EFFECTS OF SOLUBLE ORGANICS

ON FLOW THROUGH THIN CRACKS OF BASALTIC LAVA

by

Kenneth Ishizaki

Nathan C. Burbank, Jr.

L. Stephen Lau

Technical Report No. 16

August 1967

Project Completion Report

for

POLLUTION EFFECTS OF GROUND WATER RECHARGE IN HAWAII

OWRR Project No. A-001-HI, Grant Agreement No. 14-01-0001-905

Principal Investigators: L. Stephen Lau and Nathan C. Burbank, Jr.

Project Period: July 1, 1966 to June 30, 1967

The work upon which this pUblication is based was supported in part byfunds provided by the United States Department of the Interior asauthorized under the Water Resources Act of 1964, Public Law 88-379.

ABSTRACT

The source of most of Oahu's domestic water supply is from ground

water occurring in the permeable materials of volcanic rock. Movement

of the ground water is intrinsically through thin cracks in basaltic

lavas. This project studied passage of an organic-rich liquid through

cracks in basalt.

Permeability of "blue rock" portions of aa basalt was determined

as 2.6 x 10- Q gallons/daY/ft2 of water, classing the rock as impervious.

A range of 7.7 to 10.4 per cent in porosity values was obtained from

the '~lue rock" portion; the clinker portion yielded a value of 50 per

cent.

Difficulties in experimental verification of the Hagen-Poiseuille

dex-ioatrion of radial flow through thin cracks were encountered in mea­

suring flow at low gradients and aligning crack surfaces absolutely

parallel. These discrepancies caused some variation in the determi­

nation. The flow rate is proportional to the 0.9 power of the head.

Flow rates are less than theorized by Hagen-Poiseuille's derivation

with the flow rate of clarified sewage being less than tap water under

identical conditions.

The greatest retardation in flow of non-biodegradable liquids

through thin cracks occurred in the initial hours followed bya sys­

tematic reduction of flow to a terminal and nearly constant flow of

7/8 to 1/100 of the initial flow rate. Flow rates through aa basalt

decrease faster than through a similated thin crack made of lucite

plastic.

Flow of organic-rich liquids through such cracks, similar to

non-biodegradable liquids, exhibits a decrease in flow initially and

continues this trend for as long as 220 hours. The~erminal flow velo­

city of tap water is much greater than that of sewage which appears to

procaed to a no-flow condition. The clogging phenomenon was dependent

upon microbial activity and food supply in sewage. Retardation of

flow of organic-rich liquid is attributed to presence of microbial

cells and their biochemically synthesized products in the cracks. The

products are primarily polysaccharides and slimes along with ferrous

sulfide, a common material found in septic sewage in contact with soil

01' rock.

iii

CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ' vi

LIST OF TABLES •••••••••••·• • ·••• ~ ·•••••••••••••• ·.....-•••••••••• ~ •••••••••• vii

INTRODUCTION 1

Geology of the Island of Oahu 1Ground-water Pollution 4

LITEl~ATURE SURVEy ....•••..•.•.....•..••.••..•.•..•. '.•.•••••.••••'••..••.. 5

PURPOSE ...•...••..••.•.•.•••....••.••.•••.•••.••.•....••••• ••.•.••••.•.. 9

SCOPE .•....•.....•••.... ! •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ' •••• 9

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS ............................................•... 10Liquids · 10

Crack Media. ". . ' ~ ~ ..................•...............10

Flow Rate -Measurement s 12Aa Permeability Test Apparatus .....................•.....•.. ~ 12Crack Apparatus · ; ~ 14

PROCEDURE AND RESULTS ..........................•........................ 16Phase I: Permeability of Aa Basa1t..........•....................... 18Phase II: Verification of the Hagen-Poiseuil1e Deviation ofthe Radial Flow of Liquid Through Thin Cracks 20Phase III: Retardation of Flow of Non-biodegradable LiquidThrough Thin Cracks ~ 28

Phase IV: . Retardation of Flow of Organic-Rich .Liquid ThroughThin Cracks 32

Physical and Chemical Parameters of Organic-Rich Liquid 32Flow of Organic-Rich Liquid Through Simulated Lucite Crack •....... 33Flow of Organic-Rich Liquid Through Simulated Aa Basalt Crack ..... 37

CONCLUS I ON 47Phase I: Permeability of Aa Basa1t ~ 47Phase II: Verification of the Hagen-Poiseui11e Derivation ofthe Radial Flow of Liquid Through Thin Cracks 47Phase III: Retardation of Flow of Non-biodegradable LiquidThrough Thin Cracks .. · . ~" ·~ : ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Phase IV: Retardation of Flow of Organic-Rich Liquid ThroughThi n Cracks ~ - 49

v

,1:

BIBLIOGRAPHY 50

APPENDIX 53

A-Procedure for Direct Counting 55B-Protein Determination by the Folin Reaction 56

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure1 Typical Hawaiian Basalt .....................................•..•.32 Schematic of Apparatus for the Determination of the

Permeabi 1i ty of Aa Basalt ...........................•.......... 133 Plan and Side View of Crack Apparatus 154 Schematic Drawing of Complete Set-Up of Thin Crack Apparatus 155 Weekly Variation in Temperature ....•. ~ 176 Temperature Diffentials in Air and Water in Vibration Free

Environment _ ' 177 Experiment-Flow Without Clogging 228 Experiment - Flow Without Clogging 229 Experiment - Flow Without_Clogging 22

10 Experiment-- Flow Without Clogging 2211 Experiment -Flow Without Clogging 2612 Experiment - Flow Without Clogging · 2613 Experiment - Flow Without Clogging 2614 View of Crack as Seen Through Microscope 2715 Flow Rate Variation of Water Through Simulated Lucite Crack 2916 Flow Rate Variation of Water Through Simulated Lucite Crack 2917 Flow Rate Changes .Due to Unknown Environmental Changes 2918 Comparison of Flow of Aa Basalt and Lucite as Crack Media

Under Identical Conditions 3119 Effects of Jarring Action on the Retardation of Flow

Through Thi n Crack · ·~ 3120 Flow Characteristics of Various Liquids Through Ideritical .

Crack Width 35

21 Flow Rate Characteristics of Sewage and Water ThroughSimulated Lucite Crack 35

22 Flow Rate Characteristics of Sewage and Water ThroughSimulated-Lucite Curve 36

vi

LIST OF FIGURES (cont'd)23 Variation in Bacterial Growth 3624 Variation in Turbidity 3625 Variation in Organic Carbon 3826 Variation in BOD 3827 Variation in Ammonia 38

28 Flow Rate Characteristics of Sewage and Water ThroughSimu1 ated Aa Crack 40

29 Variation in Bacterial Numbers 4030 Variation in Turbidity 4031 Variation in Organic Carbon 4132 Variation in BOD 4133 Variation in Ammonia , 4134 Corre1ati on of Carbon Concentrati on and COO 4335 Comparison Between the Variation of Flow Rate and Bacterial

Growth 4336 Comparison Between the Variation of Carbon and Bacterial

Numbers : 4337 Variation in Sulfide Concentration with Time 4538 Flow Rate Retardation of Water and Sewage Versus Time 45

LIST OF TABLES

Table1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Characteristics of Clarified Sewage 11Changes in Viscosity of Clarified Sewage with Respect toTemperature 11

Computations for the Determination of the Permeability of Aa 11Magnitude of Laboratory Coefficient of Permeability forDifferent Classes of Soils 19

Physical Characteristics of Aa Basa1t 20Flow Rate Variation with Head for Lucite 23Flow Rate Variation with Head for Aa Basa1t 25Thickness Dimension of Cy1inder 27Variation in Solids Between Crack at the Termination ofTrial Run ' 37

vii

INTRODUCTION

The development of the water supply system of Honolulu, Oahu,

Hawaii had its beginning when a lead pipe was laid in 1847. This con­

duit transported water from a taro patch to the water front (1).

With discovery of artesian water beneath the island of Oahu and

a general dissatisfaction with the surface water supply subsurface

water became the primary source. Shallow wells were dug where fresh

water could be skimmed off the top of the basal water table. Later,

deeper wells were bored, primarily by the agricultural industry (2).

The majority of Honolulu's domestic water is now pumped from

underground sources with the basal water supply beneath the island of

Oahu contributing 90% of the total consumed. The additional 10% comes

from perched sources. Contrary to practices in most cities in the

United States, only 10% of Honolulu's water supply receives small dos­

ages of chlorine to maintain a chlorine residual of 0.1 ppm. The

nominal dosage "is more a "preventive measure thana remedial one."

Hawaii is blessed with excellent groundwater which exceeds the U.S.

Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards without treatment of any

kind. Bacteriological data and coliform indices as well as chemical

analyses of the water indicate adequate municipal and geological safe-I .

guards against ground-water pollution. The apparent lack of problems

of waste-water pollution of the magnitude in some mainland localities

can be attributed in part to "an amazingly efficient filtering action

of soil and rock as rain water percolates slowly down to the water

table" and to efficient regulation of waste-water disposal practices . (3) .

Geology of the Island of Oahu

Oahu is composed of four geological zones which are of interest

to the hydrologist: the Waianae and Koolau domes, the plateau which

connects the two prominent volcanic domes, and the Pearl Harbor-Hono­

lulu coastal plain which has an impermeable 'caprock' of alluvial and

marine sediments overlying the basaltic rock.

The aquifers on Oahu formed in fractured, jointed and thin bedded

basaltic rock are of two distinct types: pahoehoe and aa. The dis­

tinction between the two types is dependent upon the physical character

2

of the material and the environment in which the lava cooled. Pahoehoe

and aa are of basically the same chemical composition (4,5, 6). Pahoe­

hoe lava has a smooth, billowy, and ropey appearance while aa lava is

characterized by a bed of dense, exceedingly impervious rock, lying

between brecci~ted beds of clinker (5). Pahoehoe is characterized by

a "glassy skin" appearance on the top of the flow, while slaggy masses

of red basalt usually appear on the bottom. The thickness of the

pahoehoe lava bed is usually 10 to 100 feet : It is not uncommon to

have the formation of several pahoehoe and aa lava beds during a single

eruption. Lava tubes, ranging from several inches to several feet in

diameter, are often fo~ed in the pahoehoe lava beds (7).

Aa, on the other hand, consists of two distinct portions (Figure 1).

