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Electrical Energy in Africa: The Status of Interconnections

Famous O. Igbinovia and Prof. Ing. Josef Tlusty, CSc

Czech Technical University in Prague

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Department of Electrical Power Engineering

Technicka 2, 166 27 Praha 6, Prague, Czech Republic.

(igbinfam@fel.cvut.cz, famousigbinovia@yahoo.co.uk) (tlusty@fel.cvut.cz)

Abstract:

Electrical grid interconnections that now exist as national, regional and transcontinental power

systems began many years ago as single systems. But as power systems expand, interconnections

among neighbouring systems became increasingly common. Today, advance countries are enjoying

the benefits of grid interconnectivity and African countries, blessed with enormous natural resources

should not be left out. This paper examines the evolution of interconnected power systems, and the

benefits of interconnected grid system. It highlights the status of regional electricity projects,

interconnections and the rate of electrification in the continent. Lastly, recommendations were made

on how to promote regional electrical energy projects and interconnections in Africa - the second

most populous and world’s second largest continent.

Keywords: Electrical Energy, Electrical Power systems, Regional Power Systems, Interconnected

Grid, Africa.

1. Introduction

Africa is the world's second largest continent. Covering an area of 11,668,599 sq miles. The continent

is bordered by the South Atlantic Ocean to the south west and the Mediterranean Sea to the north,

both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to

the east and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The African continent is famous for its

wildlife and rich natural resources. This bio-diverse land is home to the largest waterfall, desert, and

green canyon and longest river in the world. There are 54 countries and one “non-self governing

territory”, the Western Sahara, in Africa. The Western Sahara is a member state of the African Union

whose statehood is disputed by Morocco. South Sudan is the continent's newest country. Algeria is

the largest African country by land area, while Nigeria has the largest population (174 million) (Maps

of World. 2014; World Map. Africa (n.d); Thoughts of a Lapsed Physicist 2014). Africa Map is

shown in figure 1.

Africa is the second most populous continent with about 1.1 billion people or 16% of the world’s

population. The continent’s population will more than double to 2.3 billion people by 2050. Africa is

the world’s poorest and most underdeveloped continent with a continental Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) that accounts for just 2.4% of global GDP. Africa's GDP may drop to half its current value by

2040 due to the loss of energy supplies, as depicted in figure 2. Africa has approximately 30% of the

earth’s remaining mineral resources. The continent has the largest reserves of precious metals with

over 40% of the gold reserves, over 60% of the cobalt, and 90% of the platinum reserves. Over 1,270

large dams have been built along the continent’s many rivers. Africa has the most extensive biomass

burning in the world, yet only emits about 4% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions. (Boyes,

2013; Paul Chefurka, 2008).

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Figure 1; Africa Map (Maps of World, 2014).

Although the availability of natural resources is enviable, many African countries suffer from

famines, epidemics, civil wars and ethnic conflicts. Some nations have done well, but most others

remain extremely poor and some are even considered failed states. In Africa, power is inaccessible,

unaffordable, and unreliable for most people. This traps people in poverty – students find it difficult to

read after dark, clinics cannot refrigerate vaccines and businesses have shorter operating hours (Maps

of World, 2014; World Bank. Energy in Africa 2013). Africa is the warmest continent. The equator

runs through Africa about halfway between the northern-most and southern-most points. Over three-

quarters of Africa are in the tropics; only the upper part of the Sahara, the Mediterranean area, and the

southern tip of Africa, are outside of the tropics. Except for the peaks of high mountains, it never

freezes in these tropical regions. Because of being in the tropics, the snow line is much higher up than

it would be on a mountain of similar height in the temperate zone (Map of Africa n.d).

Africa is largely a continent of darkness by night (Felsenthal, 2013) as can be seen in the Composite

map of the world in figure 3. Shortage of electricity is a huge impediment to Africa’s development.

President Barack Obama, putting his mark on United States of America (U.S.A) aid to Africa,

announced a plan to boost access to electric power in the sub-Sahara and said America stands to

benefit if the continent reaches its full economic potential (Goldman et al, 2013). Indeed, the entire

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human race stands to benefit. Hence, African leaders should come together and join Obama’s “Power

Africa” plan by looking at ways of possible interconnections of electricity network among her nations.

