should

27

intervene for preventive purposes. In case of good performance, both partners should

be praised and valued in order to boost their motivation and enthusiasm. The

organizers should demonstrate practical examples for solving the most common

problems occurring in the tutoring session. Discuss the progress and problems with

both tutors and tutees. If possible video recording should be made for monitoring

purpose. If majority of pairs are experiencing problems then refresher training should

be arranged.

2.3.4 Types of Peer Tutoring

There has been done much work on peer tutoring and most of these studies

have described the various types of peer tutoring. In this regard, the following types

of peer tutoring are enlisted:

2.3.4.1 Reciprocal peer tutoring

Reciprocal Peer Tutoring is a collaborative approach in learning in which

students acquire turns alternating between the position of tutor and tutee. Reciprocal

Peer Tutoring (RPT) was developed by John Fantuzzo in 1984. In this method,

students are gathered in groups of two or more and are taught to work together

on a specific educational task. The students work together to guide, monitor, and

evaluate each other, while working towards group objectives (Henson, Hagos, &

Villapando, 2009).

Reciprocal Peer tutoring involves two way instructions which develops mutual

benefits and involves the sharing of information, thoughts and experience between the

tutor and tutee. It was experimentally proved that reciprocal peer tutoring had very

major effect on the performance of the students in the Algebra and it was

recommended to implement reciprocal peer tutoring as substitution instructional

28

strategy in other academic courses for the improvement of academic performance of

the students (Ali et al,. 2015).

2.3.4.2 Cross age peer tutoring

Cross age tutoring some time called cross-grade tutoring which involves a pair

of students of different ages, in which the older student behave the role of tutor and

the younger student acts the role of tutee. The cross age peer tutoring is based on a

variety of combinations. For example elementary students are paired with students of

high grades. Cross age tutoring is an effective strategy in classroom which consists of

multi-grade students in which the older students help the students of low grades in

their lesson. This strategy of peer tutoring is also helpful for students with learning

disabilities (Kim, 2015).

There are no clear cut rules for conducting cross age peer tutoring, however

some orientation is provided to tutors. The orientation session varies, depending on

the nature of the tutoring activities. Usually the orientation training includes

objectives of the tutoring activities, strategies for the scaffolding, feedback and

evaluation. The roles of the tutors include behaving like model for tutees, organizing

and managing work, motivating and facilitating the tutees and encouraging discussion

and interactions (Rizve, 2012).

Cross age tutoring is effectively applied on children with disabilities in their

academic behaviour. Tutoring activities not only enhance the academic level but also

develop self-management, and motivational level of the students. Individualized

Educational Plans (IEPs) is the need of special children which cannot be achieved by

a single teacher but through Cross-Age Tutoring if properly implemented (Rizve,

2012).

29

2.3.4.3 Parent/Volunteer tutoring

Parents and other society members are usually attached to the school for

multiple purposes. This attachment appears in the form of financial support, academic

enhancement, management, and supervision. Usually the academic enhancement

occurs in the form of provision of volunteer tutoring. In case of slow learning or some

problems in academics, parents usually arrange home tutors for their children (Rizve,

2012).

2.3.4.4 Class wide peer tutoring

Class Wide Peer Tutoring is a type of peer tutoring which engages whole class

in peer tutoring using a game format. In this format pairs of students are formed using

ability of the students or some time formed randomly but the pairs are altered on

weekly basis. The role of the students is exchanged from tutor to tutee and in vice

versa. This approach is also applicable in the setting of special education. Further

Starr, (2009) has cited many empirical studies, which confirms the significant role

played by the class wide peer tutoring (Starr, 2009).

2.3.4.5 Same age peer tutoring

In same age peer tutoring the tutors and tutees may have same ability level or

intelligent students can be paired with less intelligent students of the same class. In

case when tutors and tutees have same ability level, then both the tutors and tutees

have equal opportunity of learning. When the tutors and tutees have different ability

level, then flow of learning moves from tutor to tutee and tutee ask questions and tutor

tries to answer and satisfy his/her colleague (Hott, Walker, & Sahni, 2012).

2.3.5 Teacher’s Role in Peer Tutoring

Teacher play very important role during peer tutoring. Smith (2010) has

identified some of the major roles of the teacher. For example students preparation,

30

task training, creation of sound environment etc, are the important roles of the teacher

during peer tutoring. According to Wilkinson et al., (2000) observation, examination,

monitoring of peer interaction and direct involvement in case of wrong happening are

important roles of the teachers during peer tutoring. Brown (2006) investigated class

activities of small children and found that teacher can play role in encouraging

students and can increase talk time of the students. This study has also recommended

that teachers should provide attentive and appealing activities and should be aware of

the language used by the children.

2.3.6 The Role of Tutor in the Tutoring Process

Smith and Nicolai (2013) have described the following roles of the peer tutors;

i. The tutor‟s work is to facilitate students in the problems occurred in the

learning of the students.

ii. Tutors should attend training or guidance for tutoring.

iii. Tutor should be a model for the tutees and should exhibit the skills of a

problem solver and acquiring of new knowledge.

iv. Tutors present different types of teaching and learning strategies that are

adopted according to the situation.

v. In case of any issue tutors consult with teachers for guidance and help.

vi. Tutors work in collaboration with teachers for the development of contents

and plans for the tutoring session.

vii. Tutors should have knowledge and information about the contents of the

tutoring.

viii. Tutors provide apparatus, resources and other required materials to the tutees.

ix. Tutors should be regular, efficient and factual which enable him/her a role

model for tutees.

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x. Tutors should be fluent in language and competent in order to communicate

effectively with teachers and tutees.

xi. They should maintain privacy about the tutees and should respect them.

2.3.7 Role of the Tutees in the Tutoring Process

Smith and Nicolai (2013) described the following roles and responsibilities of

the tutees for the tutoring:

i. The tutee should talk with the teacher in case of not understanding the tutor,

because teacher is the ultimate responsible for instruction.

ii. Tutees should come to the class with text book, and other material and

questions for the tutors.

iii. Tutees should be active in learning, and heir behavior with the tutors should be

friendly not the teacher but with positive attitude.

iv. Tutees should keep themselves inform about daily updates regarding their

sessions and schedules.

v. Tutees should come in time for their scheduled sessions. In case of absentee

due to some urgent work or illness, they should inform their tutor or

coordinator.

2.3.8 Major Steps in the Tutoring Process

Falletta (2015) director of the tutoring and learning centre in Chandler-Gilbert

Community College has described the following steps of peer tutoring:

i. Greeting and arrangement

In the first step greet the tutee by name with smiling face. Then arrange place

of seating in such a way that facilitate interaction between tutor and tutee.

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ii. Task identification

The tutor should inquire from the tutee about the topic of the session. Then

tutor will assess the background knowledge of the tutee regarding the topic of the day.

The tutor will try to find the understandings' level of the tutee and will find the

question in the mind of the tutee.

iii. Division of task into parts

After identification the task, then it will be divided into manageable

components either by the tutor or coordinator of the tutoring program. There should

be sequence between the components and this sequence should be followed during

accomplishing the task.

iv. Find the problem in the thinking process

Ask from the tutee about the problem in the lesson which has instructed in the

class and also find the method of instruction followed in the class. After finding the

problem with tutee, the tutor will try to overcome this problem and will use alternate

strategy based on the mental level of the tutee. Tutor will help the tutee in exploring

their own problem by asking provoking questions.

v. Setting the plan

Keep the available time in the mind plan for the completion of the task. Allot

time for each component of the lesson keep in mind the cognitive level of the tutee.

The plan should be flexible that can accommodate any up and down.

vi. Executing the plan

Proceed the tutoring session according to the proposed plan and encourage the

tutee for more involvement. Always give appropriate answer and never disrupt the

tutee‟s idea. Always ask provoking questions and wait for their response. Apart from

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delivering the contents, the tutor should also encourage the tutees for getting more

knowledge from other sources.

vii. Summary of the lesson

Tutees will be asked to repeat the major contents and should be wait for their

response and try to avoid any interruption. Correction will be made after completion.

viii. Analysis of the summary

Analyse and make sure that the summary made by the tutee has represented

the contents of the lesson and also help in the understanding level of the students.

ix. Confirmation

In this step the tutor will confirm that the tutee has got the idea and has

understand the lesson and can do the task independently.

x. Closing

End the lesson with some positive advice and encouragement and instructions

for doing some home work.

2.4 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

The change in behavior acquired by the students in the form of knowledge,

ideas and expertise inside or outside the classroom environment is called academic

achievement. The quality and quantity of the academic achievements are measured

through different ways and the students are usually classified into high achievers, low

achievers and average students (Ejike, 2010). The Ejike, (2010) identified the

following factors that can affect the academic achievements of the students:

i. Parents

Parents and specially the mother is one of the most influential factors that

affect the academic achievements of their children by motivating and helping in their

34

academic work. Nwakoby (2008) identified that fathers having biological education

has significant effect on the academic achievements of their children.

ii. Influence of Peer Group

According to Nwakoby (2008) academic achievement of students are affected

by their peer groups and this effect was found more significant in girls. It was

concluded by the study that students tend to achieve higher academic achievement

whose peers have strong affinity towards learning than those students whose peers

have strong affinity towards social work.

iii. Social Structure in Home

There are many variations in the social structure of the families from society

to society. The homes in which boys are encouraged for higher education and girls are

motivated to work for family are tend to produce boys with higher academic

achievements.

2.5 BLOOM TAXONOMY

Bloom taxonomy is the classification of educational outcomes made by

Bloom, Krathwohl and Harrow. Before going to develop the course contents or

studying the effects of a variable in the educational field in higher education, the

writer and researcher may know the levels of achievement of their objectives (Iqbal,

2010). The levels of educational outcomes were categorized by Bloom and his co-

workers into the following three categories;

2.5.1 Cognitive Domain

Cognitive domain deals with the cognitive practices which consist of six sub-

levels. The cognitive domain has got the principal focus in higher education for

developing the educational objectives compare to the psychomotor and affective

domains (IACBE, 2015). The sub-levels of cognitive domain are;

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iv. Knowledge

The lowest level of cognitive domain which remembers the learned material

previously taught.

v. Comprehension

The ability to derive meaning from the knowledge previously learned or the

ability to present the learned material in other form.

vi. Application

The ability to use the learned knowledge in new sitting and solve the problems

on the basis of learned knowledge. It includes application of laws, theories and

principles in new situation.

vii. Analysis

It involves breaking down the learned knowledge into its components in order

to understand and identify its structure and relationship between the components.

viii. Synthesis

It is the high level of cognitive domain which includes the ability to combine

the different parts and form a new whole.

ix. Evaluation

It is the highest level of thinking which includes the ability to judge and make

decision on the basis of specific criteria (Iqbal, 2010).

2.5.1.1 The revised model of cognitive domain

In 2001 Lorin Anderson published a revised model of Bloom‟s Cognitive

Model in which the names of sub-level of old models were changed from noun form

to verb form in following order; remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing,

evaluating, and creating (IACBE, 2015).

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According to (Heer, 2012) Lorin Anderson has further developed four

dimensions of each level of the revised model of cognitive domain with respect to

factual, conceptual, procedural and meta-cognitive dimensions. The model is given in

the appendix “S”

2.5.2 Affective Domain

Affective domain consists of five categories which deal with values, feelings

and attitudes. The hierarchal order of the sub levels is; receiving, responding, valuing,

organization and internalizing values (Iqbal, 2010).

2.5.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain deals with physical activities that students can do.

The hierarchal order of the sub levels is; reflex movements, fundamental movements,

perceptual abilities, physical abilities, skilled movement and non-discursive

communication (Iqbal, 2010).

2.6 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF PEER TUTORING

The learning is one of the phenomenon in which people are trying to

understand for the last 2000 years. The learning theorists have developed a discussion

on the learning process that began at least 470 B.C ago. This discussion has been in

vogue in different ages in different concepts about how the learning is taking place.

Plato and Aristotle were the beginners of this discussion on learning. They inquired,

“Is knowledge and reality to be found within us or it to be found in our surrounding”

by using our sense organs. This discussion develops the concept of rationalism and

empiricism (Hammond, Austin, Orcutt, & Rosso, 2001).

The beginning of 19th

century had brought realistic changes in the concept of

learning by experimental testing the process of learning. These scientific studies

discovered innovative approaches to teaching and learning and result the development

37

of many learning theories. The theorist of 20th

century focused on the behaviouristic

and cognitive perspectives of learning (Hammond et al., 2001).

According to Hammond, Austin, Orcutt and Rosso, (2001) the work of

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first scientific approach to learning.

According to his experimental studies on learning, he believed that learning is devoid

of cognitive thinking and takes place through trial and error. During learning, an

association is established between the sense impression and impulse to action.

Redzuan, Botty and Shahrill (2014) stated that B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) had

further extended and upgraded the theory of Thorndike into Stimulus- Response

learning theory. He conducted many researches on dogs, pigeons and rats in which he

provided strong support for correct response. From his experiments, he concluded that

learning is the production of desired behaviours and mental process and has no

influences on learning of an individual.

According to Redzuan, Botty and Shahrill (2014) the theory of B. F. Skinner

guides that how learning conditions are controlled. The theory of Skinner indicates

that better results can be achieved in controlled conditions. According to Skinner the

learning are of two types; the learning (response) to the automatic reflex and the

learning (response) to the operant conditioning. In education if the teacher wants a

student to respond to the given stimulus, the teacher must concentrate on this

stimulus. The conditions under which the responses are collected were very important

to skinner. Teacher must note these conditions and stimuli during classroom

management and should control other irrelevant variables. Many others perspective

like students behaviour, classroom behaviour, problems control etc can be improved

and controlled by reinforcement or the relevant conditions. The outcomes of peer

tutoring can also be improved by reinforcement of the required conditions like

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provision of rewards for high achievers, maintaining of strict rules for smooth running

of the tutoring sessions or provision of some attractive materials, are some of the

conditions that can improve the outcomes of the peer tutoring.

Peer tutoring is one of the learning approaches that can be used for enhancing

the academic achievement, motivational level and socialization of the students. The

empirical studies and many experimental studies supported the claims of peer tutoring

and also have strong roots in majority of the learning and socialization theories.

The theories discussed above are also related to peer tutoring but the strong

theoretical background is provided to peer tutoring is provided by the theory of Piaget

of cognitive development and Vygotsky‟s theories.

2.6.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive development

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist but he had got his education in zoology

also, therefore his theory shows biological orientation. Jean Piaget was the pioneer to

state, that children construct knowledge rather than get their knowledge from the

instructors. The constructed knowledge is based on their practices and experiences.

According to Piaget children start learning by their perceptual and motor actions

through organized ways to make adaptations to the environmental setting. During

adaptations to the new situations children use their background knowledge and bring

necessary modification in the existing structure of knowledge according to the needs

of current situations. Therefore he presented a constructivist approach to the cognitive

learning (Blake & Pope, 2008).

2.6.1.1 Piaget’s theory of learning

Lutz and Huitt (2004) stated that according to Piaget theory children are

unable to automatically understand new information as instructed to them rather they

construct their own knowledge using their previous background knowledge and

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experiences. The role of the instructor should be like a guide and motivator and

supporter in the creation of new knowledge. The learner should take careful decisions

according to their mental level and needs. According to Piaget teaching of everything

to child prevent him from creating new knowledge. Learning takes place by active

participation of children in various activities in which they use their intellect. The

gained learning is further developed and modified by the process of assimilation and

accommodation. According to Piaget intellectual development is the creation of mind

which is achieved through observation and experimentation. He classified learning of

growing children into distinct stages. Young children undergo real operational

information and therefore are unable to understand abstract ideas. As the children get

older, a shift from abstract to concrete learning takes place. According to Piaget,

learning is a process of reconstruction of a child‟s existing structure of knowledge.

Children, through their intellect and interaction develop a mental concept. This mental

concept is coordinated and interacted with the new situation. The information from

this new situation is integrated with the existing structure in the mind. As a result of

this interaction and integration new knowledge develops. Piaget classified this

interaction into the following three mental processes.

i. Assimilation

Assimilation is a process in which new information is integrated, understood

and fitted within the existed scheme of knowledge.

ii. Accommodation

The process of accommodation is that in which new information is

accommodated within the existed structure of knowledge with some modification. As

a result of assimilation and accommodation cognitive developments takes place.

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iii. Equilibrium

Assimilation and accommodation is a continuous phenomenon. For a stable

understanding, equilibrium is needed to balance assimilation and accommodation.

2.6.1.2 Cognitive stages of development

Piaget has observed many young children for many years and categorized the

cognitive development into the following four stages, in which the investigative

behaviours of children is converted into the rational and abstract intelligence of

maturity (Blake & Pope, 2008).

i. Sensory-motor stage

This stage is also called infancy period, which starts from birth and last till the

age of two years. In this stage children learn by using their five senses and sensory

experiences like seeing, hearing and touching. The behaviour of the infants cannot be

matched to the behaviour of the adults. Young children show egocentrism because

they fail to accept how some one‟s point of view can be different from their own? The

development in this stage is very rapid as within the short period of time children not

only start walking, talking and operates things but can also do cognitive manipulation

and communication. In the concluding period of this stage, the child realizes the

deference between him and the surrounding and understands the major occurrence of

the environment like day time, night and rain. The most prominent character of this

stage is that, children in this stage try to continue take interest in their experience with

the phenomena (Awan, 2015).

ii. Preoperational stage

This stage starts from the age of two and last till the age of seven. At this stage

child acquires the more advance stage of development. In this period children start to

use verbal words for communication as well as imagination and cognition. During this

41

stage, children understand the relation between present and past. Their behaviour and

intellect in this stage is usually egoistic and spontaneous. During this stage the

children learn to acquire various signs from the environment (Lutz & Huitt, 2004).

iii. Concrete operational stage

This stage commences at the age of seven and lasts till the age of eleven years.