The dense por-t i on , commonly termed "blue rock ., II ' lies between beds of

clinker. This dense portion contains many cracks and fissures which

were caused by overburden of rock and soil and by internal tension due

to shrinkage during the cooling process (5).

The most important characteristic of lava flow is its high perme­

ability (B). As a consequence, a large fraction of rainfall seeps ' into

the ground to replenish the water supply. High permeability of basaltic

lava flow may be attributed to the following:

(i) Shrinkage Cracks. Shrinkage cracks occur during the cooling

of the lava. These cracks are usually vertical, vary in size, and are

effective water ~onduits.

(ii) Gas Pores. Pores are formed in lava by escaping gases and

are quite abundant in the lava flows of Oahu. Many of the gas pores

are quite large and interconnected to a substantial degree.

(iii) Clinker Voids. Clinker is the outer portion of the aa ba­

salt and is rough angular and irregular. This produces a very permeable

geologic formation. Pahoehoe also has an irregular and rough appear­

ance, but the voids are less abundant and less effective as water car­

riers than clinker.

(iv) Subs equent Cracks. These , cracks are usually caused by an

external mechanical stress. After the lava has solidified, an earth­

quake or the settling of faults may, create cracks.

(v) Lava Tubes. Lava tubes are usually formed in pahoehoe flows.

They may vary .froma few inches to several feet in diameter and are

3

FIGURE I: TYPICAL HAWAIIAN BASALT

AN AA FLOW USUALLY CONSISTS OF DENSE ROUGH ROCK OF VARYING MASSIVE­NESS (TOP OF PHOTO) WITH HONEYCOMB FRINGES CALLED CLINKER (MIDDLEOF PHOTO). CONTRASTING AA IS PAHOEHOE (SHOWN BENEATH THE CLINKER)WHICH IS MARKED BY ITS SMOOTH AND OFTEN BILLOWY SURFACE.

4

created when solidification of the outer crust takes place while the

inner contents of the lava flow are still draining out (9).

The composite porosity ranges from 10% to 25% and the overall

permeability is in the range of 5,00 to 20,000 gallons per day per

square foot but the less permeable basalt may have permeability as low

as 100 gallons per day per square foot as has been reported by Board

of ~ater Supply of the City and County of Honolulu in various in­

stances (8).

Ground-water Pollution

Despite very effective natural means of purification,: there are

still varous sources of ground-water pollution.

Sea-water intrusion, a major potential hazard of contamination of

the gro.u~d-water supply, is usually caused by an excessive withdrawal

of water from the basal lens. The works of Lau (10) Stearns (11), and

Wentworth (12) show Hawaii's concern in ground-water management, rela­

tive to sea water intrusion.

Another threat to the purity of the basal-water supply is contam­

ination by surface-water sources. The problem of ground-water contam­

ination has only recently received significant attention . .r'o·

.Pol Iut i.on of ground water by surface-water sources may be in the

form of chemical leaching, especially through increased use of pesticides

and fertilizers on Oahu's sugar cane and pineapple fields (16). · . Et o

reported that Hawaiian soils retain DDT in dosages normally used in

agricultural practices. However, the one-foot columns of Hawaiian soils

could not retain all of the lindane applied (14). It is not improbable

that insecticides may percolate through soils and enter the basal-water

supply through thin soil mantle or cracks in exposed rock sites.

Researchers in other localities confirm the pollution of ground­

water supplies by various insecticides and pesticides. Nicholson (IS).

Middleton (16), and others reported presence of insecticides in the

range of several parts per billion in ground water in certain areas of

continental United States.

Disposal and treatment of raw sewage present other possible sources

of surface-water contamination. Because of geographic and economic

conditions, sewage effluent from several of · Oahu's sewage treatment

5

plants must be discharged into nearby streams. The beds of many of

these streams have only a thin layer of eroded matter above the basaltic

lava . The subsequent degradation and percolation of this effluent

through soils and rock is unknown (13).

Cesspools and septic tanks located directly above Oahu's basal­

water supply may pose another threat to the ground-water supply. At

points where cesspools and septic tanks are located, it is possible to

have only a thin mantle of soil or even exposed rocks. Koizumi (17)

reported in a laboratory bench study of cesspools that the leachate

from a cesspool may have a BOD as high as 250 mg/l and concentrations

of ammonia as high as 20.9 mg/l. It was concluded from this work that

the leachate from cesspools are a potential hazard to the ground-water

supply, owing to its biologically active and organic nature.

With the 'great expansion of residential and industrial development,

surface-water contamination as a source of ground-water pollution has

become even more significant. The General Plan for the state of Hawaii

shows an increase · of urban areas with a prediction of decrease in open

land (forest reserves, agricultural lands, grazing lands) (18). Ex­

panded urban development has not only reduced Oahu's recharge areas,

but increased the opportunity for contamination of ground water by sur­

face-water sources, primarily cesspools~ Furthermore, the reduction

of the rainfall recharge area has made less water available for dilu­

tion with the percolating waste water.

Although Hawaii 's ground-water supply faces no real threat of

pollution at this time from surface-water sources, there is no assur­

ance that this condition will continue. The potential dangers of con­

taminationof the basal lens are still present.

LITERATURE SURVEY

A literature survey has revealed very few previous investigations

on the flow of fluids through thin cracks. Most of the limited amount

of material dealt with the existence, establishment, and formation of

a boundary layer during flow.

The work of Wentworth (19) was related to the study of the recharge

of the basal-water lens through Hawaiian basalt. Wentworth's investi­

gationsshowed that the flow of water through thin cracks, 0.5 milli-\1'I..

6

meter in thickness or greater, follows Darcy's law, V = KH.

V = velocity of flow (ft/sec)

K = coefficient of permeab ility

H = hydraulic gradient (ft/ft)

However, wi t h thinner cracks and ,r el at i vel y low heads, Wentworth re­

ported the rate of flow deviated from Darcy's law and followed the

relationship, V = KHl/n, where n may be different from l.

Wentworth made many ,t es t runs, varying head, liquid, crack media,

and ,t hi ckness to determine the variation of flow rate with time. The

data (timevs. flow rate at a constant head, crack width, crack media)

exhibited a straight line relationship when plotted on a semi-log paper,

with time plotted on an arithmetic scale. Wentworth, however" reported

several abrupt changes in the plot instead of a constant slope during

the course of the experiment~ He attributed the deviations to unrecog­

nized changes in the environment.

In the same study, Wentworth found that rate of flow of water

through cracks less than 0.1 mm in thickness was reduced to as low as

1/100 to 1/1000 of the initial rate with time. This reduction occurred

within 10 to 100 hours. Moreover, several days of progressive slowing

of flow rate were needed to reach and sustain a nearly constant steady

flow . . No test run, however, reached a terminal velocity of zero. Went­

worth observed that "retarded-flow condition" can be, .di srupted by a

mechanical disturbance, such as tapping the apparatus or passing water

at higher velocities. He concluded that the cause of retardation of

flow was removable bya "washing action" and flow rate of liquids 'through

thin cracks are much less than theorized by Darcy's Law at low flows.

He further concluded that flow rates would be considerably lower when

compared to those derived by the Hagen-Poiseuille's law for wider

openings.

Wentworth discussed two causes for the retardation of flow: i)

increased viscosity and ii) decreased cross section. He discounted the

former because of the work of Gurney (20). In flow studies with con­

centric cylinders, Gurney's investigations indicated no increase of

viscosity of the fluids. It had been reported previously that the

increase was attributable to dissolved constituents from glass tublng

0:r plating. Gurney diSproved this hypothesis by using powdered glass

7

in solution in repeated tests.

Thus, Wentworth attributed reduction in flow to a decreasing

cross-section owing to the formation of a molecular film on the walls

of the flow opening. To support his hypothesis, he used the kinetic

theory that molecules of a liquid are in a continuous state of random

movement. He concluded that liquid molecules are hampered and retarded

near a solid boundary since they are attracted and adsorbed by the

boundary and thereby form a fixed film.

It was conjectured by Bastow and Bowden (21) that there would be

no appreciable changes in liquid property induced by the presence of

a solid surface if the slightest pressure prompted a flow through a

thin crack. Furthermore, the flow rate and pressure (head of fluid)

when plotted, would give a straight line, passing through the origin.

Bastow and Bowden reported findings contrary to those proposed by Went­

worth. Their experiments showed that the presence of a solid surface

does not modify the properties of a liquid. They do, however, acknowl­

edge the existence of "bulk structure" (liquid bulk) which has also

been verified by other individuals. Sower (22) stated that adsorbed

water molecules on clays, especi~lly montmorillonites and kaolinites,

exhibit ice-like properties. This "bulk structure" has been found to

be as thick as 10 angstroms (.OOOOOlmm), but Bastow and Bowden found

no evidence of induced-rigid oriented chains of molecules in any of

the liquids tested. All liquids investigated (water, cyclohexane,

alcohol, acetic acid, ethyl palmitate, and lithium chloride) yielded

normal flow with the slightest amount of pressure. Furthermore, no

increase of viscosity of the liquid was noticed.

Contrary to Wentworth's theory, Meyerott and Margenau (23) con­

cluded there was no formation of a "molecular film" although flow rates

declined nearly 500%. The investigators attributed the decrease in

flow to the presence of dissolved air obstructing the flow path within

the cracks. The air bubble described by Meyerott and Margenau precip­

itates out and adheres predominantly to fractures and scratches on

solid surfaces. This was the reason Wentworth reported a greater re­

duction in flow with rough basaltic material rather than with a smooth

surface as glass, according to Meyerott and Margenau. In an inves­

tigation with photo-microscopy of flow in boundary layer, Bock (24)

reported the presence of air bubbles in a crack of about 25 micrometers.

8

He attributed deviation of the flow path of the liquid to the presence

of air bubbles.

Meyerott and Margenau (23) considered rate of flow to be propor­

tional to the "accumulated flow" and the opportunity for the precipita­

tion of dissolved oxygen to be greater if larger amounts of water were

passed between the cracks. When "no flow" conditions were initiated,

the investigators noticed no decrease in flow after restarting the test

run nullifying "time effect" as Wentworth suggested.

However, other investigators support Wentworth's hypothesis of

the existence of structure in liquids. Bernal (25) a physicist at the

University of London, b~lieves liquids do possess structure, even for

an instant under specific and unusual conditions.