The African continent extends from about the Latitude 35 north of the equator to about the latitude 35

south of the equator. Whenever the electric power systems in Africa are interconnected, the resulting

system would enjoy the advantage of exchanging the winter season peak and the summer season peak

across the electricity networks. Africa also extends from east to west within four time zones, thus

would enjoy the diversity of the daily maximum demand whenever the power systems are

interconnected. (Abaza, 1994).

Figure 2: A graph of Africa's energy consumption and their resulting economic performance (Paul Chefurka 2008).

Figure 3; Composite Map of the World (Dunbar, 2013)

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2. Evolution of Interconnected Electric Power Systems

Electric power systems have experienced continuous growth in all the three major sectors of the

power system namely, generation, transmission and distribution. Electricity cannot be stored

economically, but there has to be continuous balance between demand and supply (Kothari, 2012,).

Electrical grid is a network for delivering electricity (The Free Dictionary, 2014). Electricity grid

interconnections have played a key role in the history of electric power systems. Most national and

regional power systems that exist today began many decades ago as isolated systems, often as a single

generator in a large city. As power systems expanded out from their urban cores, interconnections

among neighbouring systems became increasingly common. Groups of utilities began to form power

pools, allowing them to trade electricity and share capacity reserves. As transmission technologies

improved, long distance interconnections developed, sometimes crossing national borders (Multi

Dimensional Issues in International Electric Power Grid Interconnections, n.d).

An interconnected electrical network is used for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. At

the beginning all electrical power stations were operated separately, supplying electrical energy only

to their own customers. But very soon the engineers realized that the integration of individual power

stations into an electrical power systems gives many advantages, technical (increase power supply

reliability) and economical (decrease costs of energy), and integration of systems became very rapid.

This was based on the progress in electric power transmission technology and parallel operation of

several power stations. For a successful power system transmission, it was very important to increase

the transmission voltage in gradual steps to a high value which now is at 750KV and more. This made

transcontinental power systems and long transmission lines possible (Danilevich Y. B et al, n.d).

One of the great engineering achievements of the last century has been the evolution of large

synchronous alternating current (AC) power grids, in which all the interconnected system maintain

the same precise electrical frequency. At the same time that synchronous AC networks have reached

the continental scale, the use of high voltage direct current (HVDC) interconnections is also rapidly

expanding as a result of technical progress over the last two decades. HVDC permits the

asynchronous interconnection of networks that operate at different frequencies, or are otherwise

incompatible, allowing them to exchange power without requiring the tight coordination of a

synchronous network (Multi Dimensional Issues in International Electric Power Grid

Interconnections, n.d).

3. Benefits of Interconnected Grid System

Interconnected grid systems has some limitations, these include; the problems of load and frequency

control, which are more difficult in large interconnected systems with many power stations scattered

over a wide area in comparison with a system having one or two generating stations (Sharma, 2011).

Interconnected power system, requires a high degree of technical compatibility and operational

coordination, which grows in cost, risks and complexity with the scale and inherent differences of the

systems involved. The difficulties of joint planning and operation of interconnected systems vary

widely as with marriages, from the institutional and administrative standpoint, coupled systems may

become a single entity, or they may keep entirely separate accounts. Institutional and administrative

features of power systems in different countries are likely to differ in many ways, and these

differences invariably affect the technical and operational dimensions of an interconnection. It can

lead to greater reliability risks, disturbances in one location are quickly felt in other locations, after

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interconnecting, a system that used to be isolated from disturbances in a neighbouring system is now

vulnerable to those disturbances. Long distance interconnections with long transmission lines have

potentially greater stability problems than is the case for shorter lines (Multi Dimensional Issues in

International Electric Power Grid Interconnections, n.d).