This stage is characterised by the systematic and logical manipulation of the symbols

which are associated to the real objects. During this stage egoistic thinking becomes

decreased and knowledge about surrounding environment increases. This knowledge

is used for interactions with ecosystem. In this stage students take interest in the

reversible activities, and have more than one perspective (Lutz & Huitt, 2004).

iv. Formal operational stage

This stage starts at the completion of eleven years. The children pass through a

series of formal developmental stages. This intellectual development is evident

through logical activities. In this stage egoistic thinking returns back but here the

individual moves to very broader perspectives of thinking beyond him or her.

Abstract thinking about reality, justice, ethics, and existence are the most important

abilities of this stage which provides different alternative beliefs and concepts to these

issues. Acquiring of moral development which is based on abstract beliefs depends on

the cognitive development (Lutz & Huitt, 2004).

2.6.1.3 Educational Implications of Piaget theory

According to Piaget theory, the instruction of the teacher acts like new

information for the students for which the background related knowledge on the part

of the students is necessary. The contents of teaching should be consistent with the

cognitive level of the students. The teacher should facilitate the learning process by

providing relevant experiences. The discovery method is the most recommended

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method of teaching by Piaget in which the learners have the opportunity to interact

their own knowledge to new situation and try to assimilate and accommodate in their

own scheme of knowledge. The problem solving method provides opportunities to

students of different cognitive levels to work together, which is very beneficial for the

students of low cognitive level. Instruction of the teacher also provides the

experiences of concrete observations like the use of audio visual aids, which help in

learning and cognitive development. Provisions of relevant examples also enhance

greater development of cognition. The classifications of the contents on the basis of

complexity in the increasing order, facilitates the process of assimilation which results

in greater and effective development in the existed knowledge. Presentations of the

logical problems enhance the brain storming of the students which in turn develops

the thinking ability of the students. The stages of cognitive development are not

followed by all the children. The formal operational stage of cognitive development is

not achieved by most of the students during adulthood. So, the instruction is very

significant for those adults who are chronologically adults but mentally unable to

understand abstract concepts (Wood, Smith, & Grossniklaus, 2001).

2.6.1.4 Piaget theory and peer tutoring

According to Piaget, peer tutoring is beneficial for both the tutor and the tutee.

Tutor prepares the lesson earlier for tutoring session. This helps in developing the

intellectual abilities of the tutors as well as the planning and organization abilities of

the tutees. So peer tutoring develops cognition of the tutor in pre-interactive

preparation and that of the tutee in the post- interactive homework. Similarly Meta

cognitive development also takes place for both tutors and tutees during pre and post

interactive preparation and reflection respectively. Along with cognitive development

the affective domain also develops for both tutor and tutee during pre-interactive,

43

tutoring session and post tutoring homework. During peer tutoring the important

characteristics of exemplification, questioning, evaluation and disagreement develops

in the students (Rizve, 2012).

2.6.2 Vygotsky’s Theory of learning

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist born in 1934 and lived just for 37

years. In his short life he developed several theories and wrote about 200 research

works which are mostly lost. He worked on the different perspectives of psychology

including psychology of art, general psychology, psychology of disabled children,

teaching method of science and cognitive development and learning (Ivic, 2000).

Among the published work of Vygotsky, the socio-cultural theory and zone of

proximal development were the most important educational theories relating to

cognitive development and learning. He believed that society, history and culture play

very important role in intellectual development of child. Vygotsky stressed upon the

social interaction, discussion between the children and parents, teachers and

classmates for cognitive and social development (Blake & Pope, 2008).

Vygotsky categorized the cognitive development into the following zones but

these zone are not common in all people and varies person to person.

2.6.2.1 Zone of proximal development

The zone of proximal development was introduced by the Le Vygotsky to

describe the relation between development and learning. According to vygotsky the

zone of proximal development was defined as, “the distance between the actual

development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of

potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance

or in collaboration with more capable peer”. The zone of proximal development

explores the mental ability of learner and also predicts the next level of achievement

44

of the students by the assistance provided by the skilled partners. Vygotsky gives us

the idea that when children work with experienced and skilled partner, learn and

internalize concepts easily as compared to those who receive instruction as passive

learners. According to Vygotsky the students in the zone of proximal development

cannot accomplish educational tasks independently; but when they are doing it with

the collaboration of teacher or skilled peer they can accomplish it very easily. With

the help of this joint collaboration, students become able to do the same tasks

individually when they are performing next time and the level of the zone of proximal

development is raised for that particular task and finally the mental level of the

students enters into the zone of actual development for that task. The students are

engaged in other higher level of difficulty of the same task or other related task with

new zone of proximal development (Shabani, Khatib, & Ebadi, 2010).

2.6.2.2 Zone of actual development

According to Vygotsky some students are independent in fulfilling some tasks

and they do not need any help. Such level of the students for that particular tasks are

called zone of actual development. Instruction at this level has no impact on the

students and usually the students get bored. Students of this level when engaged in

peers of proximal development, discussion is very beneficial for the partners. This

discussion enhances the level of the students from the zone of proximal development

into the zone of actual development and the students in zone of actual development

develops abstract thinking and generalization of knowledge (Shabani et al., 2010).

2.6.2.3 Zone of no development

Some time students are unable to understand or perform some activities even

with the help of a colleague. In this situation the mental level of the students fall in the

zone of no development. This occurs due to two reasons; i) either the student is

45

unable to perceive instruction or ii) the contents are very difficult (Shabani et al.,

2010).

2.6.2.4 Level of mental functions

Vygotsky classified the mental functions into two levels i.e. elementary and

higher intellectual functions. Children are born with elementary intellectual functions.

Here in this level children do not depend on the learning and there is no requirement

of any thinking or consciousness. The functions in this stage occur naturally such as

sensing and hunger. While the operations in the higher mental level depends on the

reminiscence, awareness, interest, intellectual reasoning and language. When the

students are switching from elementary level of cognition to higher level of mental

function, they depend on the surrounding culture and use the culture as a tool for the

development of their cognitive development. Society also dictates the learner about,

what to learn and how to learn? According to Vygotsky society is one of the

important factor for the development of the cognition of the child. This is the

distinguishing character of the Vygotsky theory of cognitive development from other

theories; because, he puts great emphases on the meaningful internalization of the

social functions for the development of the cognition (Lutz & Huitt, 2004).

2.6.2.5 Sociocultural theory of Vygotsky

According to this theory society and culture play very important part in

student‟s development and learning. Students in social environment interact with each

other as well as with elder family members and teachers and learn from these

interactions. Vygotsky has categorized the learning process into three stages. In first

stage children learn through experience of person to person discussion and interaction.

In the second stage when children become unaccompanied they internalize the

46

learned knowledge and in the third stage they develop deep understanding (Blake &

Pope, 2008).

Actually when a child receives any stimulus from the environment, it is

reconstructed through the internal cognitive activities. This process is completed in

three stages. In the first stage the external stimulus is accepted and reconstructed. It is

usually in the form of some terms of language if the child is in the language

development stage or some new concept if the child learns at any stage. This stage

occurs in the social interactions among the people. The second stage of learning

occurs in the absence of social group, which involves the reconstruction. Here, he

attaches meaning to the received stimulus. In the final stage the the internalized

concept become part of the cognitive system of the child. According to the

socioculture theory, all of the advanced mental functions e.g intentional attention,

rational memory, conceptual understanding are originated from human interactions

(Ehrich, 2006).

These stages of learning were named as speech which is further categorized

into social, private and internal speech.

iv. Social speech

According to Vygotsky the development of an individual is strongly related to

culture, historical background and social interaction. The first stage of learning, which

is named „social speech‟ by Vygotsky involves daily interaction with elders, family

members, teachers and peer. The interactions engage communications, listening,

speaking, and discussion. The tools of these interactions are words and grammar of

the language which are acting as vehicles to transport ideas and knowledge from the

elders to the children. Some time the social interaction aims at solving a complex

issue or formulating plans and strategies for executing some projects (Ehrich, 2006).

47

v. Private speech

According to Vygotsky private speech is very important stage in the

development of child. During this stage when child becomes unaccompanied then

he/she internalizes all the activities of social speech and attaches meaning to it

according to his/her mental approach. According to Vygotsky it is a transitional stage

between social interaction and advanced thinking. In this stage the child converse

with her/his self and tries to coordinate between his/her speaking and listening in the

social speech. This stage develops intellect of the child with appropriation of social

and cultural process (Ehrich, 2006).

One of the important concepts of Vygotsky regarding private speech is the

union of daily life communications with thinking. According to Vygotsky the verbal

communication and thinking are distinct activities in the early developmental stage. It

is the sign of the cognitive development, when the child perform practically according

to his/her speech. As a result of the internalization of social process the language of

the child become sharp (Ehrich, 2006).

vi. Inner speech

According to Vygotsky inner speech is the final stage of language and

intellectual development which is originated from social interactions. In this stage

social behavior is converted into self-centered speech. The social behavior is passing

through an evolution and interpretation process which depends on the cognitive

approach of the child and the social background where it takes place. Therefore there

are many variations when a similar concept is learned in different social backgrounds

and by people with different cognitve levels. The development of inner speech occurs

through a series of inter-connected stages, i.e from social speech to egocentric speech

48

of the individual and in the last it is completed in the form of inner speech (Ehrich,

2006).

2.6.2.6 Concept of mediation in the sociocultural theory of Vygotsky

Mediation is one of the important concepts described by Vygotsky in his

famous socio-cultural theory. According to Vygotsky mediation means the role

played by other people in the learning of an individual. This role may be in the form

of guidance, help and designing the learning activities for the learner. In support of

mediation Vygotsky claims that effective learning occurs when two individuals of

different cognitive or experience level interact positively with each other. This

interaction aims to move the leaner from lower level of understanding to higher level

of understanding. According to Vygotsky language plays important role during

mediation process (Christmas, Kudzai, & Josiah, 2013).

2.6.2.7 Scaffolding in the zone of proximal development

Scaffolding is the help provided to the students for the purpose to understand

the lesson fully. The quantity of scaffolding varies according to the level of difficulty

of the contents. Scaffolding is provided to the students who are in the zone of

proximal development usually by the persons which are more knowledgeable than

these students or teachers. Scaffolding usually consists of questioning and answering,

suggestions, narrations, repetitions and more explanation. Due to scaffolding students

become able to accomplish tasks that cannot be completed independently (Haider &

Yasmin, 2015).

Scaffolding plays an important role in the zone of proximal development. The

concept of scaffolding was described by Vygotsky, Burner and Ross as an assistance

provided to the learners. In the zone of proximal development children need help

which is usually provided by the social interactions, teaching, peer tutoring and

49

formal and informal discussion in the relevant area. Vygotsky says that expert

students can develop an environment in which the novice learners can participate and

enhance their knowledge to high level. In educational setting scaffolding involves a

teacher made strategies in which the teacher shifts his responsibilities to the students

and the students further extend the instructions to the students in the zone of the

proximal development. As a result of this scaffolding, the students get more attention

and gradually enters into the zone of actual development. Now, the teachers withdraw

from scaffolding. This shows that the children have achieved the intended objectives

(Shabani et al., 2010).

2.6.2.8 Effect of society on the sociability of the child

According to Vygotsky society exert a significant effect on the development

of the child. The total behavior and personality of the child is originated from the

social interactions. According to this concept human beings cannot develop like

normal way if they are grown in isolated places. During infancy children need

lopsided interactions with their elders for the development of the language, cognitions

and behaviors. The messages from the society are passing from elders to children in

the form of symbols and verbal communication. This is inculcated in the minds of the

children although some of the high cognitive functions such as logical thinking,

conceptual thoughts and emotions cannot develop with social interactions (Ivic,

2000).

The same idea is incorporated by Kulzer, R, (2013) in his animated film

Tarzan. The film is made on the story of a small child of New York, Jay-jay. Jay-jay

called himself Tarzan of forest and always shows great love for animals and

monkeys.The father of Tarzan is a scientist. Once Tarzan goes with his father and

mother in their journey for search of elements. On the way back their plane was

50

crashed due to heavy thunderstorm and both their parents are died while their son

Tarzan is safe. Fortunatel tarzan meets a Gorilla, Carna in the forests. Carna starts his

caring and also loved him. Similarly, Tarzan starts living according to the pattern of

Gorilla. During this period he does not develop language and has not occupied the

normal behavior of the human being but behaves and has living standard just like

Gorillas. The story of the film supports the socio-culture theory of Vygotsky.

2.6.2.9 Educational Implications of Vygotsky theory

Vygotsky was a very successful and active teacher. He had assumed as a

member of the various bodies of the education system of Soviet Union. He had

practical experiences of dealing various problems in the education system. During his

short life he had contributed a lot to the education and especially in the education of

the handicapped people. Some of his views regarding education are;

i. Education is closely related to the development of the child. But the

development of the child is taking place in the socio-cultural environment and

the type of education provided in the schools.

ii. Education is not only acquisition of knowledge but also a source of

development. For the development of child, education uses various tools,

techniques and logical operations.

iii. Curricular contents, its structure and instruments are very important for the

development of the child as compared to the school because school some time

makes overburdens on the students of irrelevant facts. Schools are unable to

provide natural setting for social interactions which are very important for the

learning of the students (Ivic, 2000).

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2.6.2.10 The theory of Vygotsky and peer tutoring

According to Vygotsky peer tutoring is helpful for both tutor and tutee.

Vygotsky admits that students with problems or confusions can perform well when

they work in collaboration with more competent peer and the growth of their intellect

takes place which may not happen by traditional teaching. Vygotsky says that all

children are not equal. Some are competent and easily understand the lecture of

teacher and they are in the zone of actual development and some are dull minded and

can not easily understand the lecture of the teacher, and these students are in the zone

of proximal development. These students need extra help which can be provided by

the peer tutoring or by parents helps in the home. During the tutoring process both the

partner, tutee and tutor get benefits. The tutee gets benefits by asking questions,

discussions, removing ambiguities by asking every types of questions that may not be

asked from the teacher. The tutors gets benefits by preparation and reformulation of

knowledge for the tutee and also by answering and satisfying the tutees (Mehra &

Mondal, 2005)

2.6.3 Social Role Theory

According to social role theory every person in the society occupies distinct

position and their positions are determined by the social values, rules and norms.

Other members in the society react to these roles accordingly. The roles of the

individuals also affect and can produce innovations in the behaviour, thinking and

attitudes of other individuals. These effects are more prominent in the individuals who

interact more as compared to other individuals who are less or not interact. These

effects proceed in both negative and positive directions depending on the nature of the

role player (Murillo, 2013).

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Social role theory works on the behaviour of human in social environment.

The social role theory focuses on the relations among the individuals, various systems

in the society. Education is also one of the systems among these systems. According

to social role theory students have some expectations from teachers and students and

head of the institutes. The learning of the students also has inspiration from these

expectations. The expectations from the teachers are different from the expectations

that students. In case of peer tutoring and especially in class wide peer tutoring, the

students are more open to share his/her every problems in academics as compare to

teachers (Dulin, 2007).

Social learning theory also supports social role theory, a model is always

imitated by the observers and tutors also act like model for the tutees. So peer is the

prime candidate to be imitated and this imitation is very strong in early years (Rizve,

2012).

2.6.4 Ausubel’s Learning Theory

According to this theory student‟s minds are not blank. They have some ideas,

concepts, and some basic knowledge. Conceptual learning occurs when students link

his basic knowledge to the new situations. This theory also advocates the active

participation of the students in the learning process through activities, drill and

experimentation (Vallori, 2014).

According to Ausubel's Learning theory student‟s minds have many ideas and

thoughts towards various happening. These ideas are developed by day to day

experiences and interactions. These experiences develop a framework of knowledge

in the minds of child. During organizing the peer tutoring program the pre existed

knowledge of both tutors and tutees should be kept in mind. A useful Learning occurs

when this pre existed knowledge is linked to the new situations. The tutor has already

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sufficient knowledge but as he/she teaching and answering the questions of tutee,

some new ideas clicks in his/her mind and increase in knowledge of the tutors

occurred and tutees are already in the zone of proximal development means posses

some knowledge but needs further help which is fulfilled by the peer tutoring. This

theory stresses upon the active participation of the learner in the learning process

through various constructive activities based on their background knowledge (Soica,

Moraru, & Miron, 2011).

2.7 EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON PEER TUTORING

Peer tutoring is a well-off research area, where many work has been done on

the various perspectives of peer tutoring throughout the world. On the basis of

objectives of the study the empirical literature is described in the following lines.

Mehra and Mondal (2005) investigated the effects of peer tutoring on learning

of science of the students of class 9th

from one of the higher secondary school of

district Assam India. The researchers of this study had great worries about the future

progress of the students from middle class and lower middle class families. According

to them peer tutoring was the only strategy to provide individual help in promoting

the learning outcome of these students. Therefore they conducted research on peer

tutoring and measured the effect of peer tutoring on the achievement of students with

respect to knowledge and comprehension levels of cognitive domain in the subject of

science. The results of the study showed that peer tutoring contributed significantly in

the development of knowledge and comprehension level of the students in subject of

science as compared to the students taught through traditional method of teaching.

Vogel, Fresko and Wertheim (2007) identified the views of tutors and tutees

with learning disabilities through a descriptive research by collecting data from the

students with learning disabilities from 25 colleges, teacher training institutes and

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universities in Israel. The main purpose of this research was to recognize the tutoring

activities from the views of tutors and tutees. The findings of the study expressed that

the problem of deficits of attention and focus were faced to both tutees and tutors.

Social and emotional needs of the students were low rated by both tutors and tutee.