Although all researchers agree on the phenomenon of reduction of

flow rate, the causes of the retardation of flow have not been clearly

defined. All published data were concerned with flow of non-biodegra­

dable liquids. No organic-rich liquid readily susceptible to biodegra­

dation has been investigated in the flow of liquid through thin cracks.

Such organic-rich liquids may be leached from cesspools and sewage

treatment effluent and may eventually percolate to ground-water sources

through thin cracks.

9 .

PURPOSE

The purpose of this work is to study the flow of organic-rich liquid

through thin cracks and examine the extent and degree of biological acti­

vity and concentration of organic pollutants in waste water passing

through cracks.

There is presently no known published data on .t he extent and dimen­

sions of the cracks and fissures below the surface in Hawaii. It is prob­

able that the cracks in the dense portion of the aa basalt may dictate

the quantity, direction, and possibly, the quality of the percolating

liquid. This is analogous to a strata of soil in which the most imper­

meable stratum of soil dictates the permeability of the complete mass.

Ground-water recharges from surface systems and resulting water quality

may be governed to a great extent by these rock layers.

Simulated field conditions were limited to the hydraulic aspects

of the "clogging phenomenon" and the effects on the degradation of per­

colating liquid through the "blue rock" portion of the aa basalt. Effects

on percolating liquid flowing through a thin crack in aa basalt may be

equivocated to liquid passing -through larger pores in the "clinker" por­

tion since a solid boundary may influence the degradation process in

both "blue rock" and "clinker" portions of aa basalt.

SCOPE

The study is primarily concerned with the clogging phenomenon of

;l i qui ds as they pass through thin cracks. Degradations and changes in

the .chemical and physical properties of the liquids were also given some

consideration. Hydraulic parameters influencing flow of liquids were

examined; .

Following the sequence of the study, this report is divided into

four phases: (i) determination. of permeability of the "blue rock" por­

tion of aa basalt; (ii) verification of Hagen-Poiseuille's derivation

of radial flow through thin cracks; (iii) retardation of flow of non­

biodegradable liquids through thin cracks; and (iv) retardation of flow

of organic-rich liquids through thin cracks and related effects.

10

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

The major preparations involved in this laboratory simulation

field conditions were the coring of aa basalt sample, fabricating of ,a

hydraulic system to maintain constant head, and assembling of devices

to measure flow rate. In addition, a suspended solids-free organic

solution and a device to measure the permeability of the "blue rock"

portion of the aa basalt were ,pr epar ed .

Liquids

The experimental procedure consisted of a laboratory bench study

of flow of (i) tap water, (ii) distilled water, (iii) tap water with

various dosages of chlorine, and (iv) chemically clarified sewage

(organic-rich liquid) .

Tap water was employed as a control. Distilled water was employed

because it contains few electrolytes in solution. Various investigators

have mentioned that the presence of electrolytes may cause retardation

of flow. Chlorinated tap wate~ provided an antiseptic measure to pre­

vent growth of microbial organisms and to reduce possible interferences.

Chemically clarified sewage free of suspended solids was required to

simulate actual field conditions. A layer of soil overlays the basaltic

lava flow in much of Oahu's land areas and would remove most of the sus­

pended matter prior to percolation of liquid through the basaltic lava.

The sewage used is characterized chemically and physically in

Tables 1 ,and 2. It was obtained from the Pacific Palisades Sewage Treat­

ment Plant near Pearl City, Oahu, which is considered to be a purely

domestic source. The sewage was chemically clarified with ferric chlo­

ride (100 mg/l at pH 11.2), settled for 30 minutes, and filtered through

five layers of cheesecloth on a one-inch Ottawa Sand (0.56 mm e.s.) bed

to produce a clear liquid free of suspended solids to represent sewage

filtered through overlying layers of soil.

Crack Media

The crack media employed in this study were (i) lucite and (ii) the

"blue rock" portion of aa basalt. Luci te was employed as a control. The

11

TABLE 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF CLARIFIED SEWAGE

mg/1

RAAGE

BOD 2/f.00- 72.00

COD /f9.00- /f61.00

AM'-1ONIA - (DISTlLLATlON) 15.70- 20.70

(NESSLERIZATION) 21. 50- 25.00

TOTAL SOLIDS 30/f.00-1880.00

VOLATILE SOLI OS 172.00- 630.00

PROTEIN AS BOVINE 5.60- 32.00

PROTEIN AS GELATINE 7.20- 9.60

NITRATE - mgt1 .05- .25

TOTAL CARBON AS POTASSIUMACID PHTHALATE 88.00- 18/f.00

ORGANIC CARBON AS POTASSIlJo1AC ID PHTHALATE /f1.00- 73.00

TABLE 2. CHANGES IN VISCOSITY OF CLARIFIEDSEWAGE WITH RESPECT TO TEMPERATURE

MEAN

61.00

268.00

17.90

23.30

320.00

29.00

9.00

.15

TEMPERATURE CO

27

28

29

30

31

VISCOSITY(CENTIPOISE)

.85/f5

.8360

.8180

.8007

•78/f0

"blue rock" sample was chosen as a medium because of its impervious char­

acter and the possible effect of its solid surface on percolating liquids.

Lucite proved to be an adequate material, being transparent and non­

rusting. However, the lucite material proved to be non-uniform in thick­

ness. There was as much as 3 to 5% difference in thickness from the

manufacturer's specifications.

Aa basalt appeared to have a rough finish, although ground and pol­

ished. Trapped gases, formed during the cooling of the lava, contribute

to the irregular surface. The thickness of the aa basalt cylinder varied

as much as 5 to 7% largely due to the difficulty in the handling and cut­

ting of the material. The aa basalt was obtained along Pali Highway, near

Pacific Heights.

12

Flow Rate Measurements

The volume of water collected within a specific time period was

measured by two methods. · When flows were greater than one cubic centi­

meter per minute, a graduated cylinder was used. When flow rates were

less than one cubic centimeter per minute a calibrated capillary tube,

one millimeter in diameter, was used.

Aa Permeability Test Apparatus

The apparat us for the determination of the permeability of aa ba­

salt is shown schematically in Figure 2. The aa basalt sample was cored

to a cylindrical shape with a diameter of 1.8 inches and a length of

1.12 inches to fit snugly into a 2-inch cast~iron pipe . . The side of the

sample was smeared with Epoxy glue to prevent liquid from escaping. A

portion of the sample ·was then placed in the cast-iron pipe and epoxy

glue was used to seal it to the metal pipe. Carbon dioxide from a com­

pressed gas cylinder was fed into the cast-iron pipe at a head of 13.6

feet throughout the test. A pressure gauge (mercury manometer) measured

the head of the liquid applied. A rubber membrane for collecting li­

quid which may seep through was attached to the lower end of the basalt

sample.

The gas sample was transferred and stored in a calibrated buret so

that changes in the volume of gas collected could be noted. Salt water

was used in the buret to minimize gas absorption. Since the volume of

gases are dependent upon pressure and temperature, gas volume readings

were taken at nearly constant temperature and pressures regulated by

leveling the wat er height in the buret and in an attached pipette. Hence,

the gases collected in the buret would have the same pressure as the

atmosphere.

Compressed carbon dioxide was used as the liquid in permeability

determinations instead of water, which is normally used, because it

would require an excessively long time for water to seep through the

impervious aa basalt. Also l iquid evaporat ion would be a problem be­

cause of the long l ength of time of the test run and the minute amount

of sample collected.

13

~ 100mi. BURET.i AIR COLLECTED"\ I ABOVE SURRiI<;E OF WATER

-IOml PIPETTE

LEADS TO COM­PRESSED AIR

FIGURE 2: SCHEMATIC OF APPARATUS FOR THE DETERMINATIONOF THE PERMEABILITY OF AA BASALT.

CAST IRON PIPE2"0.0.; 18" ­LENGTH

I

METAL TO ROCK ICONNECTION BY IIEPOXY GLUE· -SIDE OF SAMPLE .-;1 -----1-0COATED WITHGLUE

SHOWER TO JFAUCET CONNECTOR;HELD BY WIRE .

14

Crack Apparatus

The apparatus for determining the flow of liquids, shown schema-

·t i cally in Figure 3, consisted of two cylinders, one resting upon the

other and .separated by pre-measured shims to simulate the crack. , The

lower cylinder had a hole through its axis so that fluid could be drawn

off and collected . The cylinders were held in place by a system of

plates and threaded rods . The major portions of the apparatus was made

with lucite because it is non-rusting. Steel and aluminum were tried

but were not as efficient as lucite. However, problems of warping and

creep were encountered during the experiment. Crack width and collec­

tion features of the apparatus are also shown in Figure 3. Liquids

flowing radially inward are drawn off through the hole in the lower cy­

linder.

Brass shims were used to separate the cylinders to a predetermined

crack width and were resistant . to rusting and other types of degrada­

tion for the length of the experiment. The shims were cut into small\

triangles . Three shims, each 120 degrees apart, were placed between the

cylinders with the apex of the triangular-shaped shims placed inward to

minimi ze the obstruction of flow.

The complete system of flow of liquids through thin cracks consis­

ted of essentially four separate and distinct sections: 1) feeder box

and head control; 2) retention chamber with crack apparatus; 3) saturated

flow passage; and 4) collector (Figure 4). The feeder box contained the

feeding fluid and the head controls. Since a majority of the test runs

were conducted at constant heads and for periods up to seven days, an

automatic constant head feeder operating on the principal of equali zing

pressures maintained head within 5 to 7% of the stated values.

The retention chamber which contained the crack apparatus was made

of lucite to enable visual observations of both the liquid and crack

apparatus ~ : -Leachi ng conditions, which could hilve affec,ted changes in the

liquid of the box itself were negligible. Rubber tubing attached to the

lucite tubing at the bottom of the chamber connected it to the collector.

Saturated-flow conditions eliminated surface tension. Losses due

to friction arid orifice ,controls were considerably less than would be

expected from surface tension. With low flow rates and small pas sages,

retardation of flow due to surface tension is magnified.

~ ~.... -- ...'" ..;' ..

I ,

I \...II l-2)I\ I

" ~I

...._--""

~ ~

15

FIGURE 3: PLAN AND SIDE VIEW OF CRAO< APPARATUS

COLLECTOR

FIGURE 4 : SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF COMPLETE SET -UP OFTHIN CRACK APPARATUS.