The benefits of grid interconnected system as indicated by (National grid, 2008; K10blogger, 2011;

Povh et al, n.d; and Multi Dimensional Issues in International Electric Power Grid Interconnections,

n.d). In their write-up are as follows;

Exchange of peak loads: An important advantage of interconnected system is that the peak

load of the power station can be exchanged. If the load curve of a power station shows a peak

demand that is greater than the rated capacity of the plant, then the excess load can be shared

by other stations interconnected with it.

Use of Older Plants: The interconnected system makes it possible to use the older and less

efficient plants to carry peak loads of short durations, although such plants may be inadequate

when used alone, yet they have sufficient capacity to carry short peaks of loads when

interconnected with other modern plants. Therefore, interconnected system gives a direct key

to the use of obsolete plants.

Ensures economical operation: The interconnected system makes the operation of concerned

power stations quite economical. It is because sharing of load among the stations is arranged

in such a way that more efficient stations work continuously throughout the year at a high

load factor and the less efficient plants work for peak load hours only.

Increase diversity factor: The load curves of different interconnected stations are generally

different. The result is that the maximum demand on the system is much reduced as compared

to the sum of individual maximum demands on different stations. In other words, the diversity

factor of the system is improved, thereby increasing the effective capacity of the system.

Reduces plant reserve capacity: Every power station is required to have a standby unit for

emergencies. However, when several power stations are connected in parallel, the reserve

capacity of the system is much reduced. This increases the efficiency of the system.

Increases reliability of supply: The interconnected system increases the reliability of supply.

If a major breakdown occurs in one station, continuity of supply can be maintained by other

healthy stations.

Utilization of most favourable energy resources and flexibility of building new power plants

at favourable locations: Based on the contractual agreement between the partners in an

interconnected system. It will bring about the flexibility of constructing power plants in

favourable locations with regards to energy resources and hence, increase in total reliability of

the interconnected systems.

Reduced investment in generating capacity: Individual systems can reduce their generating

capacity requirement, or postpone the need to add new capacity, if they are able to share the

generating resources of an interconnected system.

Security of Supply: Security in this context means providing the demand customer with a

supply of electricity that is continuous (i.e. uninterrupted except in exceptional circumstances)

and is of the required quantity and of defined quality (e.g. in terms of voltage, waveform, and

frequency). This means that the transmission system, and for that matter the generation and

distribution systems, must be sufficiently robust to maintain supplies under conditions of

plant breakdown or weather induced failures for a wide range of demand conditions.

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4. Status of Regional Electricity Projects, Interconnections and the Rate of Electrification in

Africa

There are primarily five power pools acting as specialized agencies of their respective Regional

Economic Communities (RECs): (i) the Central Africa Power Pool (CAPP) for the Economic

Commission for Central Africa States (ECCAS), (ii) the Comité Maghrébin de l’Electricité

(COMELEC) for the Union of Maghreb Arab (UMA), (iii) the Eastern Africa Power Pool (EAPP) for

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), (iv) the Southern Africa Power Pool

(SAPP) for Southern African Development Community (SADC), and (v) the West Africa Power Pool

(WAPP) for Economic Commission for West African States (ECOWAS).

Installed capacity is 6073 Megawatts (MW) for CAPP (2009), 27 347 MW for COMELEC (2009),

28 374 MW for EAPP (2008), 49 877 MW for SAPP (2010) and 14 091 MW for WAPP (2010), the

years indicate the most recent year for which data is available for all countries of the power pool. The

installed capacity per thousand habitants is highest in North and South Africa in terms of Kilowatts

(kW) per thousand habitants: COMELEC (319), SAPP (311), followed by EAPP (74), WAPP (54)

and CAPP (49) (Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, 2011). Figure 4; Shows the Map of African

Electricity Grid, with the various Existing and Proposed power pool projects.

Figure 4; Map of African Electricity Grid, Showing the various Existing and Proposed Power Pool Projects, Source: Global

Energy Network Institute, (n.d).