According to the views of tutees the activities of tutoring process were task oriented

and had addressed their needs effectively and had proved fruitful in the preparation

for examinations. The tutors admitted that lacking of relevant skills for dealing the

learning disabilities and understanding the learning needs of the tutees had disturbed

them a lot. Both tutors and tutees had faced difficulties in establishing relationship for

tutoring. The study had also conformed the claim of many researches that peer

tutoring could play significant role in the academic achievement of the students with

respect to levels of cognitive domain.

Kiuru (2008) conducted research on the role of peers in the educational

context during adolescent period. The tool of the research was a questionnaire. The

items of the questionnaire were based on the social background, peer relations,

adjustment in the school and expectations in the educational context. The findings of

the study showed that students belonging to the same peer groups resembled in most

of their activities like selection of educational field, educational attainment and

adjustment in the school. The findings of the study also revealed that peers were also

similar in the behavioural terms like performance in the school and entrance to the

next level of the education. Social stratification was also observed in the formation of

peer group. Students who did not belong to any group peer group or loose peer group

showed less adjustment in all educational and non-educational context. The research

also studied the gender effect which was gone in the favour of girls as compared to

boys.

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Kirkham and Ringelstein (2008) had presented a model of peer tutoring, the

Student Peer Assisted Mentoring (SPAM) model. Although he had not implemented it

practically but he had developed a theoretical framework based on authentic literature

which had justified its significance for both mentor and mentee. The researcher also

identified several ways of measuring the outcomes of this model. The main objectives

of the model were to increase academic achievements of the students and increase

their retention level.

Motivation is one of the important objectives of the teaching learning process

(Hulsizer and Woolf, 2009). Razak and See (2010) has conducted research on

studying the effect of online peer tutoring on the academic performance and

motivational level of the students. In this research the researcher compared face-to-

face instruction with face-to-face instruction supplemented by online peer tutoring.

The statistical analysis showed a significant difference in the post test scores between

the experimental and control groups. The academic achievement was higher of the

experimental group. Similarly the motivational level of the experimental group was

also higher than control group. So this research proved that peer tutoring had a

significant effect on the educational achievement and motivation of the students.

Smith (2010) had conducted a qualitative study on the roles of peer in the

learning of children. This study was done in the centers of early childhood education

to explore the behavior of the children, who were working collaboratively as peer

tutors. The data were collected through observation, interview, and non formal

discussion. The data were analyzed through constant comparative analysis technique.

The findings of the study showed that young children acted successfully as tutors and

had used variety of methods and techniques for convincing their tutees. The findings

of the study also showed that tutoring session needs highly structured empowering

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environment. The study also revealed that whenever children had find an opportunity,

they had negatively impacted the routines. Therefore the researcher has recommended

strict, structured and control environment for the tutoring session especially in lower

age students.

Brost (2011) conducted an evaluation study in “Chippewa Valley Technical

College in Claire”. The main intentions of the study were to assess the success rate,

limitations, and practicality of the program of peer tutoring which was previously

exist in “Chippewa Valley Technical College”. Results of the study illustrate that the

program of peer tutoring at “Chippewa Valley Technical College” was effectual. Brost

(2011) also added that advance planning and prearrangements will lead to enhance the

effectiveness of peer tutoring. Good achievement rate was recorded by him but he

suggested further research in the field of peer tutoring by using diverse modules of

peer tutoring.

Horvath (2011) had carried out research on effects for peer tutoring on the

retelling ability of the four students of sixth grade. This study was continued for four

weeks. Two students were engaged in peer tutoring, after instruction both these two

students discussed the passage with each other while the other two had red the

passage individually. This procedure was continued for four weeks. After treatment

high retelling score was recorded for the students who had attended the peer tutoring,

hence the attribute had gone to peer tutoring.

Holecek (2012) had conducted research on cross age/ cross disability peer

tutoring for the mathematical teaching. According to the researcher children with

disabilities have many problems in the learning process especially in the conventional

setting. This study was conducted to measure the results of peer tutoring on learning

mathematical skills of the learners have emotional, behaviour disorder. In this

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research cross disability and cross age tutoring was used. Three tutors were selected

from grade level II having Emotional Behavior disorder but they were good in math.

The tutees were selected in lower grade having cognitive disabilities. The results of

the post test showed improvement in learning basic math skills.

Rizve (2012) conducted research on her doctoral degree on peer tutoring and

find the effects on academic performance in the subject of English at secondary level

in view of Vygotskian theory. She proved that effectual learning occurred in the

“zone of proximal development” of a learner if he/she is provided tutoring by her/his

peer. The theory of Vygotsky had suggested societal gathering, discussion and

guidelines by elder for effective learning. Academic help was suggested for those

learners, who are in the “zone of proximal development”. So this approach was

incorporated by the researcher in her doctoral study on the students of 9th

grade and

scaffolding was supplied in the form of tutoring by the students of 10th

grade. At the

same time other group, control group was instructed by conventional lecture method.

The finding of the study expressed that, the group under investigation performed

better as compare to other group of same academic level but no scaffolding was

provided to that group.

Ezenwosu and Nworgu (2013) had also worked on the usefulness of peer

tutoring along with the effect of gender in the discipline of biology. This research was

conducted in one of the state of Nigeria. “Pretest posttest non equivalent control

group design” was used in this experimetal research. Biology achievement test was

used as a tool for data collection. The sample was comprise on 228 students of both

genders from two secondary schools. The data was analyzed by using Mean, standard

deviation and ANCOVA. The results of the study expressed that participants included

in the experimental group performed better as compare to the participants of control

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group. The results had also showed that score of male students were better than

female students.

Reitz, at al (2014) Conducted research on the effects of peers on the

personality development of an individuals. According to this research the variations in

personality of person to person is due to peer relationship in the lifespan of the

individuals. This research has presented many theoretical and empirical evidences in

the support, that peers play important role in the personality development of an

individual. For example some studies on life experiences showed that peers has a

significant effect on personality development during study in graduation, military

service or occupation. During theses experiences some dyadic relationship with some

special colleague bring some changes in the personality of individuals which may not

be appear in the other individuals of the group.

Comfort and Mcmahon (2014) had studied the effects of peer tutoring on the

educational performance of the tutees as well as tutors. The results of the study

showed that students had showed significant improvement in the academic

achievement as compared to the students who were not tutored. The results were also

compared to the same group of previous year and were found significantly improved.

The results of the study also showed that peer tutoring had significantly improved the

scores of educational achievement of the tutors as compared to the students who were

not acted as tutors.

Swan (2014) conducted research on “effects of peer tutoring on the reading

fluency and reading comprehension of seventh grade students” in her PhD

dissertation. The participants of the study were consist of five dyad of 7th

grade

students a rural school. Half of these students were facing difficulties in reading. The

treatment was provided by a paraprofessional. On the basis of test‟s score in reading

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fluency the students were classified into two groups in such a way that highest

performing students were paired to lower performing. Both interventionist and

students were trained before treatment. The script for PALS activities were provided

to interventionist for teaching. After treatment students who attended PALS activities

were compared to the students who had not attended the PALS activities. The results

of the study showed that reading fluency and comprehension was improvement of the

first Dyad but the improvement in the second and third Dyads was very limited. The

tutees had enjoyed the PALS activities and attributed their improvement to the

working of their tutor. The study further explored that monitoring may contribute in

enhancing the reading skill of the students.

Haider and Yasmin (2015) studied the effect of scaffolding and peer tutoring

on the understanding and comprehension of English language on the students of 5th

grade tutored by the students of 7th

grade of the International Islamic school system

Rawalpindi , Pakistan through experimental study. The result of the study showed

that students taught through peer tutoring and scaffolding performed better as

compared to the students of control group, which had also proved that scaffolding and

peer tutoring were significantly better method of teaching as compared to traditional

teaching methods. There was also a shift of attitude observed from negative to

positive towards the learning and the participation rate in the learning process was

also increased as a result of scaffolding and peer tutoring.

Abdelkarim and Abuiyada (2016) investigated the effects of peer teaching on

the academic achievement in the subject of mathematics of the undergraduate students

of Dhofar University Oman. This study was conducted on 32 female students of the

undergraduate course of mathematics. The 32 students were further divided into

experimental and control groups through pair random technique. the experimental

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group was exposed to peer teaching while control group was taught through

traditional teaching. Mathematics Achievement Test was used for data collection. The

results of the t-test shows peer teaching method had increased the achievement score

of the students as compared to the control group.

2.8 MOTIVATION

The word motivation has Latin origin which means to stimulate. Motivation is

one of the form of behavior which can not be observed directly like other physical

things or events. Motivation can also be used a force factor in daily use. For example

people say,” there is no motivation” “ Students should be motivated for doing home

work” (Pakdel, 2013).

According to Cherry (2016) motivation is described as the process that starts,

directs and sustained the behaviors which depends on specific behaviors towards a

goal. All the activities in this world are caused by motivational forces. Theses

motivational forces may be biological, cognitive, social and emotional that stimulate

the behaviors. The process of motivation starts by taking the decision for doing some

task and then it proceeds in the form of continued straggle for achieving the goals.

The intensity of the straggle varies from individual to individual and the nature of the

task.

Development of the student‟s motivation for learning is one of the emerging

issue for the teachers and curriculum developer. The teachers and researchers are

always concerned about low level of the students‟s motivation, lack of interest in

class, poor performance in the class (Muho & Kurani, 2013).

2.8.1 Components of Motivation

Muho and Kurani (2013) has described the following components of

motivation to learning.

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i. Effort

Effort means to try to keep on in an activity. If the students are motivated, then

they devote more time and more efforts to learning and can easily face problems and

difficulties in accomplishing the work. The sum of effort students spend is influenced

by different factors like commitment level, interest and the level of confidence on has.

ii. Goal orientation

Goal orientation means the set of behavioral objectives which further elaborate

how the learners move toward and engages in learning tasks. The objectives of the

class which the students want to achieve further emphases the scope of the goal

orientation. The goal orientation is further identified by the intrinsic motivation.

According to Jalongo (2007 as cited in Muho and Kurani, 2013) intrinsic motivation

inhabit within the student and the learning tasks are satisfying it in case if the task can

stimulate it. If the learning tasks are interesting and attractive, then they stimulate the

intrinsic motivation of the students and as result students invest more time and efforts.

iii. Locus of control

It is the level of control over the occurring of events in one lives, as opposite

to outside forces away from their control. In education it implies that how much a

student feels in control of learning as opposed by teachers, elders and other social

interactions. It is better that development of ownership of learning and assessment

shifts from teacher to students. For the improvement of the performance, the students

need to develop their own strategies as well as their role is supported by other

stakeholders. This will increase the confidence level of the students and also develops

the locus of control which as result bestow them the sense of ownership in the

learning activities.

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iv. Self efficacy

Self efficacy deals with the behavior and decision of the learner that how to

deal a situation in unclear and volatile circumstances. The power of self efficacy

motivate the students in the learning process. The students with low efficacy level

avoid to attend difficult task and try to choose easier activities.

v. Sense of self

Everyone has a sense of self and always thinking about themselves. The sense

of self consist of behaviors, roles, traits and relation. According to Covington, (2000

as cited in Muho and Kurani, 2013) there are three situations in which the students

give worth to what they are learning and take pleasure from the learning process.

a. Students can intrinsically motivated when feedback is given to them in the

form of grade.

b. The learners should value what they are learning and should feel successful.

When the learner enjoying his/her success, they are intrinsically motivated for

more learning activities.

c. The students can make a lesson interesting by searching the interesting

element of the lesson or making the boring subject interesting by adding some

interesting activities.

vi. Self esteem

The evaluation of the self is called self esteem. It means how much importance

we give to ourselves. it affects the trust that we put on the others. The self esteem is

also directly related to the learning and achievements in the schools. The self esteem

of the students can be achieved by the teachers by positive reinforcements and

through other strategies.

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vii. Self regulation

Self regulation is the act of an individual in their extended long term interest

which is related to the values of the individual. Self regulation is the name of

maintaining of an individual in extreme situations.

viii. Interest

Interests are of two types, one is personal interest and other is situational

interest. Personal interest are unique to individual and play very important role in the

learning process while the situational interests are developed through learning

strategies for the particular tasks.

2.8.2 Motivation and Learning

Cognitive process and learning can not be understand without considering the

various factors, and motivation is one of the most important factor among these

factors which is conformed by many empirical studies. The rate of engagement of

people in learning process is depend on the amount of motivation provided. Thus

motivation provides energy to the mind which is necessary for the learning (Packer,

2004).

Rehman and Haider (2013) had explored some ideas that can develop

motivation of the students towards learning. Some of these ideas are:

i. Teacher should adopt supportive style for their students both in academic and

nonacademic problems, because this ability of teacher develops motivation,

interest and engagement of the students towards learning (Lanzinger, 2009).

ii. Teacher should explain objectives of the lesson strategies of learning to their

students, because when students understand what, why and how to learn, then

they motivate toward learning (Hattie, 2012).

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iii. Teacher should create attractive, interesting environment in the learning place

because environment has a significant effect on learning (Greany, 2005).

iv. Teacher should bring innovative approaches during in order to develop

curiosity in students for learning.

v. Every students should be rewarded irrespective of like and dislike. The reward

may be a simple gift, or topi, or in the form of good words (Leuven,

Oosterbeek, & Klaauw, 2010).

vi. Every student should be make responsible for doing some academic activity,

because this will develop confidence level and motivation towards learning

(Reeve & Ang, 2006).

vii. Opportunities should be provided to students for group activities. Because

group work develop motivation, sense of autonomy and socialization of the

students (Reeve & Ang, 2006).

viii. Teacher should praise and share the work of good performers because it

develops motivation and confidence of the students.

ix. Teacher should have knowledge about student‟s family, activities, at least the

name of the students and should inquire seldom from the students, because it

develops good feeling and motivation towards learning.

x. Always motivate students for success and share the example of successful

people (Leuven et al., 2010).

2.8.3 Ingredients for Student Motivation

Motivation is one of the important factors for improving students learning.

Human have very complex nature and its motivational nature cannot be explained by

single theory because the needs and desires of the human are very diverse and

numerous. Williams and Williams (2011) has described five key ingredients that play

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important role in the motivation of the students in the learning process. These

ingredients are described below;

i. Student

In the education system the central role is played by the students. Students are

the both inputs and outputs and the labor force of the education system. There is much

diversity observed among the students due to individual differences. The diversity

observed in the form of learning style, developmental pattern, social background and

interests. Students comes to the education system with various degrees of Intrinsic

and extrinsic motivation. The factors of intrinsic motivation of most of the students

expressed in the learning environment, like desire to be involved, the curiosity by

asking questions and social interaction. The extrinsic motivational factor of the

students includes appreciation, obedience and respect of others and tries to avoid

doing the work.

The intrinsically motivated students are always good in learning and do their

work without any provision of rewards or any back up. Those students who are

extrinsically motivated depends on the rewards and reinforcement (Lei, 2010).

ii. Teacher

Teacher is one of the important factor for motivation and can play great role

in enhancing the motivation level of the students. In the current educational

environment the role of the teacher is shifting from planned teaching to managing and

organizing of the students learning. So therefore teacher should be trained and

equipped on the psychological knowledge of the students, hence teacher play role as

an extrinsic factor of motivation.

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The academic knowledge, sense of humor, method of teaching, the way of

engaging the class and motivational level of the teacher are very important factors for

the development of the motivation of the students (Weinstein, 2010).

iii. Content

According to Legg and Wilson (2009 as cited in Williams and Williams,

2011) contents also have great contribution in the development of the motivation of

the students. In order to stay the motivation of the students in the learning process, the

ownership and choice of the students should be give due importance during contents

selection.

iv. Method/ Experiences

Method of teaching is the process which tries to inculcate the contents in the

minds of the students. The teacher should use psychology and technology for

improving the method of teaching in order to handle students of diverse motivational

nature. Some key ideas that can improve the method of teaching includes, that some

incentives should be offered within the budget to the students, or some time some

ideas of refreshment, or suspense should be added to the method of teaching.

v. Environment

Here environment means the place where the learning take place. So the

environment of the class should be equipped with all necessary requirements that can

develop the motivation of the students. In unsafe or in unhygienic environment it not

possible to attract the attention of the students towards learning. The environment of

the class should satisfy all the physical, mental and emotional needs of the learners.

2.9 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF MOTIVATION IN LEARNING

The study of motivational factors in education and business field is traced

back to the period of Greeks and Rome‟s. Plato, Socrates and Aristotle contributed

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their ideas to concept of motivation. Pakdel (2013) stated that according to Greeks

three elements, desires, pleasures and pains of an individual are the first factors which

justify the motivational activities. In the 17th

century Rene Descartes, French

Philosopher identified the two factors of motivation, the body, the inactive factor and

the will the active factor. Due to the physical and mechanical nature of the body its

needs and desires includes food, shelter and other worldly things. The mind has

intellectual nature and has purposeful will. Descartes for the first time advocated

motivation to the will of man (Pakdel, 2013).

According to Ford (1992 as cited in Packer, 2004) in the beginning of the 20th

century, motivation was associated with inner and external forces which include

needs, incentives, drives and reinforcements and these all are beyond the control of a

person. In this period stress was paid to self protection and need fulfillment. In the

middle of the 20th

century the concept of motivation was linked with cognitive

process and emotions were given due importance. In the last decades of the 20th

century the theories of motivation have got much importance but still were cognitive

in nature. Different perspectives of motivation were explored and more than twenty

theories of motivation were presented.

B.F. Skinner was also included among the proponents of this approach and he

identified various forces of external reinforcement. These reinforcement forces

enhance the intended behavior in both directions. In case of positive reinforcement it

proceeds positively while in case of negative reinforcement it proceeds in negative

direction. Rewards, praise and good grades results desired behavior and punishment

leads to unpleasant consequences. The human behavior is a complex phenomenon that

cannot be conditioned to only rewards and punishment and the individual differences

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is one the factor that cannot allow same stimuli will allow same response. However

the effects of extrinsic rewards decreased with passage of time (Lai, 2011).