16

The flow was collected in a graduated cylinder. Its calibrations

proved to be a simple method of measuring the volunle collected.

PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS. Temperature variations were recorded because

physical properties of water, such as, viscosity and density, are depen­

dent upon temperature. Viscosity is an important parameter in the flow

of liquids. As shown in Figure 5, air temperature ranges from 27°C to

31°C, a variation of four degrees centigrade.

A comparison of temperatures in air and water is shown as Figure

6. The temperature of water is governed by the temperature of the sur­

rounding air, but variations in water temperature is considerably less

than for air, i.e., a variation of two degrees as compared to 4 degrees

centigrade for air. Water has a "dampening" effect owing to its heat

capacity.

With a change of temperature from 27°C to 31°C, the viscosity of

water decreases from .8545 centipoise to .7340 centipoise. Therefore,

there is an increase in flow of:

.8545 - .7840

.8545 x 100 =8.3%

The increase or decrease of 8.3% in flow rate is the maximum

deviation due to a 4 degree variation in temperature of the air. The

actual change in flow rate is approximately only 4 percent since there

is only about a 2 degree temperature variation in water. This does not

account for all deviation in flow rate of the test runs. Temperature

variation, therefore, has only a relatively minor role in the flow rate

deviations. Deviations will be discussed in more detail in the follow­

ing sections.

FLOWRATE MEASUREMENT. The flow rates of the seeping liquid is calcu­

lated by two means: (i) "average" and (ii) "instantaneous." The "aver­

age flow rate" is calculated by determining the volume of water collected

over a 7-hour period dependent upon the rate of flow and flow retarda­

tion. Time of f l ow measurement is plotted as the midpoint of the time

interval. "Instantaneous flow rate" is essentially the same as average

flow rate except for a shorter time period. The usual time period is

17

31

30

~ 29

~I!i 28 II

lj, , \I

~,

I ' \27 , ! ~III , ,i

, , .,26 , , I , \, , , , \

~2!5 , ~

, ,2 \III ,... I \ \ •24. ." U

23 1\ I,~

S M T W Tlt F ~ SnME IN DAYS

FlGlH: 5: WEE1Q..Y 'MlATOiI 1\1 T'OFERATU£

33

302010

28 L- ...L. -'- -'

oTIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 6· TEMPERATURE DIFFENTIALS IN AIR AND WATER IN VIBRATION FREE ENVIRONMENT.

18

no longer than 3 minutes .

HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS. Saturated-flow conditions were maintained

throughout the entire experiment. Conditions of unsaturated-flow would

have presented additional parameters and problems.

Phase I: Permeability of Aa Basalt

A literature survey revealed no previous data on the permeability

of aa basalt. The permeability of the "blue rock" portion of aa basalt

was, therefore, experimentally determined to be 2.6 x 10..4 gallons/day/ft 2

of water as shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3. CO"IPUTATI ONS FOR THE DETER1'I INAT IONOF THE PERMEABILITY OF AA

DATA:

9.t

A(_h_)L

K = PERMEABILITY IN GALS/DAY/FT2

Q = VOLUME OF GAS COLLECTED INGALLONS

A = AREA IN FT2

h =HEAD IN FEET OF WATER

L = ~TH IN FT

t = TIME IN DAYS

Q = .002~ LITERS = . 2 2 2 6 3~ GALLONS

t = 11 DAYS

A = . 0179 FT2

h = 13 .6 FT

. L = 1.12 IN = .09~ FT

KA1K = 2.2 x 10- 0 GALLONS/DAY/FT2

KwATER KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF AIRK~ = KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF WATER

KwATER = 2.6 x 10- 4 GALLQNS/DAY/FT2

Only a small volume of water seeps through the dense portions of

the aa basalt, creating a problem in measurement . Evaporation of such

19

a small volume of water prior to measurement was considered the primary

difficulty. Therefore, gas was chosen as the working liquid.

The permeability of the dense portion of aa basalt ,when using car­

bon dioxide as the percolating liquid was 2.2 x 10-6 gallons/day/ft 2

This was converted to permeability in terms of water through use of the

following equation (26).

Permeability of waterpermeability of carbon

dioxide

=

kinematic viscosity ofcarbon dioxide

kinematic viscosity ofwater

There are conflicting reports on the use of gases and liquids

in permeability determinations. Muskat stated that permeability of

porous media was constant, dependent only on structure of the medium

and independent of the nature of liquid passing through it (27). Fur­

ther, variation in the permeability of a porous media by air and liquid

was approximately the same within a range of less than one percent.

Klinkenberg noted differences in results with use of gas and li­

quid in the determination of permeability of a porous media (27). He

related a lower permeability with gas to slip action along the surface

of the boundaries.

The coefficient of permeability of aa basalt shown in Table 4

impervious material. This is comparable to an unweathered clay.

TABLE 4. MAGNITUDE OF LABORATORY COEFFICIENT OFPERMEABILITY FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOILS

Laboratory coefficient of permeability. Ks• gal/day/ft 2

From Todd's Ground Water Hydrology (28) I.~~

~.'~.:..'I

110104

ClEAN SANDS VERY FINE ~~ SILTSSoiL CLEAN MIXTURES OF MIXTURES OF S~~S UMoIEATHERED

CLAss GRAVEL CLEAN SANDS AND STRATI FIED etAYS CLAyAND GRAVELS

FL.C1HGXlD tasIFERS AxlR JlaJ IFERS IMPERVICXJS~CTERISTICS

I I I I I I I I I I I

zo .

The porosity and specific gravity of the two portions of theaa

basalt are shown in Table 5. Porosity of the clinker portion of ·aa ba- ·

salt was 50 percent, while porosity of the "blue rock" varied between

7.7 and 10.4 percent.

TABLE ·5. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AA BASALT

BLUE ROCK

CLINKER

POROSITY

7.7-10.1+

50.0

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

2.78

2.29

Phase II: Verification of the Hagen-Poiseuille Deviation of the

R~dial Flow of Liquid Through Thin Cracks

The measurement of radial flow through thin cracks was conducted

for the purpose of evaluating operational competency of the "thin crack

apparatus" and comparing flow rate to that theoretically derived by

Hagen-Poiseuille assumptions. The Hagen-Poiseuille derivation of radial

flow through thin cracks is

3.14 (Pl-PZ) (t3)Q = -6- r Zu log -

; "i

Q = f l ow rate

Pl-PZ = difference in pressure

t = thickness of crack

u = viscosity

r Z = radius of outer diameter

r l = radius of inner diameter.

eq. (1)

This relation is derived by equating the inducing force (usually a dif­

ference in pressure) and the resisting viscous force. Essentially, under

21

a constant head, the flow rate is proportional to the third power of the

crack thickness. The major limitation governing this derivation is that

the flow must be laminar.

The flow rate measurements were recorded with various heads, crack

widths, fluids, crack media, and radii. A summary of the test runs is

found in Figures 7 to 11.

The data plotted on log-log paper in Figure 7 exhibited a straight

line relationship. The slope of the line for all three radii was 0.806.

The slope of the line should be 1.000 if it adheres to eq. (1), the

Hagen-Poiseuille law of radial flow through thin cracks. Other things

being equal, the flow rate is directly proportional to the first power

of the difference in pressure, herein, called head.

The mean slope of the lines of all experimental runs was 0.9.

Wentworth, in similar studies, reported a slope of 0.85 with a range

of 0.55 to 1.2. All except one of the test runs in this study has a

slope of less than one.

According to eq. (1), flow rate is inversely proportional to the

log of the outer radius of the cylinder. Therefore, the larger the ra­

dius of cylinder, the smaller the flow. As seen in Figure 7, therefore,

the 1 1/8-inch diameter cylinder should theoretically exhibit the largest

flow at any given head. However, this does not occur. A similar devia­

tion is also shown in Figure 9.

Figures 8, 10, and 11 appear to adhere to the Hagen-Poiseuille

derivation, that is, the smallest cylinder exhibits the largest flow

at any given head and crack width while the largest cylinder exhibits the

smallest flow. According to a theoretically-derived flow rate ratio de­

termined by the logarithm of the ratio of the outer radius and the inner

radius, the flow· rate of the three cylinders (3-3/4", 2-3/4", and 1-1/8")

should theoretically be in the ratio of 1.5 to 2.4 to 2~7, respectively,

at any specific head and crack width. The inner radius of all three cy­

linders was 1/4-inch.

The test runs conducted with 1ucite as crack media are shown as

Figures 7 to .9; tests conducted on aa basalt are shown as Figures 10 and

11 . A comparative study between the test runs using the two crack me­

dia revealed no significant differences.

The experimentally-established flow rate and theoretical flow rate

shown in Tables 6 and 7. There appeared to be no established trend between

22

30 40DATA: DATA:

MEOlA: LUCITE MEDIA: UJOTEUQUID: TAP WATER UQU~ TAP WATERCRACK WIDTH: 0 .01 INCH CRACK WIDTH: 11.015 IHOl

LEGEND:LEGEND:

• 33/4• 3314 20 C) 23/4C) 2314 • I 1/8

• I V810

~(,)IIIVI 51 10......J~

;;.~0:

~III

5 !iIII a:

Ii"!i :it 5a: 9~

u,o.~

9u.

Q=KH" O=KH"

6 10 20 'l()

HEAD IN CM.

FIGURE 7: EXPERIMENT-FLOW WITHOUT CLOGGINGI

2 5 10 20 40

HEAD IN CM.

FIGURE 8 : EXPERIMENT -FLOW WITHOUT Q..OGGING.

DATA: DATA:MEDIA: LUCITE MEDIA : AA BASALTUQUID: TAP WATER 5.0

LIQUID: TAP WATER1.07 CRACK WIDTH: 0 .001 INCHES CRACK: 0 .01 INCHES

LEGEND: LEGEND:

• 33/4 • ,a 3 3/4

. c) 23/4 C) 2114

• I 118 • I 3/4

QaKH"

0 .03O=KH" o 2.0

IIIVI

a ....VI 5....

~..J::Ii

;!; ~ 1.0<t

III a: Ii""...« 0.01 ~ 1.0 . aO.1la:~D.6~

9 asu.

0 .006 ;;'O.S

0 .002

10 20 30 400 .15

2 3 I.Q 30 40HEAD IN CM. HEAD IN CM.