Stipek (1996 as cited in Lai, 2011) described the limitations of extrinsic

factors and developed a new approach in which he can manipulate cognitive

behaviors. He presented a model of cognitive behavior modification (CBM) which

intends to modify obvious behavior by controlling cognitive process. According to

this model the responsibility of student‟s learning shifts from extrinsic factors to

intrinsic components of behavior which has bestowed more autonomy to the students

over their learning, as result students become independent in setting their objectives,

contents and experiences of their learning activities. The findings of empirical studies

show some disadvantages to this approach.

Maslow‟s theory of hierarchal needs based on the needs of human which are

hierarchically ranked. Some needs are basic to all human; as this basic need is

satisfied the individuals are then looking for higher order needs and the satisfied

needs are no longer remain as motivators. The most basic needs of human according

to Maslow are physiological needs, which include food, water, and biological needs.

After satisfaction individual then worried about safety needs and then goes to social

needs which establish relation to other human beings, including love and attachment

with others. Social satisfaction develops self esteem which is very intrinsic in nature.

The satisfaction of all these needs lead to self actualization, which make the human

perfect and can adopt new skills, face challenges and moves towards achievement of

life‟s goals. But the Maslow‟s theory was not supported by empirical studies and has

faced many objects regarding hierarchal order (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012).

The Clayton Alderfer (1940-2015) has modified the hierarchal order of needs

and presented his own theory of ERG, which has organized human needs into three

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categories. These categories are named as existence, relatedness and growth.

Existence comprises of Maslow‟s physiological and safety needs, relatedness

comprises of social needs and growth consists of esteem and self actualization (Bauer

& Erdogan, 2012).

Clark Hull identified Drive Theory in 1943. According to Hull there are two

types of drives forces, primary and acquired. Primary drives are non directional and

biological in nature and includes the desire of hunger and thrust. Acquired drives

consist of wishes for money, love, play and learning. According to this theory all the

psychological needs including desire for learning are acquired drives and this theory

provides base for behavioral learning (Rehman & Haider, 2013).

It is the challenge to every educator that how to motivate students learning.

This challenge results various researches and theories to find effective ways of

motivating students for learning. One of the struggles in this regard is the work of

Keller in the form of his ARCS model of motivation. This model helps the planner of

education and teachers in analyzing the motivational characteristics of the students

and in developing strategies for the arousal of the motivation of the students. The

ARCS model has four categories, 1. Attention 2. Relevance 3. Confidence 4.

Satisfaction. These categories further elaborate conditions that are compulsory for

fully motivated person (Malik, 2014)

i. Attention

In the first step of teaching a lesson the attention of the students should be

gained by using various techniques. The motivating elements may be simple or

complex depending on the nature of the problem. There should be variation if possible

in every aspect of the lesson, the variation in the behavior of the teacher, the variation

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in the method of presentation, and the variation in pace and tone of the lecture,

because variation is necessary for maintaining attention of the students (Keller, 2000).

ii. Relevance

Relevance is the second component of ARCS model. Relevance means to

connect the contents of instruction to the goals, interests, learning style and mental

level of the students. One of the approach to connect the contents of instruction to the

future needs of the students. In order to motivate and sustain the most instant and

current interests of the students the teacher should use simulation, case studies and

problem solving approaches (Keller, 2000).

iii. Confidence

Confidence is the third category essential for the motivation. It can be

achieved by encouraging students to always expect positively for their success. One

of the reasons of low confidence among the students is the lake of information about

what are expecting from them. The objectives of the lesson should be clear to both

teacher and students and during the instruction the students should feel the achieving

of objectives, this will enhance the confidence level of the students. The causes of

success or failure should be clear to the students. Eradicate the concept or belief from

the minds of the students that success depends on external factors like luck, decisions

of other people because such concepts reduce the confidence level of the students

(Keller, 2000).

iv. Satisfaction

After satisfying all the above three condition, it is needed to sustain the

motivation of the students in overall lesson, it requires satisfaction. The sense of

satisfaction of the students refers to the feeling of the students about the positive

responses they receive from the teachers and colleagues and their intrinsic feelings are

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satisfied from the behavior or treatment towards them. Substantial real rewards also

maintain satisfaction. The rewards may be in the form of grades, certificate, and

praise or in the form of promotion to higher state. Equality, equity, consistency among

the components of lesson, maintenance of rules and law, and no favoritism are some

the important factors which maintain motivation of the students (Keller, 2000).

2.10 EFFECTS OF PEER TUTORING ON MOTIVATION OF THE STUDENTS

Clarkson and Luca (2002) conducted a case study to explore the effect of

peer tutoring in Promoting student learning. The researcher conducted this study on

media students of Edith Cowan University that how to work on internet and upload

various form of data on web. For this purpose he selected 110 students of diverse

background. Both tutor and tutee attended one hour lectur and two hour of tutorial

sessions. The data regarding measuring their attitude towards learning through peer

tutoring was measured through questionnaire. Bothe the tutors and tutees had enjoyed

the sessions of peer tutoring and supported the process positively but due to the divers

background of the tutees and tutors there responses would not attributed to the peer

tutoring. It was also observed that some students were not aware about their role as

peer tutor and the researcher had recommended a compulsory training for tutors in

future studies.

Eisenkopf, (2008) Experimentally investigated the peer effect on the student‟s

learning and motivation. The literature in this paper favoured the positive effect of

peer on learning but there was a contradictory debate on the effect of peer on the

motivation of the partners. The experiment was performed on 85 swis students of a

public high school, Kantonsschule in the Canton, Switzerland. The findings of the

research showed significant effect on peer. This study also provided evidence for

72

impact of motivation on peer partner. The increase in motivation was due to the

ability of peer partner.

A significant work had been done by Austin (2008) in her Master thesis in

which she explored the effects of peer tutoring on the learning and motivation in the

subject of math on the 5th

grade students. The sample of the study was consisted of

thirty students from an urban school of New York. The tools for data collection were

pretest, pot-test, participant observation and journal prompt. The finding of the study

indicated that students that had attended peer tutoring session improved in the

academic achievement but due to the non equivalent group the control group

performed well as compared to experimental group but the motivation of the students

was increased in the whole instruction and students had also showed positive feeling

and positive attitudes towards peer tutoring.

Razak and See (2010) studied the effect of peer learning on the academic

achievement and motivation of the students at secondary level in the subject of

statistics through online learning. The researcher had used quasi-nonequivalent pretest

and posttest control group design to explore the effects of peer learning through

online interaction supplemented with face to face instruction compare to face to face

instruction. The finding of the study explored that peer learning had a significant

effect on motivation and academic achievement.

Romano and Walker (2010) studied the effect of peer tutoring on the academic

success, engagement in the class and behavior in subject of biology at secondary

level. The sample of the study was consisted of 10 students of 9th

grade. The

experiment was conducted in biology lab in which the students was working in pairs

on the given assignment. For data collection the researcher had used various tools like

Pretest, posttest, participant observation, field notes, checklist and students journal

73

entries. After ten days of peer tutoring the data was collected using the above

mentioned tools. After analysis of data the researcher had conclude that; the academic

achievement of the students were improved after peer tutoring. The ability of home

work completion was also improved. Most students were agreed that peer tutoring had

improved the understanding level, focus on task, and enjoyment in studying the

subject of biology.

Gok (2012) explored the effects of peer teaching on students‟ conceptual

understanding and motivation in the subject of physics on college students. The

sample of the study was 123 college students. Quasi-experiment design was used for

conduction of study. Concept Inventory “FCI” and Motivated Strategies for Learning

Questionnaire “MSLQ” were used as a data collection tool. The findings of the study

showed that the method of peer instruction was effective in the development of

conceptual understanding as compared to traditional lecture demonstration method.

But the peer instruction had no impact on the motivation of the students and neither it

had developed interest of the students.

Arrand (2014) conducted qualitative research on peer tutoring on media

production students in higher education. The author claimed that peer tutoring is

going to mature and strategized due to its increasing practices in the world wide

institutions, so it should be more structured and accountable. The available literature

appeal and wishes to examine it qualitatively in which the participant express their

opinion openly in order to give us a clear picture of its multi-natured face. The data

was collected by questionnaire, sheet of self-evaluation and by narrative inquiry. The

collected data was then tabulated, coded and themed which had expressed conformity

of the findings of previous literature that peer tutoring has significant effect on

learning and arousal of motivation and develop confidence.

74

Self- concept or sense of self is the important component of motivation and is

also one of the important component that affects student‟s learning and all life‟s

activities (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). Alrajhi and Aldhafri (2015) studied the effect of

peer tutoring on the self-concept in subject of English of the students of Sultan

Qaboos University of Oman. The sample size of the study was 125 students of Sultan

Qaboos University Oman. The data was collected by Tutorial Programs Factors Scale

(TPFS) and Student English Self Concept Scale ( SESCS). The analysis of data

revealed that peer tutoring had significant effect on development of English Self

Concept.

75

Chapter 3

METHOD AND PROCEDURE

This section presents the methodologies and procedures which were adopted

in this study. It has further elaborated the population, sample, data collection, analysis

and procedures of the study.

3.1 POPULATION

All 433,405 boys‟ students at secondary level of 10th

grade of Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa were the population of study (EMIS, 2015).

3.2 SAMPLE

Forty (40) students, who were studying biology as elective subject of grade

10th

were chosen as sample of the study from Allied National Software Institutes

(ANSI), a private secondary school for boys Mardan. The sample of the study was

bifurcated into two equal groups that were experimental and control groups on the

basis of pretest score by using the techniques of pair random. Each group was consist

of low achiever (below the Median) and high achiever (above the Median) students.

In Experimental group the high achievers were considered as tutors and low achievers

were considered as tutees. The pairs of tutor and tutee were constructed in

experimental group in such a way that high achievers of experimental group were

paired with the low achievers of experimental group through random technique.

3.3 DESIGN OF THE STUDY

This study was experimental as well as qualitative in nature. The investigation

had involved two groups of students; Experimental group and Control group from 10th

grade and both groups were equivalent on the basis of pretest score. According to

(Farooq, 2001), the “pretest posttest equivalent group design” is used for measuring

the effectiveness of treatment which involved two equivalent groups. Therefore the

76

pretest posttest equivalent group Design was used for measuring the effectiveness of

peer tutoring. Following is the symbolic representation of this design.

Where RE = Randomly Selected Experimental Group

RC = Randomly Selected Control Group

O1 & O3 = Pretests

O2 & O4 = Post- test

T = Treatment

d = Difference between mean scores of Pretest and Posttest

Figure 3.1 Pretest posttest equivalents Group Design

3.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The study involved both quantitative and qualitative aspects for which both

quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection were used. Data were

collected by the following tools.

3.4.1 Pretest and Posttest

Teacher made pretest and posttest were developed in consultation with subject

experts and supervisor. Each pretest and posttest was consisted of 32 items having

fifty marks. Before administering both instruments were pilot-tested. Both tests were

prepared on the basis of first three levels of cognitive domain in line with objectives

RE = O1 T O2

RC =O3 O4

d RE = O2 - O1

d RC = O4 - O3

D = d RE – d RC

77

of lesson plans and objectives of the study according to the following tables of

specification.

Table 1: Table of Specification of Pretest

Distribution of Items of Pretest

Levels of

Cognitive

domain

MCQs

A

True/Fals

B

Short Q

C

Long Q

D

Total

(A+B+C

+D)

Marks

(A+B+3

C+5D)

%age

Knowledge 6 7 2 1 15 24 48%

Comprehension 9 3 0 1 13 17 34%

Application 0 0 3 0 4 9 18%

Total 15 10 5 2 32 50 100%

Table 2: Table of Specification of Posttest

Distribution of Items of Posttest

Levels of

Cognitive

domain

MCQs

A

True/False

B

Short Q

C

Long Q

D

Total

(A+B+C

+D)

Marks

(A+B+3

C+5D)

%age

Knowledge 9 4 3 1 17 27 54%

Comprehensio

n

6 6 - -

12 12 24%

Application 0 - 2 1 3 11 22%

Total 15 10 5 2 32 50 100%

3.4.1.1 Reliability of Tests

The reliabilities of the tests were determined by using split-half method.

Seventeen students were taken from 10th

class of Sadhum Children Academy Rustam

Mardan for reliability testing of pre test, which were given pretest and their

78

achievement score were obtained. The items of the test were divided into two equal

halves. The obtain marks in the halves were compared using “Spearman-Brown

Prophecy formula” and the co-efficient of reliability was established which was 0.92,

which led to the satisfaction on the reliability of pre test. In the same way the

reliability of posttest was established and found 0.70, which was also satisfactory.

3.4.2 Participant Observation

Motivation of the students was measured through participant observation by

the researcher because the researcher was much engaged in the study and had the

opportunity to note and record the indicators of motivation narratively.

3.5 PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY

This study was experimental in nature and complemented by a qualitative

approach due to its one of the objectives, exploring the motivation of the students

towards learning and conducted in Allied National Software Institute (ANSI), a

private secondary school in Mardan, from 5th

September to 22th

October of 2016. For

conducting this study the following procedure was adopted.

3.5.1 Selection of Tutors and Tutees

There were four sections of the 10th

grade in the ANSI school Mardan. The

researcher had intended to use pretest posttest equivalent group design, for which he

needed two equivalent groups. The administration of the school had not allowed him

to disturb all his sections, and allowed him for conduction his research in two sections

which collectively comprise on 47 students. Therefore the researcher had taken a

pretest from these two sections. The pretest was constructed in the already taught

three chapters of the biology of 10th

grade. Seven students turn downed to take part in

the research; hence sample size was reduced to 40 students. Two groups, experimental

and control were formed, using the score of pretest by using pair random technique

79

and hence both groups were equivalent. Both groups were comprised on high

achievers and low achievers. In the group under investigation the high achievers were

nominated as tutors and low achievers were considered as tutees.

3.5.2 Tutor Training

Training session was arranged for tutors before starting the treatment and they

were also guided during the sessions of tutoring on the spot when some problem rose.

So after selection of the tutors and tutees, the researcher met the tutors and informed

them about the tutoring process and their roles in the research study. The major

contents of this training were:

i. Welcome your tutee with good wishes and smiling face.

ii. Fully prepare the lesson of the day for teaching to your tutee.

iii. Discuss plan of the day with your tutee.

iv. Always start the lesson by asking questions from the tutee and inquire

concept, interest, and attitude of the students about the topic.

v. Encourage and praise your tutee, when he gives correct response, with words

like, “wow so great”, “you have done well” etc.

vi. Explain and discuss in detail the given contents according to the given lesson

plan and take response from your tutee on the spot. Repeat the contents with

your in case of non understanding.

vii. Give full opportunity to the tutee to express all his quires and ambiguities.

viii. Don not rebuke, or insult your tutee in case of asking questions again and

again.

ix. In case, if your tutee is not cooperating then call the teacher.

x. Support and encourage tutee‟s learning.

xi. Always remain flexible.

80

xii. Always use diagrams, pictures in support of your teaching.

xiii. Be aware of your tutee‟s sensitivities, social background and mental abilities.

xiv. At the end of lesson, repeat the important points.

xv. Take advice from your teacher in case of non understanding of any content.

3.5.3 Classroom Arrangement

The school administration had allotted computer lab for the experiment,

because the lab was only available room. The lab was suitable for the tutoring session

because it was wide and could easily accommodate the students. The chairs in the lab

were arranged in six rows and each row consisted of five chairs which can

accommodate 30 students easily. The students were seated in four rows constituting

10 pairs. In each pair the tutee was sit on right hand side of the tutor.

3.5.4 Teaching Contents

The researcher selected three chapters from the 10th

grade biology text book

for the peer tutoring sessions and prepared thirty lesson plans in the following

chapters.

i. Inheritance ( consist of eleven lesson plans)

ii. Biotechnology ( consist of five lesson plans)

iii. Man and his Environment ( consist of fourteen lesson plans)

3.5.5 Treatment

The study needed two teachers of equal qualification but the school

administration had allotted only one teacher. He was allotted to the control group and

researcher personally monitored, taught and observed the experimental group. Control

group was taught through conventional lecture demonstration method and the

experimental group was taught through peer tutoring. Lesson plan was developed for

each session of peer tutoring. The same lesson was instructed and discussed with the

81

tutor one day earlier by the same teacher. Instruction and preparation of tutors was

compulsory because the contents of tutoring sessions were new for the tutors. There

was no time available for tutor preparation during school time, so it was planned that

tutor would be prepared through instruction after school time by the teacher who had

taught the control group. It was difficult to convince the tutor and teacher for taking

the class. But it was made possible by the intervention of the principal. Among the 10

tutors, six were living in the hostel and were easily convinced and the remaining four

tutors were specially requested for the participation. Teacher was also made agreed

but he had excused for not taking the class on Thursday and Friday due to his own

classes of M. Phil studies. Therefore, the researcher had personally instructed the

tutors in these two days. Total thirty lesson plans were prepared for the treatment

period, five plans per week. Tutors were also guided that how to teach various

components of the plan and satisfy their tutees. The researcher had played the role of

facilitator, monitor, instructor, evaluator and participant observer. Before starting each

tutoring session the researcher first instructed the major areas of the lesson,

highlighted the objectives of the lesson and procedure of the tutoring session. In case

of absentee of tutor or tutee the remaining partners made adjusted with other pair and

in case of absentee of one tutor and one tutee of the two pairs then the remaining

partners were paired with each other. During the peer tutoring session the researcher

was continuously visiting each pair and observing the progress and had intervened

where necessary. Researcher had also motivated tutees for asking questions and

discussion. Strict rules and discipline was highly needed and was maintained by the

researcher and laboratory attendant. Both groups were taught same course contents at

the same time in different rooms and treatment was continued for seven weeks. The

period of treatment was extended for one week due to Eid-ul-Azha and Ashura

82

vacations. In order to attribute the treatment effect to peer tutoring and control

extraneous variables the researcher had requested the principal to postpone the

assessment activities for six weeks in the subject of biology, because weekly tests was

regular activity in the said school. The researcher had observed strong motivation

both in tutors and tutees as they were reached the lab before time and they had also

requested the researcher for the continuation of the tutoring process for the

completion of the whole textbook. When the instructional treatment of seven weeks

was over, achievement test was administered to the students for posttest to both

experimental and control groups for measuring the effectiveness of peer tutoring.

3.6 DATA COLLECTION

Pretest was administered to the sample of the study in order to form two

equivalent groups on the basis of pretest score. During treatment period experimental

group was engaged in peer tutoring and control group was taught through lecture

demonstration method and the treatment was continued for seven weeks. Soon after

the treatment was over post test was administered for measuring the effectiveness of

treatment. After measuring the post test, the score of each student was further

categorized into three categories with respect to knowledge, comprehension and

application levels of cognitive domain of Bloom taxonomy. The qualitative data

regarding measuring the motivation of the students were collected through participant

observation by the researcher.

3.7 ANALYSIS OF DATA

The data collected from pretest and posttest were organized and analyzed

through independent sample t-test and ANOVA. The mean scores were calculated to

measure the overall performances of the respondents of both groups and independent

sample t-test was applied to measure the significant difference between the

83

experimental and control groups on the scores of both pretest and posttest. The p

value for testing the hypotheses of the study was 0.05.

Furthermore, the qualitative data obtained from participant observation to

measure the motivation of the participants were collected and analyzed qualitatively

using transcribing, coding, recoding, describing and theme development as stated by

Creswell (2015) and Ary, Jacobes, & Sorensen (2010).

For statistical analysis the following formulae recommended by (Gay, 2000) were

applied:

1. Mean

X = 𝑋

𝑁

2. Standard Deviation

𝑆.𝐷 = 𝑆𝑆

𝑁−1 Where SS = 𝑥2 −

( 𝑥)2

𝑁

3. Standard Error

𝑆𝐸𝐷 = 𝑆𝐷1

2

𝑁1+

𝑆𝐷22

𝑁2

4. Calculation of t- value for Independent Sample

t = 𝑥1−𝑥2

𝑠𝑠1+𝑠𝑠2

𝑛1+𝑛2 −2

1

𝑛1+

1

𝑛2

5. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Step 1. 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑋𝑡2 −

𝑥𝑡 ²

𝑁

84

Step 2. 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 𝑥1 ²

𝑛1+

𝑥2 ²

𝑛2+

𝑥3 ²

𝑛3+

𝑥4 ²

𝑛4−

𝑥𝑡 ²

𝑁

Step 3. 𝑆𝑆𝑡 = 𝑆𝑆𝑏 + 𝑆𝑆𝑤

𝑆𝑆𝑤 = 𝑆𝑆𝑇 − 𝑆𝑆𝑏

Step 4. ANOVA table

Source of variation Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F P

Between the groups

Within the group

Total

Mean Square MS = 𝑆𝑆

𝐷𝐹

F-Value F= 𝑀𝑆𝑏

𝑀𝑆𝑤

85

Chapter 4

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

In this chapter the data obtained from the pretest, posttest and participant

observation are analyzed and interpreted. The statistics used in this chapter are mean,

median, standard deviation, standard error, t-test, and ANOVA. The narrative

description obtained from participant observation was analyzed through coding and

theme development. The tabulated data are organized and interpreted below:

4.1 INTERPRETATION OF PRETEST SCORE

Table 3: Expression of the Pretest scores of both experimental and control

group in frequency distribution form

Class Intervals Frequencies of

experimental group

Frequencies of control

group

36-40 3 3

31-35 3 2

26-30 5 6

21-25 3 2

16-20 5 5

11-15 1 2

Total 20 20

Mean Score 26.5 25.8

Median 26 26

Table 3 shows that the mean and median of the both groups were almost equal

and normally distributed and the range of the pretest score fell from 11 to 40 of the

both groups, which show that experimental and control groups, were equivalent

before the treatment. The detailed pretest scores of the both groups are given in the

appendix “F”. The pre test score of the experimental and control groups are shown in

graphic form in the given figure.

86

Pretest score

Fig 4.1 Frequency distribution of pretest score

H0 1: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of experimental and

control group.

Table 4: Significance difference between the mean scores of pretest of control

group and experimental group

Groups N Mean SD SED t-value

Experimental 20 26.5 7.33

2.28 0.30 Control 20 25.8 7.1

df=38 table value at 0.05= 2.042

The table 4 shows that the calculated t-value was less than table value which

supports the null hypothesis. On the basis of this evidence it was interpreted that both

experimental and control groups were equivalent before the treatment.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

11--15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40

Experimental

GroupControl Group

87

Table 5: Comparision of tutors (high achievers) of the experimental group

and high achievers of the control group on the basis of Pretest score


experimental group


group

36-40 3 3

31-35 3 2

26-30 4 5

21-25 0 0

16-20 0 0

11-15 0 0

Total 10 10


Median 32.5 31.5


and the range of the pre test score fell from 26 to 40 of the both groups, which shows

that experimental and control group were equivalent. The pretest scores of the both

groups are given in the appendix “H”. The pre test scores of the high achievers of

both experimental and control groups are shown in graphic form in the given figure.

Pretest score Fig 4.2 Frequency distribution of pretest scores of high achievers of


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

11--15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40

Score of high achievers of

Experimental group

Score of high achievers of

control group

88

H0 2: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of tutors

(high achievers) of experimental and high achievers of control groups.

Table 6: Significance difference between the mean scores of high achievers of


GROUPS N Mean SD SED T-value

Experimental 10 32.3 4.52 2.02 0.35

Control 10 31.6 4.54

df = 18 table value at 0.05= 2.101

Table 6 shows that the calculated t-value was less than table value which

supports the null hypothesis. On the basis of this evidence it was interpreted that

tutors (high achievers) of experimental and high achievers of control groups were

equivalent before the treatment.

Table 7: Comparision of the tutees (low achievers) of the experimental group

and low achievers of the control group on the basis of Pretest score


experimental group


group

36-40 0 0

31-35 0 0

26-30 1 1

21-25 3 2

16-20 5 5

11-15 1 2

Total 10 10

Mean Score 20.7 20

Median 19.5 20


and the range of the pre test score fell from 11 to 26 of the both groups, which shows

that tutees (low achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups were

equivalent. The pretest scores of the both groups are given in the appendix “I”. The

89

pre test scores of the low achievers of both experimental and control groups are

shown in graphic form in the given figure.

Pretest score

Fig 4.3 Frequency distribution of pretest scores of low achievers of experimental

and control groups

H0 3: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of low achievers

(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups.

Table 8: Significance difference between the mean scores of low achievers

(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups


Experimental 10 20.7 3.70 1.78 0.39

Control 10 20 4.26

df = 18 table value at 0.05=2.101

Table 8 shows that the calculated t-value was less than table value which

supports the null hypothesis. On the basis of this evidence it was interpreted that

tutees (low achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups were

equivalent before the treatment.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

11--15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40

Score of low

achievers(Tutees) of

Experimental group

Score of low achievers of

control group

90

4.2 INTERPRETATION OF POST TEST SCORE

Table 9: Expression of the Posttest scores of both experimental and control

groups in frequency distribution form


experimental group


group

41-45 4 0

36-40 7 4

31-35 6 3

26-30 3 4

21-25 0 4

16-20 0 4

11-15 0 1

Total 20 20

Mean Score 36 27.25

Table 9 shows that the mean of experimental group was higher than the mean

of control group. The range of the experimental group started from 27 to 44. The

range of the control group started from 11 to 40. The detailed Posttest scores of the

both groups are given in the appendix “G”. The Post test score of the experimental

and control groups are shown in graphic form in the given figure.

Posttest score

Fig 4.4 Frequency distribution of posttest scores of the experimental and control

groups

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

11--15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45

Post Test Score of

Experimental Group

Post Test Score of

Control Group

91

H0.1: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of experimental and

control group.

Table 10: Significance difference between the mean of posttest score of

experimental and control group



2.095 4.21 Control 20 27.25 7.66


The table 10 shows that the calculated t-value was greater than table value

which leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The values of standard deviation

show that the experimental group was not only better in academic achievement but

also showed less variation as compared to control group.

Table 11: Comparision of the tutors (high achievers) of the experimental and

high achievers of the control group on the basis of Posttest score


experimental group


group

41-45 4 0

36-40 5 4

31-35 0 3

26-30 1 1

21-25 0 1

16-20 0 1

Total 10 10

Mean Score 39.3 32

Table 11 shows that the mean of high achievers (tutors) of experimental group

was higher than the mean of high achievers of control group. The range of the

experimental group started from 28 to 44. The range of the control group started from

19 to 40. The mean values show that the tutors of experimental group had achieved

more score as compared to the high achievers of the control group. The Posttest

92

scores of the both groups are given in the appendix “j”. The Post test score of the

experimental and control group are shown in graphic form in the given figure.

Posttest score of high achievers Fig 4.5 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of high achievers of


H0 2: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of high achievers

(tutors) of experimental and high achievers of control groups.

Table 12: Significance difference between the mean scores of experimental and

control groups of high achievers



2.66 2.77

Control 10 32 6.54


The table 12 indicates that the calculated t-value was higher than table value

which leads to the rejection of null hypothesis. The values of standard deviation show

that the tutors were not only better in academic achievement but also showed less

variation as compared to equivalent high achievers of control group.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

11--15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45

Score of high

achievers of

Experimental

group

Score of high

achievers of

control group

93

Table 13: Comparision of the tutees (low achievers) of the experimental group

and low achievers of the control groups on the basis of Posttest score.

Class Intervals Frequencies of experimental

group

Frequencies of control group

36-40 2 0

31-35 6 0

26-30 2 3

21-25 0 3

16-20 0 3

11-15 0 1

Total 10 10


Table 13 shows that the mean of tutees (low achievers) of experimental group

was higher than the mean of low achievers of control group. The score of

experimental group started from 27 and ended on 38 and the score of control group

started from started from 11 and ended on 30. The Posttest scores of the both groups

are given in the appendix “K”. The Post test score of both experimental and control

groups are shown in graphic form in the figure.

Posttest score of low achievers Fig 4.6 Frequency distribution of posttest scores of low achievers of


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

11--15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40

Score of low

achievers(Tutees) of

Experimental group

Score of low achievers of

control group

94


(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups.


(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups


Experimental 10 32.8 3.42 2.06 5

Control 10 22.5 5.56


The table 14 shows that the calculated t-value was higher than table value


that the tutees (low achievers) were not only better in academic achievement but also

showed less variation as compared to equivalent low achievers of control group.

H0 4: There is no significant difference among the mean posttest‟s scores of four

groups on the academic achievement.

Table 15: ANOVA table showing significance difference among the mean post-

test’s scores of low achievers and higher achievers of experimental and

control groups

Sum of Square df Mean Square F

Between the groups 1436.9 3 478.96

17.10 Within the groups 1008.2 36 28.00

Total 2445.1

Table value is 2.84 on (36, 3) df

The table 15 shows that the calculated F-value was greater than table value

which leades to the rejection of null hypothesis, which means that there was

significant diffrence among the groups at 0.05 level of significance.

95

4.3 INTERPRETATION OF POST TEST SCORE WITH RESPECT TO

KNOWLEDGE, COMPREHENSION AND APPLICATION LEVELS OF

COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF BLOOM TAXONOMY


groups with respect to knowledge level in frequency distribution form


experimental group


group

23-25 7 1

20-22 6 5

17-19 5 2

14-16 2 4

11-13 0 4

8-10 0 3

5-7 0 1

Total 20 20


Table 16 shows that the mean of experimental group with respect to

knowledge level of cognitive domain of Bloom taxonomy was higher than the mean

of control group. The detailed Posttest scores of the both groups with respect to

cognitive domain are given in the appendices “N” and “O”. The Post test score of the

experimental and control groups are shown in graphic form in the given figure.

Posttest score

Fig 4.7 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of experimental and control

groups

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

5--5 8--10 11--13 14-16 17-19 20-22 23-25

Experimental Group

Control Group

96


control groups with respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain.

Table 17: Significance difference between the mean of posttest scores of

experimental and control group with respect to knowledge level of

cognitive domain



1.33 3.83 Control 20 15.5 5.20




that the experimental group was not only better in academic achievement with respect

to knowledge level of cognitive domain but also showed less variation as compared to

control group.


groups with respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain in

frequency distribution form


experimental group

Frequencies of control group

11-12 2 0

9-10 12 7

7-8 5 9

5-6 1 4

Total 20 20

Mean Score 9 7.65


comprehension level of cognitive domain was higher than the mean of control group.

The detailed Posttest scores of the both groups are given in the appendices “N” and

97

“O” respectively. The Posttest score of the experimental and control groups are shown

in graphic form in the given figure.

Posttest score Fig 4.8 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of high achievers of

experimental and control groups with respect to comprehension level. H0.6: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of experimental and

control group with respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain.


experimental and control group with respect to comprehension level of

cognitive domain.


Experimental 20 9 1.41 0.66 2.87

Control 20 7.65 1.56




that the experimental group was not only better in academic achievement with respect

to comprehension level of cognitive domain but also showed less variation as

compared to control group.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

5--6 7--8 9--10 11--12

Experimental Group

Control Group

98


groups with respect to application in frequency distribution form


experimental group


group

10-11 4 0

8-9 4 3

6-7 4 4

4-5 5 2

2-3 3 9

0-1 0 2

Total 20 20



application level of cognitive domain of Bloom taxonomy was higher than the mean

of control group. The detailed Posttest scores of the both groups with respect to

application level of cognitive domain are given in the appendices “N” and “O”

respectively. The Post test score of the experimental and control groups are shown in


Posttest score

Fig 4.9 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of high achievers of


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0-1 2--3 4--5 6--7 8--9 10--11

Experimental Group

Control Group

99


control groups with respect to application level of cognitive domain.


experimental and control group with respect to application level of

cognitive domain.


Experimental 20 6.45 2.92 1.23 2.58

Control 20 4.2 2.60




that the control group showed less variation as compared to experimental group.

Table 22: Comparision of the High Achievers(Tutors) of the Experimental and

High Achievers of the Control Group on the basis of posttest score

with respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain.


experimental group


group

22-24 9 3

19-21 0 2

16-18 0 3

13-15 1 1

10-12 0 1

Total 10 10


Table 22 shows that the mean of high achievers (tutors) of experimental group

was higher than the mean of high achievers of control group with respect to

knowledge level of cognitive domain of Bloom taxonomy. The Posttest scores of the

both groups are given in the appendix “P”. The Post test score of the experimental and

control group are shown in graphic form in the given figure.

100

Posttest score of high achievers




(Tutors) of experimental and high achievers of control groups with respect to

knowledge level of cognitive domain


experimental and control groups with respect to knowledge level of

cognitive domain.


Experimental 10 22.3 2.66 1.63 2.56

Control 10 18.1 4.44


The table 23 shows that the calculated t-value was greater than table value and

on the basis of this result the null hypothesis was rejected. The values of standard

deviation show that the tutors were not only better in academic achievement but also

showed less variation as compared to equivalent high achievers of control group.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

10--12 13-15 16-18 19-21 22-24

Score of high

achievers of

Experimental

group

Score of high

achievers of

control group

101

Table 24: Comparision of the Tutors (high achievers) of the Experimental and

High Achievers of the Control Groups on the basis of posttest score



experimental group


group

11-12 1 0

9-10 5 5

7-8 3 5

5-6 1 0

Total 10 10

Mean Score 8.8 8.3

Table 24 shows that the mean of high achievers (tutors) of the experimental

group was higher than the mean of control group with respect to comprehension level

of cognitive domain. The Posttest scores of the both groups are given in the appendix

“P”. The Post test score of the experimental and control group are shown in graphic

form in the given figure.

Posttest score of high achievers



0

1

2

3

4

5

6

5--6 7--8 9--10 11--12

Score of high achievers of Experimental group

Score of high achievers of control group

102



comprehension level of cognitive domain


experimental and control groups with respect to comprehension level of

cognitive domain


Experimental 10 8.8 1.81 0.66 0.75

Control 10 8.3 1.05


The table 25 shows that the calculated t value was less than table value which

supports the null hypothesis. The values of standard deviation show that the control

group showed less variation as compared to experimental group.

Table 26: Comparision of tutors (high achievers) of the experimental and

high achievers of the control group on the basis of posttest score with

respect to application level of cognitive domain


experimental group


group

11-12 2 0

8-10 5 3

5-7 1 4

2-4 2 3

Total 10 10

Mean Score 8.2 5.6

Table 26 shows that the mean of high achievers (tutors) of the experimental

group was higher than the mean of high achievers of control group in application level

of cognitive domain. The Posttest scores of both groups are given in the appendix “P”.

The Post test scores of the experimental and control group are shown in graphic form

in the given figure.

103

Posttest score of high achievers Fig 4.12 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of high achievers of




application level of cognitive domain.


experimental and control groups with respect to application level of

cognitive domain


Experimental 10 8.2 2.34 1.07 2.42

Control 10 5.6 2.45




that the tutors were not only better in academic achievement but also showed less

variation as compared to equivalent high achievers of control group.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

2--4 5--7 8--10 11--12

Score of high achievers of Experimental group

Score of high achievers of control group

104

Table 28: Comparision of the low achievers (tutees) of the Experimental and

low achievers of the Control Group on the basis of posttest score

with respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain


experimental group


group

21-25 3 1

16-20 7 2

11-15 0 4

5-10 0 3

Total 10 10


Table 28 shows that the mean of low achievers of the experimental group was

higher than the mean of low achievers of control group in knowledge level of

cognitive domain. The Posttest scores of the both groups are given in the appendix

“Q”. The Post test score of the experimental and control group are shown in graphic

form in the given figure.