FIGURE 9 : EXPERIMENT- FLOW WITHOUT CLOGGING FIGURE 10: EXPERIMENT-FLOW WITHOJT CLOGGING.

23

the actual and theoretical flow rates. Flow rate of sewage was found

to be less than that of water flowing through an identical crack width

(Table 7). Most of the test runs indicated that the actual flow rates

were less than theoretical. Test runs for this phase were done within

four hours. Temperature variations were not significant.

TABLE 6. FLOW RATE VARIATION WITH HEAD FOR LUCITE

DATA : LUCITE WITH TAP WATERCRACK WIDTH = 0.005"

I. 3-3/4"

II . 2-3/4"

III. 1-1/8"

ml/sec

H (em) Q (MEASURED) Q (THEORETICAL)

' 7 0.33 0.2814 0.63 0.5721 0.88 0.8528 1.55 1.14

7 0.40 0.3214 0.64 0.6421 0.95 0.9628 1. 21 1. 28

7 0.48 0.5114 0. 84 1.0221 1.11 1.5328 1.41 3.02

TABLE 7. FLOW RATE VARIATION WITH HEAD FOR AA BASALT

DATA: AA BASALT WITH WATER AND SEWAGECRACK WIDTH = 0.005"

I. 3-3/4"

I I. 2-1/4"

I I I. 1-3/4"

ml/see

H(em) Q (THEORETICAL) WATER SEWAGE

7 0.284 0.127 0.12514 0.570 0.286 0.20221 0.850 0.410 0.34028 1.140 0.570 0.480

.7 0.349 0.16U 0.14714 0.697 0.340 0.27021 1.040 0.520 0.39028 1. 390 0.650 0.470

7 0.393 0.770 0.55014 0.785 1.150 1.02071 1.180 1.620 1.43028 1. 570 2.020 1.870

"i

24

Deviations of flow from Hagen-Poiseuille's law are not uncommon.

As early as 1898, King (28) reported instances where flow rate through

soil increased more .than proportionally with hydraulic gradient. Von

Engelhardt and Tunn (29) cited a number of instances in which flow

through clay-bearing sandstones increased more rapidly with hydraulic

gradient than predicted by the Hagen-Poiseuille derivation. Water be­

having as a non-Newtonian liquid whose viscosity depends upon the shear­

ing force was cited as the cause. Kemp~r proposed (30) that deviations

in flow may be attributed to adsorbed cations in the electrical double

layer surrounding clay particles and exerting a resistance to flow.

Low (31) has stated that deviant behavior may be attributed to a quasi­

crystalline adsorbed water structure. This explanation was also given

by Wentworth (19). Olsen (32) attributed deviation in flow to improper

measuring apparatus. However, all of these references were associated

with work in porous media and not a thin crack channel.

Another possibility for the deviation in results of the flow rates

obtained in this study was the limitations of Hagen-Poiseuille's deriva­

tion of radial flow through thin cracks. The governing limitations of

the Hagen-Poiseuille law is the occurrence of ·l ami nar flow . . It could

not be proven that laminar flow existed in the. present experiment.

Reynolds' number (33) has been used as a parameter in determining

the existence of laminar flow. Reynolds, in a study of flow of liquids

through pipes, found cr i t i.ca I values at .1000 to 1100. Todd (26) reported

critical Reynolds' values 'occurred between Ito 10 in flow through sand.

For flow in porous media, the diameter term should be that of the average

pores, but sand grain diameter is an acceptable substitute.

By subst~t~ting thickness of .the crack for the diameter term, the

Reynolds' number in this study varied from 22 to 436. For each geomet­

rical structure, new critical values must be established. No data on

the critical values of Reynolds' number could be located nor could the

critical .va.lue be established.

When plotting flow rates and ~rack width on log-log paper at spe­

cific heads of water and radius of the outer cylinder, the slope of the

conn~cted P?int~, derived by the Hagen-Poiseuille relationship for radial

flow through thin cracks, is 3. This may be derived by re-writing equa­

tion (1) to:

Let K' = 3.14-6-

(PI - P2)u log x2

rl

eq. (2)

eq. (3)

25

As shown in Figure 12, the three points did not form a straight

line relationship. The slope of the line connecting the points was not

the 3 theorized by the Hagen-Poiseuille derivation, but varied from point

to point; the slope of the first two points was 0. 27 and that of the

following points was 3.5. When this data was plotted on semi-log paper,

using as parameters flow rate and ratio of the radii, the connected

points did not form a straight line relationship (Figure 13), contrary

to the Hagen-Poiseuille derivation.

Defects of Thin Crack Apparatus. After reviewing the data of the Hagen­

Poiseuille derivation of radial flow through thin cracks, it was con­

cluded that the apparatus was not functioning properly. A microscopic

examination of the crack apparatus was made and three typical views

are shown in Figure 14.

When the lucite and aa basalt were measured with a micrometer, de­

viations in the thickness of both crack media were noted. Measurements

were taken at three sections of the lucite (outer, middle, and center)

at 90 degrees intervals are given in Table 8. The stated width of the

lucite was 0.500 inch, however, the thickness was not uniform.

As expected, similar measurements made on the aa basalt sheet ex­

hibited greater dev iations, owing to the difficulty in the cutting of

the aa basalt core (Table 8). There was an increase in thickness at one

section of the 3-3/4 cylinder; from 0.5432 to 0.5587 inch, giving a de­

viation of 0.0155 inch. Since most test runs were conducted through

crack thickness of less than 0.015 inch, the actual thickness was more

than doubled.

The non-uniformity of crack media plates was a contributing factor

in deviations from the Hagen-Poiseuille derivation. Crack media plates

tilted and rendered thread rods and bolts ineffective as a method of

retaining the desired crack width.

26

DATA:MEDIA' LUCITEL10UID: WATER

" 1 1/ 8

6 .0DATA' O' Kt '

MEDIA: AA 8ASALT Q=Ktr. H-21

LIOUID' TAP WATER30CCRACK: D.OOS INCH

LEGEND' H-14• "3 3/4

3.0 e 2 1/4

• I 3/4H-7

OcKH"1.00

uwen

ld<,

050..Jen ~-, "-0.93..J

1.0 ~::I

i!: w~

~n:

~

~ $'." 9~05

lL0 10

1.0

/O.S0 .06

0.1 '-- --'-_...L---'- .L- -'

3 6 B 10 20 40HEAD IN CM.

FIGURE II : EXPERIMENT-FLOW WITHOUT CLOGGING.

0 0 1 '-::-:-- - ....L_ _ --L. --..l.__-..J

0.001 0 005 0 01 0 .03THICKNESS IN CM.

FIGURE 12: EXPERIMENT-FLOW WITHOUT CLOGGINGVARIATION OF FI.1J'N RATE VS. CRACK WIUTH.

40

3.0

2.0

DATA:MEDIA' AA BASALTL10UID: SEWAGECRAQe 0.015 INCHES

[....

~-

:;. 0 .01 0.02

. .5 5.0 QM!:

~,~~ib ~MMALTCRACK: 0.005 INCHES

003 0.04 0.05

3.0

2.0

1.0 '-------'-------'-------'-------'o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

1/0 IN SEC/ML

FIGURE 13: EXPERIMENT-FLOW WITHOUT CLOGGING.

27

-ta) YIELDING OF CRACK MEDIA tb) TILTING OF CRACK MEDIA te) IDEAL SPACING

FIGURE 14: VIEW OF CRACK AS SEEN THROUGH MICROSCOPE.

TABLE 8. THICKNESS DIMENSION ·OF CYLINDER

28

Phase III: Retardation of Flow of Non-biodegradableLiquids Through Thin Cracks

Test runs were conducted with aa basalt and lucite as crack media

under conditions of varying head, crack thickness, and cylinder radii

with liquids that were primarily non-biodegradable. Three test trials

were performed simultaneously, maintaining identical head and crack

thickness and varying only radii of the three cylinders. The diameters

of the cylinders were 3-3/4, 2-3/4, and 1-1/8 inches. Flow rate of the

2-3/4 inch cylinder was reduced from 11 milliliters per minute to a

terminal rate of 3 milliliters per minute (Figure 15). The remaining

two test runs had lower flow rates initially but their terminal flow

rates were also approximately 3 milliliters per minute. Flow-rate

reductions for all three test runs occurred within the first ten hours.

wentworth (8, 12, 19) reported flow-rates r eductions of 1/100 to

1/1000 of the initial rates within 10 to 100 hour~. Meyerott and Mar­

genau (23) stated flow rates were reduced to 1/5 of the original. In

this experiment, reduction was to 1/3 of the initial flow rate (Figure

18). Other test runs revealed the terminal flow rate variations from

7/8 to 1/100 of the initial rates.

Most of the test runs (including those not shown in Figure 15 ex­

hibited a strong tendency toward retardation of flow in the initial

stages and a moderate and systematic reduction in the latter phases un­

til dynamic equilibrium is reached. With similar variables, there was

a tendency for all three test runs to approach the same constant termi­

nal velocity.

Figure 16 records a no-flow condition of the 1-1/8 inch cylinder

that was expected to have the greatest flow. Wentworth (19) reported

instances where identical conditions existed when a positive head was

present in similar studies. Miller and Low (34) noted existence of a

"threshold gradient" in the flow of water through clays. Threshold gra­

dient was defined as the minimum gradient needed to induce flow through

porous media.