Posttest score of low achievers

Fig 4.13 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of low achievers of


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

5--10 11--15 16-20 21-25

Score of Low

achievers of

Experimental

group

Score of Low

achievers of

control group

105


(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with respect to

knowledge level of cognitive domain.


(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with

respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain.


Experimental 10 18.9 2.16 1.64 3.65

Control 10 12.9 4.72


The table 29 shows that the calculated t-value was greater than table value and

on the basis of this evidence the null hypothesis was rejected. The values of standard

deviation show that the tutees were not only better in academic achievement with

respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain but also showed less variation as

compared to equivalent low achievers of control group.

Table 30: Comparision of the low achievers (tutees) of the Experimental and




experimental group


group

11-12 1 0

9-10 7 2

7-8 2 4

5-6 0 4

Total 10 10

Mean Score 9.2 07

In table 30 the mean values show that the low achievers of the experimental

group had achieved more score in comprehension level as compared to the low

achievers of the control group. The Posttest scores of the both groups are given in the

106

appendix “Q”. The Post test score of the experimental and control group are shown in


Posttest score of low achievers

Fig 4.14 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of low achievers of



(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with respect to

comprehension level of cognitive domain.


(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with

respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain.



0.62 3.5

Control 10 7 1.76


The table 31 shows that the calculated t-value was higher than table value and

on the basis of this evidence the null hypothesis was rejected. The values of standard

deviation show that the tutees were not only better in academic achievement with

respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain but also showed less variation as

compared to equivalent low achievers of control group.

0

2

4

6

8

5--6 7--8 9--10 11--12

Score of

low(tutees)

achievers of

Experimental

group

Score of low

achievers of

control group

107

Table 32: Comparision of the tutees (low achievers) of the Experimental and


with respect to application level of cognitive domain


experimental group

Frequencies of

control group

8-10 1 0

5-7 3 2

2-4 6 6

0-1 0 2

Total 10 10

Mean Score 4.7 2.8

In table 32 the mean values show that the tutees of experimental group had

achieved more score in application level of cognitive domain as compared to the low

achievers of the control group. The Posttest scores of the both groups are given in the

appendix “Q”. The Post test score of the experimental and control group are shown in


Posttest score of low achievers Fig 4.15 Frequency distribution of Posttest scores of low achievers of


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0--1 2--4 5--7 8--10

Score of low

achievers (tutees)

of Experimental

group

Score of low

achievers of

control group

108


(Tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with respect to

application level of cognitive domain.


(tutees) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with respect



Experimental 10 4.7 2.1 0.9 2.06

Control 10 2.8 1.98


The table 33 shows that the calculated t-value was less than table value and

on the basis of this evidence the null hypothsis was accepted. The values of standard

deviation show that control group showed less variation as compared to experimental

group.

4.4 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

In this study the researcher played the role of participant observer, because he

conducted and fully engaged in every step of the study. After pretesting and

equivalent group formation, a comprehensive training was given to tutors, because

they were novice to peer tutoring. Thirty tutoring sessions of 40 minutes each, were

completed in a period of seven weeks. For each session, lesson plan was prepared and

was instructed one day earlier to the tutors.

All the tutoring sessions occurred in computer lab because it was allotted by

the administration of the school for peer tutoring. The computer lab was a

multipurpose room, could be adopted for many tasks. The researcher as a participant

observer participated in every session of the tutor‟s preparation and tutoring activities

and collected field notes narratively on the behaviours and attitudes of the students

toward learning. The lesson plans for the whole treatment period had been prepared

109

well in advance, because their approval was compulsory from the university, but the

researcher made some modification according to the needs of the students during the

session.

First of all tutors were instructed one day earlier from each tutoring session by

the same teacher, who was teaching to control group in the presence of researcher. As

it was mentioned in the procedure section that the teacher was unavailable for two

days in a week due to his personal activities in these two days the researcher was

teaching to tutors for preparation. The tutors were specially instructed the contents of

the lesson plan as well as oriented about different ways of teaching. During this

preparation sessions tutors were usually asking many questions regarding contents

and their tutee‟s problems. The lesson plans were provided in hard form to both tutors

and tutees for tutoring and preparation.

Every session was started by recitation of few verses of the Holly Quran.

Before commencing every tutoring session, the researcher used to instruct the

objectives, and major areas of the lesson. Usually the researcher wrote the objectives

and components of the lesson on white board and asked each pair of tutor and tutee to

learn these contents by discussion so that they get on track to achieve the objectives.

The researcher as a participant observer visited each pair and observed the

process of peer tutoring. Here the researcher was providing guidance and also made

corrections. Usually when the researcher was visiting a pair, both the tutor and tutee

used to start asking questions. When the researcher was not observing or busy with

other pairs the two pairs were engaged in other activities, usually discussing their own

contents. So the researcher was frequently visiting to these two pairs. Here the

researcher felt that peer tutoring needs highly structured and disciplined environment

which was also highlighted by Brost (2011). During the visit of researcher to each

110

pair the researcher used to motivate both the partner for maximum participation and

used to encourage tutees for asking maximum questions. The researcher was

repeatedly asking to all tutees to ask maximum questions from your tutor and do not

leave a tiny question in your mind.

In some occasions both the tutors and tutees were asking questions again and

again as in case, when Mendel Law of Independents assortment, protein synthesis,

were discussing. Then the researcher gave comprehensive lecture to all tutors and

tutees and then allowed to continue peer tutoring for further retention.

In case of absentees of the students the researcher had managed the remaining

partner with other pair but students were regular. High motivation of the students was

observed and this was evident by the following observation that the researcher had

noted during peer tutoring.

All the students were present on time in the lab with their contents in the hand.

One day the lab was not available due to some workshop, the students had talked to

the administration and had arranged alternate room for the session before the arrival

of the researcher there, which had showed their interest and enthusiasm. As the

researcher had prepared lesson plan for each session in which the role of tutor and

tutee was mentioned. For motivation development the researcher had pasted the

picture of the tutor and tutee on each plan so before handing over the lesson plans,

they were curious for whom the pictures would be pasted on plan of the day.

The participants of the study were aware from the researcher‟s PhD study, so

they were usually asking from the researcher about higher education, such as how

many expenses you paid on your degree? How much it is difficult? Some time they

were also sharing their own personal problems about health and education career for

future. All these show that they were highly motivated.

111

It was clear that they were discussing the experiences of peer tutoring with

their other class fellows. One day some students came from control group and

requested for inclusion in the experimental group which was unfortunately could not

be included due to the threat to validity of the study but this showed that sharing of

experiences of peer tutoring in the class had motivated them.

Students in this age are usually very naughty but these students were very

obedient and never committed any misbehaviour during the whole period of the

treatment. They never allowed the researcher for cleaning the whiteboard, they their

self were cleaning the white board when the researcher was writing something on the

board. But it was observed that during relaxation, some pairs were engaged in their

own personal discussion and may be this was due to close friendship because during

pair formation tutors were allowed to select their own tutees.

The students were seen that they were enjoying the tutoring. Most of the

students were very relaxed. One thing that is necessary to mention here was that

“testing” was a regular activity in the said school, so in order to fully attribute the

achievement to peer tutoring the researcher had personally requested to the principal

to suspend the assessment activities in the subject of biology only during the study

here which was accepted but it had negatively affected some students in the control

group and had scored less in the post test. Low score might be also being due to

unpredictable nature of human.

When the researcher announced on the last day that today is last session of

peer tutoring and tomorrow will be only posttest, it was seen that it was a shock for

many students which was evident from their faces and they all requested for the

continuation of the same peer tutoring activity for the completion of whole course of

112

biology. This all showed that peer tutoring had improved their motivation level to a

very high extent towards learning biology through peer tutoring.

The researcher had enjoyed this study because of motivated and hard working

nature of the students. The researcher had tried their best to minimize their personal

effects on the study to the level that he could.

4.4.1 Coding

After transcribing the participant observation, then it was analyzed several

times line by line and highlighted the segments of the text which possessed ideas for

which it was investigated. The ideas got were named by a code word or phrase and

jotted down on the margins of the paper and each code was enclosed in a text box.

Similarly the whole text was coded and 21 codes were formed. Similar codes were

grouped together which has formed five major themes as shown in the figure 4.8.

Each theme was representing a major idea.

Training of Tutors

Computer lab as a site of Experiment

Lesson Plan

Preparation

Early training and

preparation

Questions asking by

the tutors

Objectives

were

known to

tutors and

tutees

Both tutors and tutees

were asking questions Asking

more

questions in

case of

difficulties

Asking questions

Preparation for the tutoring was

the part of every stake holder

related to peer tutoring

CODES THEMES

Questions asking were a

common phenomenon

113

Figure 4.17 Coding of participant observation

4.4.2 Description of the Themes

The process of peer tutoring was taken place in the computer lab of ANSI

school mardan. The lab was suitable place for this research. After analysis of data the

following finding were drawn.

1. The tutoring sessions were taken seriously by both tutors and tutees and

they had made necessary preparation for the tutoring sessions.

2. Both tutors and tutees tried their best to understand the contents by asking

questions in all pre, post and during the peer tutoring sessions.

3. All the students were regular, curious and highly respectful to their

teachers and always had shared their ideas.

4. Both tutors and tutees were interested in the continuation of tutoring

process.

Naughtiness in the absence

of supervision

Regularity

Interest and

Enthusiasm

Curiosity

Sharing of personal problems

Discussion with fellow of

control group

Request of students of control

group in inclusion in tutoring

Obedient

Helping the

teacher in

classroom

activities

Relaxation in

discipline

leads to

problems

Suspension of assessment

activities

Request for continuation

of the study

Regularity, respect, interest,

curiosity and sharing of ideas

were the major characteristics

of the students

Interest in the continuation

of the peer tutoring process

Problem in the absence of

discipline and assessment

activities

114

5. Some minor discipline problems were observed when relaxation was given

to both tutors and tutees.

4.4.3 Conclusion

Motivation is the name of some drives as identified by Muho and Kurani

(2013) like effort, goal orientation, control over emotions self efficiency, sense of self,

self esteem and interest. The findings of this study showed that both tutors and tutees

had made necessary preparation which conform the claim of Muho and Kurani (2013)

that both tutors and tutees had controlled their intrinsic forces and had made efforts

for learning. Self efficacy was also evident by repeatedly asking questions of both

tutors and tutees during the peer tutoring sessions in case of learning difficult

contents. Regularity in the class, respect of teacher, curiosity and straggle for learning

were evident in the students, which showed motivation of the students towards

learning. The request of both tutors and tutees for the continuation of the peer tutoring

for the completion of whole course showed that both tutors and tutees were highly

interested and motivated towards learning through peer tutoring.

Galaviz (2009) and Smith (2010) pointed out that absence of external

discipline during peer tutoring lead to deviation from the normal tasks. So this

research was conducted in highly controlled environment but when a little relaxation

was provided then it had moved away the students from their normal track.

115

DISCUSSION

The major purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of peer tutoring

on the academic achievement of students in the subject of biology at secondary level.

The study was experimental plus qualitative in nature. The design for this study was

pretest posttest equivalent group design. Before the treatment pretest was conducted

in already taught chapters of biology. On the basis of pretest score the sample students

were divided into two equivalent groups through pair random technique. On the basis

of statistical analysis of pretest score both experimental and control groups were

found equivalent. The experimental group was engaged in peer tutoring for a period

of seven weeks and control group was taught through traditional lecture

demonstration method using same contents for both groups. The experimental group

was observed and monitored by the researcher and the researcher recorded the

behaviour of the students towards learning narratively. After treatment post test was

administered to both groups and the data obtained were analyzed by using statistics

and narrative explanation and the results obtained are discussed below.

H0 1: On the basis of post test score the t-value was 4.21 > 2.042 (table value)

at 0.05 level of significance. On the basis of this evidence the null hypothesis was

rejected and t-value showed that there was a significant difference between the mean

scores of experimental and control groups. Thus the mean score (36.05) of

experimental group was significantly greater than the mean score (27.25) of control

group. The results of the study support the findings of the studies explored by Brost

(2010); Horvath (2010) and Rizve (2012) that peer tutoring had significant effect on

the student‟s learning.

H0 2: The mean score (39.03) of tutors of experimental group was greater than

mean score (32) of high achievers of control group on post test. On the basis of t-

116

value 2.77 > 2.101 (table value) the difference was significant at level of significance

of 0.05, which leads to the rejection of null hypothesis. The results of the study

support the findings of the study explored by Comfort and Mcmahon (2014) that peer

tutoring had a significant effect on the learning of tutors.

H0 3: The mean score (32.80) of tutees of experimental group was greater than

mean score (22.5) of low achievers of control group on post test. On the basis of t-

value 5 > 2.101 (table value) at 0.05 the difference was significant, which leads to the

rejection of null hypothesis. The findings are in the line with findings of the studies

reported by Haider and Yasmin (2015), Comfort and Mcmahon (2014), Rizve (2012)

that scaffolding in the form of peer tutoring in the zone of proximal development is

very effective.

H0 4: When all the four groups were compared on post test through ANOVA

the calculated F value 17.10 > 2.88 at 0.05 level of significance which showed that

the mean scores of all four groups were significantly different from each other. On the

basis of this evidence null hypothesis that “There is no significant difference among

the mean posttest scores of four groups on the academic achievement” was rejected.

The differences in the mean scores were attributed to the peer tutoring. The same

findings were also reported by Ezenwosu and Nworgu (2013).

H0 5: The mean (20.6) of experimental group was higher than the score of

control group (15.5) on post test. On the basis of t-value 3.83 ˃ 2.04 (table value) at

0.05 level of significance the difference was significant. So on the basis of this

evidence the null hypothesis was rejected and it was interpreted that treatment had a

significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to knowledge level of

cognitive domain of the students of the experimental group. The findings are in the

line with findings of the study reported by Mehra and Mondal (2005).

117

H0 6: The mean (9) of experimental group was higher than the mean of control

group (7.65) on post test. On the basis of t-value 2.87 ˃ 2.04 (table value) at 0.05

level of significance, the difference was significant. So on the basis of this evidence

the null hypothesis was rejected and it was interpreted that treatment had a significant

effect on the academic achievement with respect to comprehension level of cognitive

domain of the students of the experimental group. The findings are in the line with

findings of the studies reported by Mehra and Mondal (2005).

H0 7: The mean score (6.65) of experimental group was higher than the mean

score of control group (4.2) on post test. On the basis of t-value 2.58 ˃ 2.04 (table

value) at 0.05 level of significance, the difference was significant. So on the basis of

this evidence the null hypothesis was rejected and it was interpreted that peer tutoring

had a significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to application level

of cognitive domain of the students of the experimental group.


score of control group (18.1) on post test. On the basis of t-value 2.56 > 2.101 (table

value) at 0.05 level of significance the difference was significant. So on the basis of


had a significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to knowledge level

of cognitive domain of the tutors of the experimental group. The findings are in the

line with findings of the studies reported by Mehra and Mondal (2005).


score of control group (8.3) on post test. On the basis of t-value 0.75 < 2.101 (table

value) the difference was not significant at level of significance of 0.05. This evidence

supported the null hypothesis and on the basis of this evidence it was interpreted that

peer tutoring had not a significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to

118

comprehension level of cognitive domain of the tutors of the experimental group. The

findings are in the line with findings of the studies reported by Mehra and Mondal

(2005).



value) the difference was significant at level of significance of 0.05. So on the basis of


had a significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to application level

of cognitive domain of the tutors of the experimental group.



value), the difference was significant at level of significance of 0.05 which leads to

the rejection of null hypothesis and it was interpreted that peer tutoring had a

significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to knowledge level of

cognitive domain of the tutees of the experimental group. The findings are in the line

with findings of the studies reported by Mehra and Mondal (2005).


score of control group (07) on post test. On the basis of t-value 3.5 > 2.101 (table

value), the difference was significant at level of significance of 0.05, which leads to

the rejection of null hypothesis and it was interpreted that peer tutoring had a

significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to comprehension level of

cognitive domain of the tutees of the experimental group. The findings are in the line

with findings of the studies reported by Mehra and Mondal (2005).


score of control group (2.8) on post test. On the basis of t-value 2.06 < 2.101 (table

119

value), the difference was not significant. This evidence supported the null hypothesis

and on the basis of this evidence it was interpreted that peer tutoring had not a

significant effect on the academic achievement with respect to application level of

cognitive domain of the tutees of the experimental group.

In order to find the answer of research question that “How much the peer

tutoring contributes into the motivation of students towards learning in biology at

secondary level?” the researcher collected data on the motivation of the students

through participant observation and then analyzed through coding and theme

development. The conclusion of the findings was; both tutors and tutees made

necessary preparation for the tutoring session which shows their efforts which is one

of the components of motivation as narrated by Muho and kurani (2013). The intrinsic

motivation was evident by their curiosity, classroom behaviour and by repeatedly

asking questions. The request of both tutors and tutees for the continuation of the peer

tutoring activity was the evidence of their high motivation towards learning. These

findings were also confirmed by Clarkson and Luca (2002), where peer tutoring

motivated the students for learning. Similarly, the results of Austin (2008) also

revealed that peer tutoring contributes positively in the motivation of study

respondents. Furthermore, the findings of Arrand (2014) and Razak and See (2010),

also showed significant effects of peer tutoring on the motivation of students.

120

Chapter 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY

The study has investigated the effects of peer tutoring on the academic

achievements of the students in the subject of biology at secondary level. The

objectives of the study were: (1) To find out the effect of peer tutoring on the

academic achievements of students in the subject of biology; (2) To investigate the

effect of peer tutoring on the academic achievement of tutors and tutees of

experimental group; (3) To examine the effects of peer tutoring with respect to

knowledge, comprehension and application levels of cognitive domain of Bloom

Taxonomy; (4) To explore the effect of peer tutoring on the motivation of the students

towards learning. Thirteen null hypotheses and one research question were formulated

to run the study. These hypotheses were (1) There is no significant difference between

the mean scores of experimental and control group; (2) There is no significant

difference between the mean scores of high achievers (tutors) of experimental and

high achievers of control groups; (3) There is no significant difference between the

mean scores of tutees (low achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control

groups; (4) There is no significant difference among the mean posttest‟s scores of four

groups on the academic achievement; (5) There is no significant difference between

the mean scores of experimental and control groups with respect to knowledge level

of cognitive domain; (6) There is no significant difference between the mean scores of

experimental and control groups with respect to comprehension level of cognitive

domain; (7) There is no significant difference between the mean scores of

experimental and control groups with respect to application level of cognitive domain;

(8) There is no significant difference between the mean scores of tutors (high

121

achievers) of experimental and high achievers of control groups with respect to

knowledge level of cognitive domain; (9) There is no significant difference between

the mean scores of tutors (high achievers) of experimental and high achievers of

control groups with respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain; (10) There is

no significant difference between the mean scores of tutors (high achievers) of

experimental and high achievers of control groups with respect to application level of

cognitive domain; (11) There is no significant difference between the mean scores of

tutees (low achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with

respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain; (12) There is no significant

difference between the mean scores of tutees (low achievers) of experimental and low

achievers of control groups with respect to comprehension level of cognitive domain;

(13) There is no significant difference between the mean scores of tutees (low

achievers) of experimental and low achievers of control groups with respect to

application level of cognitive domain and the research question was how much the

peer tutoring contributes into the motivation of students towards learning in biology at

secondary level?

The 40 students of class 10th

of the secondary school ANSI school Mardan,

were selected as a sample of the study. The sample students were studying biology as

an elective subject. The sample students were divided into two similar groups through

pair random sampling technique on the base of pretest‟s scores. Both groups were

consisted of high achievers (above the Median) and low achievers (below the Median)

students. In experimental group the high achievers were considered as tutors and low

achievers were considered as tutees.

The peer tutors were given a comprehensive training for conducting the

treatment sessions before starting the treatment. One teacher was selected as an

122

instructor for both tutor preparation and teaching control group while the researcher

was monitoring and observing the tutoring sessions of the experimental group.

Control group was taught through conventional lecture demonstration method and the

experimental group was taught through peer tutoring. Lesson plans were prepared for

each tutoring session and were discussed with the tutors in preparation sessions. The

experiment was continued for seven weeks. During each session the researcher

observed and noted behaviour of the students. After completion of experiment post

test was administered to both experimental and control group.

The data obtained from pretest and posttest were analyzed through, standard

errors, independent sample t-test and ANOVA. The p value for testing the hypotheses

of the study was 0.05. Furthermore, the data obtained from participants observation,

were analyzed by using transcribing coding recoding and theme development.

5.2 CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of statistical analysis of data the following conclusions were

drawn:

1. On the basis of pretest scores, both experimental and control group were found

equivalent as there was no significant difference in their achievement scores.

2. Tutors of experimental group and high achievers of control group were found

equivalent as there was no significant difference in their performance in the

pretest.

3. Similarly, tutees of experimental group and low achievers of control group

were also found equivalent on the pretest scores.

4. The participants of the experimental group performed better than the students

of control group on the post test which proved that peer tutoring in biology

123

was more effective than traditional lecture demonstration method at secondary

level.

5. The participants of the experimental group performed better than the students

of control group on the post test with respect to knowledge, comprehension

and application levels of cognitive domain which proved that peer tutoring in

biology was more effective in the first three levels of cognitive domain of

Bloom taxonomy than traditional lecture demonstration method at secondary

level.

6. Tutors of experimental group performed significantly better than the high

achievers of control group on the post test which proved that peer tutoring had

also a significant effect on the academic achievement of tutors.

7. Tutors of experimental group performed significantly better with respect to

knowledge level which means that peer tutoring had a significant effect on the

academic achievement with respect to knowledge level of cognitive domain of

the students of the experimental group.

8. No significant diffrence was found between tutors (high achievers) of

experimental and high achievers of control group in comprehension level. So

it was interpreted that peer tutoring had not a significant effect on the

academic achievement with respect to comprehension level of cognitive

domain of the tutors of the experimental group.

9. Tutors of experimental group performed significantly better with respect to

application level which means that peer tutoring had a significant effect on the

academic achievement with respect to application level of cognitive domain of

the tutors of the experimental group.

124

10. Tutees of experimental group performed significantly better in academic

achievement than the low achievers of control group on post test which proved

that peer tutoring was best teaching method as compared to traditional lecture

demonstration method.

11. Tutees of experimental group performed significantly better in academic

achievement with respect to knowledge and comprehension levels of cognitive

domain than the low achievers of control group on post test which proved that

peer tutoring was best teaching method as compared to traditional lecture

demonstration method in developing the knowledge and comprehension levels

of the students.

12. No significant diffrence was found between tutees (low achievers) of

experimental and low achievers of control group. So it was interpreted that

peer tutoring had not a significant effect on the academic achievement of the

tutees with respect to application level of cognitive domain. which means that

peer tutoring had not contributed in developing the academic achievement of

the tutees of the experimental group with respect to application level of

cognitive domain of Bloom taxonomy.

13. The computed value of F showed that there was significant difference among

the groups on post testing which showed that due to peer tutoring the

performance of both tutors and tutees was found different from the

performance of participants of the control group.

14. On the basis of data drawn from participant observation it was concluded that

peer tutoring had developed strong motivation towards learning both in tutors

and tutees of the experimental group.

125

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

On the basis of the findings of the study and conclusions, the following

recommendations were made:

1. Since the peer tutoring was found to be more effective as compared to

traditional teaching. Therefore, the peer tutoring be incorporated in other

teaching strategies for the subject of biology.

2. Peer tutoring needs highly structured supervised environment and may be

conducted in controlled conditions. Therefore, it is recommended that in

teacher education the prospective teachers may be prepared in the principles,

procedures and rules of peer tutoring. Due consideration may be take to

tutoring strategies in all teacher education practices in the country.

3. It was observed that some tutors could not satisfy their partner tutee due to the

lack of relevant skills as was highlighted by Clarkson and Luca (2002).

Therefore, it is recommended that a comprehensive training workshop may be

given to tutors, which may further contribute into their competence in peer

tutoring.

4. Peer tutoring was conducted as an instructional strategy by the researcher and

was found productive but it may be more fruitful and productive if peer

tutoring should be used as technique, which can supplement other method of

teaching.

5. In order to enhance the academic achievement of students, the low achievers

may be permanently allotted to intelligent students for guidance and tutoring

in low performing subjects and tutors should be made responsible for the

tutees learning. Furthermore the tutors may be rewarded on the performances

of their tutees.

126

6. Since the peer tutoring was not found effective in the improvement of tutors in

academic achievement at comprehension level of cognitive domain. Therefore

it is recommended for researchers to focus on this area and should take some

innovative measures for the development of comprehension level of the tutors.

7. Since the peer tutoring was also not found effective in the improvement in

academic achievement of tutees at application level of cognitive domain.

Therefore new techniques like group activities and practical involvement

should be encouraged in the future studies for developing the application

abilities of the tutees.

8. This research was delimited to examine the effects of peer tutoring on the

academic achievement in the subject of biology and motivation towards

learning. Other studies may be conducted to explore the effects of peer

tutoring on the social and emotional intelligence and confidence development

of the students.

9. This study was carried out on only male students. Hence, prospective

researchers are suggested that they may conduct study on male and female

students at some different academic levels that the study under investigation

explored in depth.

127

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PRETEST FOR CLASS 10th

NAME ______________________________Father’s Name _________________________Roll Number _________________

Subject______________________________ Group _______________________________ Date ________________________

Total Marks: 50 Time Allowed:

1 Hour

(SECTION-A 25 Marks)

Q 1: Tick the correct answer:

i Axial skeleton consists of:

a. Head, vertebral

column, rib cage

b. Legs and arms c. Head, legs and

arms

ii Joints of vertebral column are example of:

a. Freely moveable

joints

b. Immovable joints c. Slightly movable

joints

iii Scapula, supra scapula, and clavicle are the bones of:

a. Pectoral girdle b. Pelvic girdle c. Hind limb

iv The purpose of rib cage is to:

a. Protect the

stomach

b. Protect the spinal

cord

c. Protect the heart

and lungs

v The palm of the hand is made from:

a. Carpals b. Metacarpals c. Phalanges

vi The un stripped muscles, found in the digestive, respiratory, circulatory and

urinary tract are called:

a. Skeletal muscles b. Smooth muscles c. Cardiac muscles

vii The type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen for

animal tissues and play role in wound healing.

Appendix-A

136

a. Fibroblast b. Cholanchayma c. Haematoma

viii Double fertilization in plants is the union of :

a. Two sperm and two

eggs

b. Two sperm and one egg d. One sperm each to an

egg and endosperm

ix The number of seeds in a fruit will give an indication of the number of;

a. Carpals b. Stamens c. Ovules

x The ability of a cell to divide into several cells during reproduction in

plasmodium is called;

a. Reduction

division

b. Binary fission c. Multiple fission

xi Which of the following is not an artificial method of vegetative reproduction?

a. Layering b. Grafting c. Budding

xii A technique of a sexual reproduction in which genetically identical individuals

are produced from a single parent, using vegetative cell of the parent under

proper conditions is called;

a. Budding b. Apomixes c. Cloning

xiii Seeds absorb water through a small pore at the time of germination is called;

a. Microphyle b. Radicle c. Hilum

xiv The process of release of an egg from the ovary is called;

a. Ovulation b. Reproduction c. Fertilization

xv In Rhizopus. tubular thread-like structures bearing sporangia at their tips are

called;

a. Filaments b. Sporangiophores c. Rhizoids

Q 2: Tick (√) against the correct statement and cross (×) against the wrong

statement:

i The largest bone in human body is called femur.

ii The vertebral column consists of 31 vertebrae.

137

iii Ball and socket joints allow the movement of the organs in two directions.

iv Arthritis is the disorder of the joints in which the organs get inflamed.

v Some fruits are formed without fertilization. such fruits are seedless and are

called parthenocarpic fruits

vi In epigeal germination cotyledons remain in the seed below the ground.

vii Budding is a type of asexual reproduction which is only present in plants.

viii Asexual reproduction is that type of reproduction in which the offspring are

produced only involving a single parent.

ix Transfer of pollen grains from anther of the stamen to the stigma of the

carpal is called fertilization.

x Frogs and fishes are examples of animals that reproduce through internal

fertilization.

(SECTION-B 25 Marks)

Q.3 Define the following terms in short words; (15)

i. what is biceps and triceps give example from your body?

Ans:_________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

ii. What is the function of skull and ribs in human?

Ans_________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

138

_____________________________________________________________________

iii. Differentiate sexual and asexual reproduction?

Ans:_________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

iv. Describe the concept of alternation of generation in plants in your own words?

Ans_________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

v. Describe in not more than four lines the concept of gametogenesis?

Ans _________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Q.4 Define joints and describe its types and give example from your body? (5)

Ans:_________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

139

Q.5 Label any one of the given diagram. (5)

Male Reproductive

System of Rabbit

Pectoral Griddle and

Forelimb of Human

140

POSTTEST FOR CLASS 10th

NAME ____________________________Father’s Name ______________________Roll Number ________________

Subject___________ _____________ Group ______________________________ Date ________________________

Total Marks: 50 Time Allowed: 1 Hour

(SECTION-A 25 Marks)

Q 1: Tick the correct answer:

i The science of fermentation is known as

a. Zymology b. Zoology c. Pharmacology

ii Gregor Mendel, was the founder of;

a. Genetic

Engineering b. Evolution c. Genetics

iii Alcohol, Yogurt, bread and cheese are the products of ;

a. Fermentation

b. Genetic

Engineering c. Zymology

iv Riplican is a suitable vehicle are called vector, is found in the cytoplasm of

a. Amoeba b. Escherichia coli c. Paramecium

v The sum of all Earth‟s ecosystem is called;

a. Stratosphere b. Biosphere c. Lithosphere

vi The lowest level of ecological organization;

a. Species b. Population c. Community

vii The amount of energy passing from one trophic level to the next trophic level is;

a. 20% b. 10% c. 15%

vii

i

Relationship in which both the partners are benefited and none of them is harmed is

called;

a. Commensalism b. Parasitism c. Mutualism

ix The organisms which can produce their own food are;

Appendix-B

141

a. Plants b. Animals c. Microbes

x The sun energy is trapped by the plants during the process of:

a. Photosynthesis b. Respiration

c. Metabolism

xi Various forms of genes at a given locus are called;

a. Alleles b. Autosomes c. Chiasmata

xii The basic unit of DNA is called

a. Histone b. Nucleosomes c. Nucleotides

xii

i Transcription is the first step of protein synthesis which occur in

a. Nucleus b. Cytoplasm c. Ribosome

xiv Human blood group is the most common example of ;

a. Co-dominance

b. Incomplete

dominance

c. Complete

dominance

xv Amino acid is brought to the ribosome to form the Polly peptide chain by the;

a. tRNA b. mRNA c. rRNA

Q 2: Tick (√) against the correct statement and cross (×) against the wrong statement:

i An organism‟s complete set of DNA is called genome.

ii During fermentation carbohydrates are converted into carbon dioxide and

lactic acid.

iii Fermenter is used for the production of fermentation products.

iv Humans have no impact on the environment.

v Gravity has no effect on the living organisms of the ecosystem.

vi Herbicides are used to kill weeds and herbs.

vii The increase in predation will increase the production of prey.

142

viii The total number of chromosomes in each cell of human is 48.

ix Plants use free nitrogen of the atmosphere.

x Evolution occur due to genetically and environmental changes.

(SECTION-B 25 Marks)

Q.3 Define the following terms in short words; (15)

i. Define dominant and recessive characters?

ANS:________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

ii. Write the practical application of fermentation in your daily life?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

iii. Define Ecosystem?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

iv. Write just three causes of Greenhouse effect from your daily life?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

143

v. What is chromosome?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Q.4 Describe the biotic components of eco-system. Give example from your surrounding? (5)

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

144

Q.5 Define Mendel‟s law of segregation and fill the Punnet‟s squre. (5)

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Female

and Male Ganetes

T T

T

t

Punnet‟s Squre

PHENOTYPE RATIO:

GENOTYPE RATIO:

145

MODEL LESSON PLAN FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

INTERACTIONS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON

1. To enable the tutor and tutee to understand the nature of interdependency in

the ecosystem

2. To enable the tutor and tutee to understand effects of interdependency in

the ecosystem.

INTRODUCTION

In this lesson students will try to understand the concept of interdependency in the

ecosystem and their effects on the distribution of organisms at knowledge, comprehension

and application level through peer tutoring. The materials, contents, are provided and the

situation is controlled under keen observation, and guidance.

PROCEDURE

The tutor will study the lesson one day earlier and will discuss problems with the

teacher if any. During session of class the tutee will sit with respective tutor. The audio visual

aids will be arranged by the tutor with the help of teacher and researcher. The lesson will be

proceeding by explaining and discussing the contents by tutor and clarifying the questions

made by tutee and teacher will continuously visit each pair and interrupt in case of wrong

proceeding and will try to bring the tutoring on right direction. The experimenter will

encourage both the partners to participate positively through discussion and questioning.

PRESENTATION

Time 40 minutes

Grade 10th

Sub; Biology Ch#16

MAN AND HIS

ENVIRONMENT

Appendix-C

A.V Aides: Models and charts showing competition

and predation among the organisms.

Tutee

Testing background knowledge (5 minutes)

Q. Do you know that some animals depend on other

animals for their food? Can you show me some example?

Tutor

Encouraging the

tutees to respond

146

Interactions in the Ecosystem

In this world everything including

living and nonliving things depends

and interacts on each other for their

existence. Most of the interactions in

the ecosystem are occur for the need

of food energy. These interactions

may be useful or harmful for one or

both of the interacting organisms.

These interdependences are given

specific names in the study of

ecosystem. These are discussed below

a. Competition

Organisms belong to one species or other species compete

with each other for food, water, and space. As a result

stronger organisms compete and have greater chances for

survival. Competition affects the community structure.

Competition is of two types.

a. Intra-specific competition: this competition

occurs among the members of the same

species.

b. Inter- specific competition: This completion

occurs among the members of different

species.

b. Predation

It is the interaction of two species, the predator and the

prey. The predator is an animal, which captures readily

kills and feeds on the individuals of another species. This

relationship is called predator-prey relationship.

Predation has important effect on the distribution and

abundance of organisms.

Predation is useful and necessary because it keeps a

balance in the ecosystem and regulates population

density.

A pray in an area without its predator some time become

a threat for disturbance in the ecosystem.

Discussion and collecting

responses from the tutee

Discussion and collecting responses from the tutee

Discussion and collecting


Tutor Tutee

25 minutes

Tutor

Tutor

147

c. Parasitism

A parasite is an organism which lives inside or outside of

another living organism and gets its food from its tissue and

cause harm to it. The organism on or in which the lives is called

host. The relation between the parasite and its host is called

parasitism. Parasitism is one sided relationship or positive-

negative relationship, because the parasite always gets benefit

from the host. The diseases in living organisms caused by

parasites are called infestations.

Discussion

d. Symbiosis

Symbiosis means living together. It is defined as a close

interaction between organisms of different species for

extended period of time. In symbiotic relationship one

organisms always get benefit while the other may or may not

be benefited but not harmed. Symbiosis is of two types.