Throughout the experiment wide fluctuations in flow rates were

observed. A notable fluctuation is shown in Figure 17. The greatest

fluctuation in the two trial runs occurred at the same time. Wentworth

29

12r~.

~~~CRACK~ o.oas~H- IO HIICHESI~

' . 3 3M\ G 23M

9 ,_ 1 ve~"'!ll!IF!!EE

\ .\\\\\\\\\

___-._--4-------...3

0.25

0.20

z:i.......J:i

z- 0.15III

~ee

0.10

0 .05

~,

MEOlA , LUCITEWOUlD' TAP WATERCRACK WIDTH' 0 .00l1NOiESH=7 1/4 INCHESUEGEND'. 33/4o 2 3/4

FUlW OF 11/ 8 WAS TOO LDW TO MEASUREVIBRATION FREE

00 ro ~n ME IN HOURS

FIGURE 15: FLOW RATE VARIATION OF WATER THROUGHSIMULATED LUelTE CRACK.

oL- -L L.- ~

o 10 20 30n ME IN HOURS

FIGURE 16: FLOW RATE VARIAnON OF WATER THROUGHSIMULATED LUCITE . CRACK.

8188/6815

32Q&A'L10UID' SEWAGEH= 7 INCHESLEGEND'

• 1 1/8() 2114

16 • 3 3/4

?;::E.......J::E

~8

l1J

~a:

~LL

4

8/7riME

FIGURE 17 : FLOW RATE CHANGES DUE 10 UNKNOWN ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES.

o

30

(19) also reported similar deviations and attributed them to "unknown

environmental causes." Temperature variation was not the sole cause of

the fluctuation. The maximum range in temperature was 5 degrees centi­

grade and accounted for only an eight percent change in flow. Furthermore,

a ,sinusoidal variation of the flow rate over a period of five days needs

to be evident since the temperature at the test site was affected by

diurnal changes. No explanation could be established for two of the

three cylinders exhibiting pronounced variations in flow. Although Went­

worth professed the cause to be "unknown environmental elements," this

does not explain why only one of the three test trials was not affected

since all three were kept in the same laboratory.

Flow through aa basalt was sharply reduced within five hours in

contrast to retardation of flow through lucite (Figure 18). Wentworth

(19) also reported greater loss of flow through lapped basalt than with

glass media. Meyerott and Margenau (23) suggested that the rougher sur­

face accounted for the greater retardation rate. The retardation rate

of aa basalt was greater than that of lucite although the initial flow

rate of the former was greater. Also aa basalt had a lesser terminal

flow rate than lucite.

Precautionary measures were taken throughout the experiment against

external causes which might interfere with the flow rate retardation

owing to its sensitivity to external disturbances. Effects of a jarring

action on the retardation process of the flow of liquids through thin

cracks are shown in Figure 19. After a period of 25 hours, a simulated

jarring action caused a 100% increase over the then current flow rate.

After the jarring action retardation proceeded at a slower rate. The

retardation rate after the jarring action was 0.47 of the original re­

tardation rate.

The flow rate after the jarring action does not exceed the initial

flow rate. Greater increases of flow can be attained by jarring the

flow apparatus in the early retardation stages. Further, thicker cracks

and higher heads were found to be more susceptible to an increase in

flow.

Retardation of flow has been attributed to electrolytic forces and

the presence of electrolytes or the growth of microbial organisms [Went­

worth (8, 12, 19) and Allison (35). Various liquids with approximately

the same viscosity were tested and the results are shown in Figure 20.

31

~:

L10UID: .TAP WATER. CRACK WIDTH: 0.003

H=7 INCHESr =I 3 /4LEGEND:

• AA BASALT

() LUCITE

15

3

• ••o 0 10 20 30 40

TIME IN HOURS

FI GURE IS: COMPARISON 'OF FLOW OFAA BASALT AND LUCITE AS CRACK MEDIAUNDER IDENTICAL CONDITIONS.

12

2~<,.J:::;;

9;;;

w~a:'

~· 0. .J

u,

Zor DATA:MEDIA: W CITEL10UID' TAP WATERCRACK WIDTH: 0.003H=3 112 INCHESr =2 314 INCHES

1.5

;;;:::;;::J .:::;;;;:w 1.0 60 '

~----------,

Ia: I

~I148Iu,

I0.5

TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 19: EFFECTS OF JARRING ACTION ON THE RETARDAT ION OF FLOWTHROUGH THIN CRACK.

oo 25 50 75

32

Tap water was used as a control. Distilled water which contained few

electrolytes was used to demonstrate the influence of e l ect r ol ytes on

the retardation process. Tap water with an addition of 10 mg/l chlorine

demonstrated the effects of inhibiting microbial growth on the retardation

process.

Although all three flows exhibited similar retardation tendencies,

tap water and chlorinated water as liquids exhibit almost identical trends.

Distilled water exhibited a retardation rate which was considerably less

than either tap water or chlorinated water. The temperature of the dis­

tilled water was seven degrees centigrade higher than for tap water, a

possible reason for the higher initial flow rate and the prolonged high­

flow period. Terminal flow rates of all three liquids are nearly the

same. Thus, it appears that electrolytes and growth of microbial organ­

isms do not influence retardation of flow to any great extent in non­

biodegradable liquids.

Phase IV: Retardation of Flow of Organic-RichLiquid Through Thin Cracks

Two sets of trial runs were conducted in this phase of the experi­

ment. The first set of runs involved four trial runs of liquid through

a simulated lucite crack. The second set consisted of three trial runs

through a simulated aa basalt crack. Clarified sewage was used as the

organic-rich liquid.

Physical and Chemical Parameters of Organic-Rich Liquid.

Physical and chemical parameters chosen to indicate changes in the

character of the organic-rich liquid in its passage through the thin

crack were COD; BOD; nitrogen in the form of protein, ammonia, and

nitrates; turbidity; total and organic carbon; bacterial .number s ; pH;

oxidation reduction potential; and viscosity. The quantity of sample

available for testing determined the selection of parameters of evalua­

tion. At the low flows, only small sample volumes were available. Fur­

ther, procedures for the tests were modified to accomodate the small

volume of samples available.

Nitrate , Ammonia, COD, BOD. Test procedures followed for the

determination of COD, BOD, nitrate, and ammonia were as described in

33

Standard Methods (36).

Turbi dity. The extremely small amount of sample available precluded

the use of procedures for the determination of turbidity in Standard

Methods (36). A properly calibrated nephelometer was used throughout

the study.

Protein. : Protein concentration in waste water is not a common

parameter in sanitary engineering; ammonia nitrogen is normally used as

an indicator of protein concentration. Woods' method (37) for protein

determination was used since it is deemed superior for routine analysis

of waste water and requires a small amount of sample, according to Fox

(38) (see AppendiX B).

Total and Organic Carbon. Total and organic carbon were deter­

mined by the use of ,the Beckman Carbonaceous analyzer.

Bacterial Count. The direct counting method ,of Breed as modified

by Burbank and Cookson (39) for use with sewage was used in determining

the number of bacteria in solution. This technique, although not as

accurate as plate counts of viable :organisms, isa satisfactory method

of obtaining the total number of organisms present (see Appendix A).

pH and Oxi dation Reduction Potenti al Measurement s . A Beckman Ex­

pandomatic pH meter and a Photovolt pH meter, Model 125, were used for

pH determination. The pH meters were calibrated with pH 7 and pH 4 ref­

erence buffer solutions before each set.of samples was tested.

qxidation-Requction Potential measurements were taken with the

Photovolt pH meter, Model 125. The ORP meter, calibrated by a method

cited by Kehoe (40) and Jones (41) was calibrated before each set of

samples was , tested.

Vi scos i t y. The viscosity of the various liquids that were tested

during the study of. flow of liquids through thin cracks was measured by

the use of RGI "Simplified Falling Ball Viscosimeter."

Flow of Organic-Rich Liquid Through Simulated Lucite Crack .

In the first set of trial runs the head of liquid was set at seven

inches with a crack thickness of 0.003 inch. The diameter of the four

lucite cylinders were 3-3/4, 2-3/4, 1-3/4, and 1-1/8 inches.

The clarified sewage wai seeded with five milliliter per liter of

settled sewage because bacterial numbers of the organic-r1ch liquid were

red~ced in the clarification protess. This inoculation prevented a lag ;.~" " .,Ii

34

period in the growth of bacteria and hastened the degradation of the

organic-rich liquid necessitated by the amount of liquid and limited time.

The flow rate characteristics of two of the four trial runs of the

first series are shown i n Figures 21 and 22. All four trials exhibited

similar characteristics.

The flow pattern of tap water, used as a control, can be compared

with that of the organic-rich liquid. A comparison between the flow pat­

terns reveal initial flow rates of tap water to be higher than that for

the organic-rich liquid. The retardation of flow of tap water appeared

to proceed at a faster rate than that of the organic-rich liquid. Tap

water flow reached a nearly constant rate within a period of 20 hours.

In contrast, retardation rate of clarified sewage exhibited a

slower· rate of retardation. Furthermore, there appeared to be a conti­

nuing decrease of flow. At the end of the trial run (100 hours), the

flow of the clarified sewage was still decreasing.

A jarring action purposely initiated 90 hours after the trial run

had begun appeared to have no significant influence in flow rate of the

organic-rich liquid. This was contrary to the previous experiment with

flow of tap water through thin cracks. It was concluded that retardation

of flow in latter phases of the test run was due to suspended solids

which are, in part, products of microbial metabolism and growth.

Several physical changes occurred in the "thin crack apparatus"

chamber. Initially, the organic-rich liquid was a clear liquid with only

a tinting of yellow possibly attributable to the clarification coagulant.

After 20 hours, a visual observation revealed a clarification process

within the chamber. Thereafter, for a period of 15 hours, the liquid's

colo~ changed from pale yellow to a dark yellow-black. Up to this period,

visual observation indicated the liquid to be free from suspended matter.

After forty-five hours, floc particles of brownish suspended matter ap­

peared and settled and were present for the duration of the trial run.

The five parameters (bacterial numbers, organic carbon, turbidity,

BOD, ammonia) indicated no significant physical and chemical changes of

the effluent attributable to the thin crack. The differences between

the effluent and control in properties were very small and may be due to

sampling and/or techniques in the determination procedure.

Bacterial numbers were still increasing at the termination of the

100-hour trial run (Figure 23). A lag period in the bacterial growth

35

403010

DATA,MEOlA: AA BASAlJCRACK WIDTH, 0.003 IHO£SH: 7 INCHESr: I ~14

~

• TAP WATER- T:2.5C() OlSTIJ.ED WATER - T:~2C

• TAP WATER WrTH 10mgll CtUlRll£- T:25(;15

5

z~-,..J:::l:

z- 10..,!cia:

20TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 20: FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS THROUGH IDENTICAL CRACK WIDTH.

20..,~a:

10

DATA'MEDIA: LUCITECRACK WIDTH' 0.003 INt.HESH: 7 INCHESr: I 3/4 INCHESLEGEND'

• WATER() SEWAGE

..... ~)---- •• ':~~~ATED

100

WATER THROUGH SIMU-

36

20 rT

16

~... 4

o

Qill :MEDIA : LUCITECRACK WIDTH: 0 .003 INCHESH= 7INCH ESr = 2 3/4 INCHESLEGEND• WATER

C> SEWAGE

EXTRAPOLATE

JARRING

o 20 40 60 80 100 120TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 22 : FLOW RATE CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE AND WATER THROUGHSIMULATED -LUCITE CURVE.

8060

_-C>-------- --.- -«>- - - - -- - - ----_-- - --_-II-~-__<C _--

40TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 23: VARIATION IN BACTERIAL GROWTH

60LEGEND:

• CONTROL

Q 40C> 23/4

• I 1/ 8X

..J~ 20.....dz~ 0rn 60a:: L EGEND:Wen • CONTROL~

C>:> 40 33/4Z

..J • I 3/4

<iEw 20>-u<en

00 20

100 [

. ~~---=-===I"~-~

enwuz .i'!>-:EV> 60~ 100a::>->­zwuffi 80ll. ---;..----

_ _C>

.------::- - .-=::::- - - -- --

- - - -.::-:.=--....-:~

- - ----«l-

6060

o 20 4 0

TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 24 : VARIATION IN TURBIDITY

80

37

pattern in the first 15 was also evident.

The turbidity of the liquid corresponded to visual observation;

initially decreasing then increasing after 15 hours (Figure 24). Turbi­

dity did not correlate with suspended solids concentration, but was re­

lated to bacterial numbers.

The remaining plots (Figures 25 to 27) indicate utilization of

organic matter by microorganisms. BOD, organic carbon, and ammonia ni­

trogen indicate varying degrees of utilization efficiency of the organics.

A large amount of utilization occurred during the lag growth phase of

bacteria.

At the termination of flow of organic-rich liquid through the lu­

cite crack, it was observed that the top of the "thin crack apparatus"

and the floor of the retention chamber were covered with a thin brownish

mat of slimy matter which produced no noticeable odor. Brownish matter

was also observed in the crack of the transparent lucite plates. It was

clumped together and seemed to have a "streak-like" arrangement, but the

streaks were not uniform in si ze or position with a concentration of a

few large streaks at one section of the cylinder and thin streaks at

another.

Quantitative data on solids in each of the four cracks is shown

as Table 9 . .Tab l e 7 indicates variable amounts of solids per unit

area in the cracks. No significant relation exists between solids

concentration and crack area since the amount per unit area varied

from 10.2 mg/inch2 to 68.3 mg/inch 2 .

TABLE 9. VARIATION IN SOLIDS BETWEEN CRACK AT THETERMINATION OF TRIAL RUN

DATA : MEDIUM : LUCITE-SIMULATED CRACKCRACK WIDTH : .00 3;'LIQUID: SETTLED AND CLARIFIED SE~/AGE

DIJIMETER OF SOLIDS, DRY SOLI DSI AREACYLINDER mg mg/ i nches 2

3-3/4" 180.00 16.2

2-3/4 " .66 28.2

1- 3/4" 160.00 68.3

1-1/8 " 10.00 10.2

The Flow of Organic-Rich Liquid Through Simulated Aa Basalt Crack.

The second trial in the study of flow retardation of organic-rich

38

80

80

-- -- --:''":.---=1

-::..........- -

6040

TIME IN HOURS

20

-=:::::-.:::-_- ......._-:...,,---..:!:==:...._-C"'..:"'_-:._

o40

~60E~

~m 40!i 80uu

~-Cl

l5 60

FIGURE 25: VARIATION IN ORGANIC CARBON

80

40~20

::::'"E~

060

00m

40

20

00 20 40 60 80

TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 26 : VARIATION IN BOD

......--------- ------------.

<IZo:li:li<I

1016

~--

14

12

100 20 40 60

TI ME IN DAYS

FIGURE 27 : VARIATION IN AMMONIA

80

39

liquid involved the flow of liquid through aa basalt crack simulating

field conditions.

In evaluating the first set of trial runs, it was observed that

the microbial population was still increasing. It was felt that a com­

plete cycle of microbial growth (lag, log, stationary, and endogenous

respiration phases) was needed to evaluate simulated field conditions.

Therefore, instead of an addition of 5 mIll dosage of seeding, 25 mIll

was added.

There were similar flow patterns in the second series of tests

as compared to the first series (Figure 28) . The flow of tap water

through the thin crack became nearly constant after 50 or 60 hours.

The terminal flow rate was 3.5 ml/min. The flow of chemically-clarified

sewage continued to decrease and appeared to be headed towards a "no­

flow" condition. The last recorded flow rate was 0.5 (milliliter per

minute) after 190 hours of flow.

A mechanical disturbance at 160 hours did not significantly in­

crease flow. This reaction was similar to that of prior test runs.

Flow of organic-rich liquid through aa basalt was retarded at a

faster rate than through lucite. Generally, rate of terminal flow was

lower for any given period through aa basalt. This is attributable to

both the physical character of aa basalt which tends to retard flow and

the increased microbial content of the second trial.

No significant differences in quantity of bacteria between con­

trols and effluents were recorded (Figure 29). Hence, it appears that

the thin crack does not influence the quality of the organic-rich li­

quid or the bacterial population. The bacterial growth curve exhibited

the log, stationary, and endogenous respiration phases of growth. The

endogenous respiration i n the latter stages of testing when bacterial

numbers remained constant is plotted in Figure 32. The variation in

turbidity also indicated no significant differences between the control

and the effluent (Figure 30). Turbidity decreased only in the initial

stages of the experiment. It continued to increase until equilibrium

was reached. The turbidity characteristic curve was the inverse of the

bacterial numbers plot.

The remaining physical and chemical parameters (organic carbon,

BOD, and ammonia) also indicated no significant difference between the

control and the effluent (Figures 31 to 33), hence, further substantiating

40

~ffi 'MEDIA. AA BASALTCRACK WIDTW 0003 INCHESH' 7 INCHESr ' 2 1/ 4 INCHESTERMINAL VELOCITY :WATER' 3 .5 ml /minSEWAGE '0.05 ml/mlnLE GEND:

• WATER() SEWAGE

'" 60~E~

w 40tia:~

9u,

20

oo 50 150

JARRING

..Qx 100..J:l:....oz;;;

~ 0~ 200::!:::JZ

..J«0::wI-~ 100lD

l,!&U:!.D• CONTROLo 2 1/4

• I 3 /4

U_~!lg

• CONTROL() 3 3 / 4

15012510050 75

TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 29 : VARIATION IN BACTERIAL NUMBERS

25oo

10° 1

~ 80z~I-~

~ 0~ 10 0l-

I-ZWU

~ 8 011.

60

---_::!

Al-------------,. "

100 150TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 30: VARIATION IN TURBIDITY

41

150

•

---

10 0

....()........",.,,,,,,,,,,,,-

........- -1"'.- _....

50

80 r60

40

..J.... 20to;l;

:o?:z 00 80m

'"<lu

60

40

20

00

TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 31: VARIATION IN ORGANIC CARBON

150

---

10 0

---------- ---()

50

I------------------------=...:=-------J

oo

80 r60

40

..J.... 20to;l;

:o?:

00m

TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 32 : VARIATION IN BOO

13

II..J....to;l;

:o?: 913

Szo::E;l;<l

I I

9o 50 100 150

TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 33 : VARIATION IN AMMONIA

42

the conclusion that thin cracks do not influence the quality of organic­

rich liquid. The COD criterion, a common parameter of organic strength

in sanitary engineering data, was excluded because a strong correlation

was developed with the simpler, more rapid organic carbon test (Figure

34). There is an arithmetic relationship between organic carbon and

COD, but no such relationship was found between BOD and organic carbon.

A comparison between the variation of the flow rate and bacterial

growth is shown in Figure 35. The greatest rate of retardation occurs

in the first five hours of the trial run. There was little or no growth

in bacterial numbers. The cause of retardation at the initial phase of

the test run was not due to suspended matter of synthesized microbial

products but to unknown and still undefined causes.

It was concluded that retardation of flow in the latter phases of

the experiment was due in part to microbial slime. This may be substan­

tiated by observing Figure 35. There appears to be a substantial in­

crease in the bacterial population and, thereafter, a reduction. The

growth and death of the bacterial population resulted in the formation

of suspended solids. These suspended solids (slime) were products of

synthesis and metabolism and bacterial bodies.

The organic carbon content of the percolant was reduced by micro­

bial population. During the endogenous respiration phase of growth,

there was also a decline in organic carbon consumption. The endogenous

respiration phase occurred even though organic . carbon content was high

(Figure 36).

After 10 to 15 hours of flow brown floc particles of microbial

matter appeared in the previously clear, yellow-tinted liquid and were

observed clinging to the thin crack apparatus and the floor of the re­

tention chamber. Over the next 36 hours, there was an increase in the

amount of microbial matter. Furthermore, microbial matter was not only

on the floor of the retention chamber, but it also became dispersed

throughout the liquid which was turbid and dark. There appeared to be

more brown flocculent particles in this test run than the first. There

was a sudden change in the color of the liquid after 48 hours of flow.

Within the following four-hour period, it changed to black leaving no

trace of the original yellowish color. There appeared to be a "clari­

fying action" with retention afte~ the sudden change in color. Not

only did the floc of brown matter coagulate and settle, but the color

43

•

200..J •....'" •::E

~

00u

100

OL---'----''------'----'o 20050 100 150

CARBON IN MG/L

FIGURE 34: CORRELATION OF CARBONCONCENTRATION AND COD.

DATA:MEDIA : AA BASALTCRACK WIDTH : 0.003 IDESH'7INCHESQ..ARIFIED SEWAGELEGEND :

• FLOW RATE

() BACTERIAL NUMBERS

150

~)(

..J

"....g 10 0

~

'"a:wm

"::>z..J<l

5 50...U<lm

80

zi......J::E

~

w... 40<la:

~0..J....

r!?

/ \/ \

/ \I \

/ \I \

I \I \

I \I \

/ \I \

/ \\\\\\\\\\\()..----------«l

aL ~_~:::~~====-w

150a

50 100TI ME IN HOURS

FIGURE 35 : COMPARISON BETWEEN THE VARIATION OFFLOW RATE AND BACTER IAL GROWTH.

o

150

LEGEND:

• CARBON CONTENT

() BAC TE RIAL NUMBERS

o 50 10 0TI ME IN HOURS

FIGURE 36: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE VARIATION OFCARBON AND BACTERIA~ NUMBERS .

120 r

~ 80<:>::E

o

~

'"::; 100m:IE::>z..J

~ 50w...U<lm

200.2)(

..J:IE 150....0z

44

of the liquid also lightened.

This "clarifying action" was continuous. The black color was still

evident at the end of the test run and concentrations of black material