A. Mutualism: In this type of relationship both the

partners are benefited and none of them is

harmed. For example the leguminous plants (pea)

posses small swelling in their roots called nodules.

These nodules contain nitrogen fixing bacteria.

These bacteria get food from these plants and in

return they convert the atmospheric nitrogen into

nitrates which the plants absorb easily.

B. Commensalism: In commensalism only one

partner is benefited and the other is neither

benefited nor harmed. For example some fishes

live in sponges and hydra and get protection but

as a result sponges and hydra neither gets benefits

nor harms.

Discussion and evoking


Revision and discussion with the tutee and answering of the questions of the tutee if any and

tutor should ensure that all the above contents are learned by the tutee.

(10 MINUTES)

Home work

Describe the following terms and give example

from your daily life?

Competition, Predation, Parasitism and Symbiosis

Tutor

Tutor

148

MODEL LESSON PLAN FOR CONTROL GROUP

Name of Teacher Qadir Khan

Class 10th

Subject Biology

Topic Interactions in the

Ecosystem

Time 40 Minutes

Contents Explanation Responses

General

Objectives

To enable the students to understand various types of

relationships of living things and their effects on the

ecosystem.

Specific

Objectives

1. To enable the tutor and tutee to understand the

nature of interdependency in the ecosystem at

knowledge and comprehension levels.

2. To enable the tutor and tutee to understand effects

of interdependency in the ecosystem.

A.V Aids White board, markers, and charts

Teaching

Method

This topic will be taught through lecture method and help

will be taken from pictures in the books

Previous

knowledge

test

The following questions will be asked from the students;

1. Do you know parasite?

2. Do you know some worms live in our digestive

system?

The organism

which get food

from other

organisms.

Yes

Presentation

and

explanation

Then the teacher will start the presentation and explaining

the concepts and will give examples from the daily life and

students will note the lecture and may ask questions in case

of no understanding.

INTERACTIONS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

In this world everything including living and nonliving

things depends and interacts on each other for their

existence. Most of the interactions in the ecosystem are

occur for the need of food energy. These interactions may

be useful or harmful for one or both of the interacting

organisms. These interdependences are given specific

names in the study of ecosystem. These interdependences

are;

1. COMPETITIONS

Organisms belong to one species or other species compete

with each other for food, water, and space. As a result

stronger organisms compete and have greater chances for

survival. Competition affects the community structure.

Competition is of two types.

Appendix-D

149

a. Intra-specific competition: this competition

occurs among the members of the same species.

b. Inter- specific competition: This completion

occurs among the members of different species.

2. PREDATION

It is the interaction of two species, the predator and the

prey. The predator is an animal, which captures readily

kills and feeds on the individuals of another species. This

relationship is called predator-prey relationship.

Predation has important effect on the distribution and

abundance of organisms.

Predation is useful and necessary because it keeps a

balance in the ecosystem and regulates population density.

A pray in an area without its predator some time become a

threat for disturbance in the ecosystem.

3. PARASITISM

A parasite is an organism which lives inside or outside of

another living organism and gets its food from its tissue

and cause harm to it. The organism on or in which the lives

is called host. The relation between the parasite and its host

is called parasitism. Parasitism is one sided relationship or

positive- negative relationship, because the parasite always

gets benefit from the host. The diseases in living organisms

caused by parasites are called infestations.

Symbiosis means living together. It is defined as a close

interaction between organisms of different species for

extended period of time. In symbiotic relationship one

organisms always get benefit while the other may or may

not be benefited but not harmed. Symbiosis is of two types.

A. Mutualism: In this type of relationship both the

partners are benefited and none of them is harmed.

For example the leguminous plants (pea) posses

small swelling in their roots called nodules. These

nodules contain nitrogen fixing bacteria. These

bacteria get food from these plants and in return

they convert the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates

which the plants absorb easily.

B. Commensalism: In commensalism only one

partner is benefited and the other is neither

benefited nor harmed. For example some fishes

live in sponges and hydra and get protection but as

a result sponges and hydra neither gets benefits nor

harms.

Summary

and

evaluation

The teacher will revise the important topics and will ask

questions:

1. Who will define parasitism, competition and

predations?

Students may

raise the hands

for answer and

teacher will

point the

students one

by one for

response. Home work Search out the examples of the following relationships

from your daily life?

150

PRETEST AND POSTTEST SCORE OF THE

EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP CONTROL GROUP

Sr

#

Name of the Student

Scores (50) Sr# Name of the Student

Scores (50)

Pretes

t

Posttes

t

Pretes

t

Postte

st

1 Murad 39

39 1 Yasir Hussain 38

37

2 Atif Azam 37

44 2 Shoaib Akhtar 36

37

3 Ihsanullah 36

44 3 Husnain 36

33

4 Muhammad Roman 35

36 4 Abdul Haseeb 35

32

5 Seemab Ihsan 34 44 5 Asim Murtaza 33 40

6 Syed Saad ali sha 31 44 6 Waqas khan 30 36

7 Muhammad Jawad 30 40 7 Muhammad Sohail 29 30

8 Hassan Sardar 28 37 8 Imtiaz Ahmad 27 33

9 Muhammad Talha 27

37 9 Numan Khan 26

23

10 Muhammad Hamza

Shahid 26 28 10

Syed Jamal-ud-din 26

19

11 Abbas Iqbal 26 38 11 Saud Ahmad 26 28

12 Uzair Khan 25 28 12 Muhammad Hussain 25 27

13 Usman Ghani 25

34 13 Ajmal Afridi 25

11

14 Mussavver 21

36 14 Zulkifal 20

24

15 Ismail 20

33 15 Abdullah 20

30

16 Huzaifa Said 20

27 16 Muhammad Uzair 19

22

17 Abdullah 19

34 17 Mansoor 19

19

18 Abdul Samad 19

35 18 Shehzad Ahmad 18

20

19 M.Abdul Rafeh 18

31 19 Tehseen Khan 14 25

20 Shah Sawar 14 32 20 Nabeel Zahid 14 19

Mean score of the

experimental group 26.5

36.05 Mean score of the control

group 25.8

27.25

Appendix- E

151

LIST OF THE OVERALL EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS

PRETEST SCORE


Sr

#

Name of the Student

Score

(50)

Sr# Name of the Student

Score

(50)

1 Murad 39 1 Yasir Hussain 38

2 Atif Azam 37 2 Shoaib Akhtar 36

3 Ihsanullah 36 3 Husnain 36

4 Muhammad Roman 35 4 Abdul Haseeb 35

5 Seemab Ihsan 34 5 Asim Murtaza 33

6 Syed Saad ali sha 31 6 Waqas khan 30

7 Muhammad Jawad 30 7 Muhammad Sohail 29

8 Hassan Sardar 28 8 Imtiaz Ahmad 27

9 Muhammad Talha 27 9 Numan Khan 26

10 Muhammad Hamza

Shahid 26 10 Syed Jamal-ud-din

26

11 Abbas Iqbal 26 11 Saud Ahmad 26

12 Uzair Khan 25 12 Muhammad Hussain 25

13 Usman Ghani 25 13 Ajmal Afridi 25

14 Mussavver 21 14 Zulkifal 20

15 Ismail 20 15 Abdullah 20

16 Huzaifa Said 20 16 Muhammad Uzair 19

17 Abdullah 19 17 Mansoor 19

18 Abdul Samad 19 18 Shehzad Ahmad 18

19 M.Abdul Rafeh 18 19 Tehseen Khan 14

20 Shah Sawar 14 20 Nabeel Zahid 14

Mean score of the

experimental group 26.5 Mean score of the control group 25.8

Appendix- F

152

POSTTEST SCORE OF BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS


Sr

#

Name of the Student

Score

(50)


Score

(50)










10 Muhammad Hamza

Shahid 28 10

Syed Jamal-ud-din 19











Mean score of the

experimental group 36.05 Mean score of the control group 27.25

Appendix-G

153

PRETEST SCORE OF HIGH ACHIEVERS OF BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND

CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

(Tutors) CONTROL GROUP

Sr

#

Name of the Student

Score Sr# Name of the Student

Score










10

Muhammad Hamza

Shahid

26 10

Syed Jamal-ud-din

26

Mean value for Experimental

group

32.3

Mean value for Control group

31.6

Appendix- H

154

PRETEST SCORE OF LOW ACHIEVER OF

BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

(Tutee) CONTROL GROUP











Mean value for

Experimental Group 20.7 Mean value for Control Group 20

Appendix- I

155

POSTTEST SCORE OF HIGH ACHIEVERS OF BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND

CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

(Tutors) CONTROL GROUP

Sr

#

Name of the Student

Score

(50)


Score

(50)










10

Muhammad Hamza

Shahid

28 10

Syed Jamal-ud-din

19


group

39.3

Mean value for Control group

32

Appendix- J

156

POSTTEST SCORE OF LOW ACHIEVERS OF BOTH

EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

(Tutee) CONTROL GROUP

Sr

#

Name of the Student

Score

(50)


Score

(50)











Mean value for

Experimental Group 32.8 Mean value for Control Group 22.5

Appendix- K

157

LIST OF THE 10 PAIRS OF THE PEER TUTORS AND TUTEES

(Pretest Score)

TUTORS TUTEES

Sr

#

Name of the Student

Score

(50)

Sn# Name of the Students Score

(50)

1 Murad Tariq 39 1 Abbas Iqbal 26

2 Atif Azam 37 2 M.Abdul Rafeh 18

3 Ihsanullah 36 3 Shah Sawar 14

4 Muhammad Roman 35 4 Ismail Khan 20

5 Seemab Ihsan 34 5 Abdul Samad 19

6 Syed Saad ali sha 31 6 Abdullah Khan 19

7 Muhammad Jawad 30 7 Huzaifa Said 20

8 Hassan Sardar 28 8 Mussavver 21

9 Muhammad Talha 27 9 Uzair 25

10

Muhammad Hamza

Shahid

26 10 Usman Ghani 25


group

32.3


Group

20.7

Appendix- L

158

LIST OF THE 10 PAIRS OF THE PEER TUTORS AND TUTEES

POSTTEST SCORE

TUTORS TUTEES

Sr

#

Name of the Student

Score

(50)

Sn# Name of the Students Score

(50)

1 Murad Tariq 39 1 Abbas Iqbal 38

2 Atif Azam 44 2 M.Abdul Rafeh 31

3 Ihsanullah 44 3 Shah Sawar 32

4 Muhammad Roman 36 4 Ismail Khan 33

5 Seemab Ihsan 44 5 Abdul Samad 35

6 Syed Saad ali sha 44 6 Abdullah Khan 34

7 Muhammad Jawad 40 7 Huzaifa Said 27

8 Hassan Sardar 37 8 Mussavver 36

9 Muhammad Talha 37 9 Uzair Khan 28

10

Muhammad Hamza

Shahid

28 10 Usman Ghani 34


group

39.3


Group 32.8

Appendix- M

159

POSTTEST SCORE OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUP WITH RESPECT TO FIRST

THREE LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF BLOOM TAXONOMY

S.N NAME TOTAL

SCORE

(50)

SCORE IN

KNOWLEDGE

(27)

SCORE IN

COMPREHENSION

(12)

SCORE IN

APPLICATION

(11)

1 Murad 39 23 8 8

2 Atif Azam 44 23 10 11

3 Ihsanullah 44 24 9 11

4 Muhammad

Roman 36

22 10 04

5 Seemab Ihsan 44 24 11 09

6 Syed Saad ali

sha 44

24 10 10

7 Muhammad

Jawad 40

23 07 10

8 Hassan Sardar 37 23 10 04

9 Muhammad

Talha 37

22 08 07

10 Muhammad

Hamza Shahid 28

15 05 08

11 Abbas Iqbal 38 22 09 07

12 Uzair Khan 28 17 09 02

13 Usman Ghani 34 18 08 08

14 Mussavver 36 22 11 03

15 Ismail 33 20 09 04

16 Huzaifa Said 27 16 09 02

17 Abdullah 34 18 10 06

18 Abdul Samad 35 21 10 04

19 M.Abdul Rafeh 31 18 09 04

20 Shah Sawar 32 17 09 07

Mean 36.05 20.6 09 6.45

Appendix- N

160

POSTTEST SCORE OF CONTROL GROUP WITH RESPECT TO FIRST THREE

LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF BLOOM TAXONOMY

S.N NAME TOTAL

SCORE

(50)

SCORE IN

KNOWLEDGE

(27)

SCORE IN

COMPREHEN

SION (12)

SCORE IN

APPLICATI

ON (11)

1 Yasir Hussain 37 24 07 06

2 Shoaib Akhtar 37 22 07 08

3 Husnain 33 21 09 03

4 Abdul Haseeb 32 17 08 07

5 Asim Murtaza 40 22 10 08

6 Waqas khan 36 20 09 07

7 Muhammad Sohail 30 16 09 05

8 Imtiaz Ahmad 33 16 09 08

9 Numan Khan 23 13 08 02

10 Syed Jamal-ud-din 19 10 07 02

11 Saud Ahmad 28 14 09 05

12 Muhammad

Hussain 27

17 08 02

13 Ajmal Afridi 11 05 06 00

14 Zulkifal 24 16 07 02

15 Abdullah 30 22 05 03

16 Muhammad Uzair 22 10 05 07

17 Mansoor 19 09 07 03

18 Shehzad Ahmad 20 12 05 03

19 Tehseen Khan 25 13 10 02

20 Nabeel Zahid 19 11 08 01

MEAN 27.25 15.5 7.65 4.05

Appendix- O

161

POSTTEST SCORE OF HIGH ACHIEVERS OF BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND

CONTROL GROUP WITH RESPECT TO FIRST THREE LEVEL OF COGNITIVE

DOMAIN

S.N NAME Knowle

de

(27)

Comprehensi

on

(12)

Applicati

on

(11)

NAME Knowled

ge

(27)

Comprehensi

on

(12)

Applicati

on

(11)

1 Murad 23 8 8

Yasir

Hussain 24 07 06

2 Atif

Azam 23 10 11 Shoaib

Akhtar 22 07 08

3 Ihsanul

lah 24 9 11 Husnain 21 09 03

4 Muham

mad

Roman 22 10 04

Abdul

Haseeb 17 08 07

5 Seema

b Ihsan 24 11 09 Asim

Murtaza 22 10 08

6 Syed

Saad

ali sha 24 10 10

Waqas

khan 20 09 07

7 Muham

mad

Jawad 23 07 10

Muhamm

ad Sohail 16 09 05

8 Hassan

Sardar 23 10 04 Imtiaz

Ahmad 16 09 08

9 Muham

mad

Talha 22 08 07

Numan

Khan 13 08 02

10 Muham

mad

Hamza

Shahid

15 05 08

Syed

Jamal-ud-

din 10 07 02

MEAN 22.3 8.8 8.2 18.1 8.3 5.6

Appendix- P

162

POSTTEST SCORE OF LOW ACHIEVERS OF BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND

CONTROL GROUP WITH RESPECT TO FIRST THREE LEVEL OF COGNITIVE

DOMAIN

S.N NAME OF

TUTEE

KNOW

…

(27)

COMPR

…

(12)

APPLIC.

.

(11)

NAME OF

LOW

ACHIEVER

KNOW

…

(27)

COMPR.

.

(12)

APPLIC

…

(11)

1 Abbas

Iqbal 22 09 07 Saud

Ahmad 14 09 05

2 Uzair

Khan 17 09 02 Muhamma

d Hussain 17 08 02

3 Usman

Ghani 18 08 08 Ajmal

Afridi 05 06 00

4 Mussavve

r 22 11 03 Zulkifal 16 07 02

5 Ismail 20 09 04 Abdullah 22 05 03

6 Huzaifa

Said 16 09 02 Muhamma

d Uzair 10 05 07

7 Abdullah 18 10 06 Mansoor 09 07 03

8 Abdul

Samad 21 10 04 Shehzad

Ahmad 12 05 03

9 M.Abdul

Rafeh 18 09 04 Tehseen

Khan 13 10 02

1

0

Shah

Sawar 17 09 07 Nabeel

Zahid 11 08 01

MEAN 18.9 9.2 4.7 12.9 7 2.8

Appendix- Q

163

Split-Half Test Scores of the Students for Reliability Testing of the

Pretest

Sadhum Children Academy Rustam Mardan

Sr # Names of the Students Scores Obtained

1st half 2

nd half

1 Afaq-ur-Rehman 20 23

2 Asadullah 22 20

3 Rizwanullah 20 19

4 Hazrat Ali 16 16

5 Kamran 15 13

6 Amad Noor 13 13

7 Naveed Qamar 12 12

8 Abuzar 12 7

9 Tariq Aziz 14 11

10 Syed Hamza 11 11

11 Noman 10 8

12 Sheheriyar 15 12

13 Awais 12 10

14 Abu-Bakker 10 12

15 Syed Taimur 9 7

16 Mohammad Asif 7 7

17 Mohammad Amir 4 8

Appendix- R

164

Split-Half Test Scores of the Students for Reliability Testing of the Posttest

Allied National Software Institute Mardan

Sr # Names of the Students Scores Obtained

1st half 2

nd half

1 Murad 21 18

2 Atif Azam 22 22

3 Ihsanullah 24 20

4 Muhammad Roman 17 19

5 Seemab Ihsan 21 23

6 Syed Saad ali sha 20 24

7 Muhammad Jawad 21 19

8 Hassan Sardar 19 18

9 Muhammad Talha 17 20

10 Muhammad Hamza Shahid 16 12

Appendix- S

165

REVISE MODEL OF BLOOM COGNITIVE DOMAIN

Appendix- T

166

Appendix-U

Documents

EFFECTS OF PEER TUTORING ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT …prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/10739/1/Irfan Ullah_Edu_2… · 2.6.2.6 Concept of mediation in the sociocultural