were found on the retention chamber floor and the top of the "thin crack

apparatus." A separation of the cylinders revealed black material that

resembled graphite between the cracks, but it was slimy and contained

22.9% organic material. There was no noticeable odor. The residual

changed from black to red after it was heated for 20 minutes at 600°C.

The black matter was believed to be ferrous sulfide but analysis

was difficult because ferrous sulfide is unstable in the presence of

oxygen. When hydrochloric acid was added to the black matter, a rotten

egg odor was given off, indicating that the black precipitate was prob­

ably ferrous sulfide.

Koizumi (17) reported the formation of a layer of ferrous sulfide

on the sides and floor of the model lysimeter in an investigation of

cesspool infiltration rates. Studies by McGauhey and Winneberger (42)

also indicated that septic tank failures were due to formation of ferrous

sulfide in septic tanks under anaerobic conditions and were partly respon­

sible for the clogging of soil.

It was concluded that retardation of flow in this study may be

primarily attributed to biological factors and clogging by ferrous sul­

fide.

Settled sewage was left standing and the increase in sulfide con­

centration was noted (Figure 37). There appeared to be gradual increase

until the fifth day. Beyond the fifth day, the concentration of sulfide

remained constant at 10 mg/l for the duration of the 12-day run. Thus,

it was possible for ferrous sulfide to form as a result of degradation

of organics in the sewage.

The flow rate-t ime pattern was plotted on log-log paper. The re­

lationship for a period of hours appeared to form a straight line, but

abruptly changed its slope. The patterns were identical for water and

organic-rich liquid (Figure 38). The straight line relationship suggests

retardation to be proportional to the volume of flow. This was suggested

by Meyerott (23), and was furth er substantiated when a stagnation period

did not cause any reduction of flow upon its resumption.

Koizumi (17) reported simil ar results in a study of infiltration

rate of various Hawaiian soils. He stated that the abrupt changes in

45

20NOTE : PACIFIC PALISAOE SEWAGE KEPT IN OPEN BOTTLE.

3 6 9 12TIME IN DAYS

FIGURE '57: VARIATION IN SULFIDE CONCENTRATION WITH TIME.

500

100

Z:E 50-,..J::E

10

05

OATA:MEDIA : LUCITECRACK WIDTH :O.OO3 INCHESH'7" 3 3/4LEGEND :

• WATER

e SEWAGE

0, Kt-n

5030100 1

10 20TIME IN HOURS

FIGURE 38 ; FLOW RATE RETARDATION OF WATER AND SEWAGEVERSUS TIME.

46

slope indicated various states of infiltration, reduction, and clogging.

Wentworth (19) reported a straight line relationship when the time-flow

rate data was plotted on semi-log paper and attributed the abrupt changes

in slope to unknown environmental changes.

47

CONCLUSION

Phase I: Permeability of Aa Basalt

The following were conclusions derived from this phase of the

experiment:

1) The permeability of the "blue rock" portion of the aa basalt

2.6 x 10- 4 gallons/day/ft 2 of water. The experimentally­

derived permeability data of "blue rock" indicated that the

media is impervious, similar to unweathered clays.

2) The porosity of the "blue rock" portion of the aa basalt varies

from 7.7 to 10.4 percent.

3) The clinker portion of aa basalt has a 50 percent porosity.

Phase II: Verification of the Hagen-Poiseuille Derivation ofRadial Flow of Liquid Through Thin Cracks

' The data and results , in this phase should be examined with reser­

vations. OWing to the inherent difficulty in measurement of flow at

low gradients and deficiencies of ,the crack-apparatus itself, it is not

possible to arrive at many definitive conclusions. However, the fol­

lowing conclusions are attributable to this phase.

1) The flow rate versus head plotted on log-log paper results

in a straight line function. The slopes of these lines are

all less than unity ,usually about 0 .9.

2) The majority of the flow rates under specified conditions

are less than theorized by Hagen-Poiseuille's derivation of

radial flow of liquids through thin cracks.

3) The flow 'rate of sewage through thin cracks is less than that

of tap water under identical conditions.

4) , I t is not possible to presently determine the cause of devia­

tion from the Hagen-Poiseuille derivat ion of radial flow

through thin cracks.

48

Phase III: Retardation of Flow of Non-biodegradableLiquid Through Thin Cracks

The following conclusions are derived from this phase of the

experiment:

1) The manner and trend of retardation of flow depends on various

parameters: head, thickness of crack, environmental conditions,

and propert ies of liquid. The flow rates of liquids exhibited

a "leap and bound" character in many instances. These "leap

and bound" characteristics my be attributed to external dis­

turbances and unknown environmental changes.

2) The greatest retardation of flow occurs in the initial hours

of the trial run and a moderate and systematic reduction of

flow occurs in the latter phases of the trial run. There are

no instances in which flow of non-biodegradable liquids reaches

zer o . The flow rate becomes nearly constant after 48 hours.

3) The terminal and nearly constant flow rate is 7/8 to 1/100 of

the initial flow rate. The terminal flow rates with aa basalt

are usually i n the lower ranges (1/100 of the initial flow

rate ) while the terminal flow rates through lucite are in the

hi gher ranges (7/ 8 of the initial flow).

4) Fl ow rates through an aa basalt crack decrease faster than

through a lucite crack.

5) All liquids exhibited similar patterns of flow rates and retar­

dation through a simulated aa basalt crack. Erratic behavior

of liquids was observed with flows through lucite which are

more susceptible to external disturbances and changes in the

environment.

6) Mechanical disturbance has a profound effect on the patterns

of flow rate retardation. There was an increase in the flow

rate when the thin crack apparatus was mechanically disturbed.

At no time, however, did the mechanical disturbances cause

an increase in flow beyond the initial rate. The retardation

rate after mechanical disturbances was less than the rate be­

fore the disturbances occurred .

49

Phase IV: Retardation of Flow of Organic-Rich LiquidThrough Thin Cracks

,The study of the flow of tap water and clarified sewage through

lucite and aa basalt cracks yielded the following conclusions:

1) The retardation of flow of organic-rich liquids throygh thin

cracks under prolonged submergence, in excess of that observed

for tap water, occurred within 60 hours through lucite cracks

and 125 hours through aa basalt. A steady or nearly steady

flow rate of tap water through the cracks was reached within ·

36 hours, while a retardation of flow of sewage through thin

cracks continued after as long as 220 hours. The terminal

flow velocity of tap water through both lucite and aa basalt

media was much greater than that of sewage. The flow velocity

of sewage appeared to be proceeding to a no-flow condition.

2) The clogging phenomena was dependent upon microbial activity

and food supply in the liquid. The retardation of flow of or­

ganic-rich liquid is attributed to the presence of microbial

cells and their biochemically synthesized products, primarily

polysaccharides and slimes, within the cracks. The retardation

of flow is also attributable to formation of inorganic matter,

primarily ferrous sulfide, a common development in septic

sewage.

3) The retardation of flow of sewage through thin cracks exhibits

similar patterns to flow of tap water although only in part

and only at the initial stages of the test run. This is borne

out by the fact that mechanical jarring in the latter periods

of the sewage test run has little or no effect on the flow

rate, but with tap water mechanical jarring causes a substan­

tial change in flow rate at any period of the test .

4) There is no indication that the thin crack influenced or

interferred with the degradation processes by microorganisms

of the organic-rich liquid.

50

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24, 1, 1960.

52

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APPENDICES

55

A. PROCEDURE FOR DIRECT COUNTING

1. Accurately fix dimensions of a 1 cm x 1 em square on a slideusing a wax crayon.

2. Select a definite volume of sewage sample, (a 50-ml was used inthis study).

3. Filter sample through millipore filter.

4. Dilute sample with distilled water if number of bacteria is toogreat to count.

5. Take 0.01 ml of. the filtered sample and place it on the preparedslide within the crayon delineated area .

6. Fix the bacteria present to the slide with heat.

7. Stain, using the methylene blue stain procedure.

8. Examine microscropically; count 15 squares or a combination ofsquares. Calculate the dimensions of each square by optical micro­meter methods.

9. To calculate the number of bacteria present:

A. Area of the field of the microscope

Phase microscope~ Unitron Model MPE40 x objective , 10 x ocularLength of square = .025 mmArea of square = 6.25 x 10- 4 mm2

Area of waxed square =-100 mmNumber of squares/lOO ..mm .=.16 x 106 fields

B. Average number of bacteria in 15 squares observed strain A81 bacteria per 15 squares

C. Number of bacteria in 0.01 ml of dilution water strain A16 x 106 x 81 = 1300 x 106 bacteria

15

D. Number of bacteria in 1 ml of sludge1300 x 10 6 x (100 x 2,(dilution factor) = 2600 x 108 bacteriacells of strain A per milliliter of sludge

56

B. PROTEIN DETERMINATION BY THE FOlIN REACTION (10)

Reagents:

Folin A - Mix 20 g Na2C03 with 4 g NaOH and dilute to 1 literwith distilled water. This reagent is stable for 2to 3 months if it is not contaminated during usage.

Folin B - Mix 100 mg sodium tartrate with 50 mg COS0 4 in 10 mldistilled water. This reagent is stable for one week.

Folin C - 1 ml Folin phenol reagent (Fisher Cat. No. SO-P-24)is mixed with 1.2 ml distilled water. Folin phenolreagent is stable for several months; however, afterdilution with water, the reagent should be used withinone hour.

Folin Mixture- Mix 1 ml Folin B to 49 ml of Folin A immediatelybefore usage.

Procedure:

1. The deammonified sample (or the sample plus dilution water)should equal 1 ml and is added to a test tube.

2. Add 5 ml of Folin Mixture to the sample, thoroughly mix, andlet stand for 15 minutes at room temperature.

3. Add 0.5 ml of Folin C and mix immediately. (Instant mixingis necessary because the color reactions start within a fewseconds).

4. Let color develop for 30 minutes at room temperature. After30 minutes the test tube contents may be centrifuged ifnecessary to remove organic debris.

5. Determine optical density at 700 mu with a spectrophotometer.For accuracy, optical density should fall between 0.4 and 1.8if possible.

6. Always prepare a reagent blank each time this test is per­formed. Use distilled water in the reagent blank.