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As far as electricity mix is concerned, at Africa level, most of the existing capacity is thermal (75%)

due to the size of the COMELEC and SAPP systems, which are predominately thermal. Hydropower

is predominant in CAPP (86%). In EAPP and in WAPP, the present share of hydro is 24% and 30%,

respectively, but this share is expected to grow rapidly as ongoing and future generation investments

are mainly in hydropower projects (e.g. Ethiopia: Gibe III with 1870 MW). A summary of electrical

energy pool in Africa as can be seen in (Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, 2012) is as follows;

Access to electricity is still very low: 31% of the countries have an electrification rate below

or equal to 10%. Nearly 70% have an electrification rate below or equal to 30%.

The electricity consumption per capita is still very low: 54% of the countries have an average

consumption below 200kWh/capita, with only 18% having an average consumption over

1000 kWh/capita.

As far as power trade is concerned (mainly within power pools), electricity traded is still low

for CAPP (0.2% in 2009) and in EAPP (0.4% in 2008). It is relatively higher respectively in

COMELEC (6.2% in 2009), in SAPP (7.5% in 2010) and in WAPP (6.9% in 2010). SAPP is

at a more advanced stage with 28 bilateral contracts already signed between the member

countries and with an active role played by the Short Term Electricity Market (STEM) since

2001 and by the Day Ahead Market (DAM) since 2009. Further development of the regional

market is however constrained by the lack of generation capacity linked with congested and

insufficient interconnections capacity.

Institutional set up and market rules and regulations have already been implemented in SAPP,

are being implemented in WAPP and under design in EAPP. However, CAPP and

COMELEC have still to design and develop their power market institutions and rules.

As for regional projects, all power pools are experiencing concrete achievement in

implementing interconnection projects. Up-to-date regional master plans are available for all

power pools. Except for COMELEC, the four other power pools have formally adopted their

priority projects at the regional level and are mobilizing funding.

Given the level of investment required, private sector participation is requested with possible

public participation (under Public Private Partnership (PPP) set up). However, so far, the pace

of mobilizing funding is slow for various reasons and innovative approach is required for

mobilizing funding for regional projects.

For interconnection projects, some solutions are already initiated: as these projects are

benefiting to various countries, their funding could be developed through Specific Vehicle

Project (SVP) where the concerned utilities/players could contribute to the assets, provided

that proper wheeling charges are agreed upon. This solution is already considered in SAPP for

Zimbabwe-Zambia-Botswana-Namibia (ZIZABONA) interconnection project. It could be

also considered in other power pools such as EAPP for the interconnection of Ethiopia-

Sudan-Egypt.

For Generation projects with regional dimension, they could be developed through a Public

Private Partnership/Independent Power Producers (PPP/IPP) arrangement with an innovative

approach, providing a minimum set of guarantee for investors and securing an acceptable

level of competition between the operators of the regional market. This could lead to the

following propositions: The regional market could constitute a sufficient guarantee for future

investments. An alternative option could have two main components: (i) the first component

could consist in establishing a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) between the PPP/IPP and

the national Transmission System Operators (TSOs) through the power pool for part of the

generation output (for example, 50%). This would secure a minimum revenue guarantee for

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the promoter, (ii) the second component would consist in establishing bilateral contracts or in

selling on the short-term market the rest of the generation output (remaining 50%). This

would secure a minimum level of competitiveness in the regional power market.

The installed capacity per thousand habitants by power pool is tabulated in table 1; the Common

Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)-East African Community (EAC)-Southern

African Development Community (SADC) Tripartite projects is shown in figure 5; and figure 6;

While figure 7; Shows the Significant, Minimal and Planned electric power interconnections with

their direction of flow in the continent. The rate of electrification in Africa is lower than in any other

continent (Desertec-Africa. n.d), as presented in table 2; showing world rate of electrification.

Table 1; Installed Capacity per Thousand Habitants by Power Pool (Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, 2011).

CAPP

2009*

COMELEC

2009*

EAPP

2008*

SAPP

2010*

WAPP

2010*

Installed

Capacity

(MW)

6 073 27 347 28 374 49 877 14 091

Hydropower

Share (%)

86% 8% 24% 17% 30%

Thermal Share

(%)

14% 91% 73% 83% 70%

Populations

(Millions)

123.9 85.6 385.6 160.5 260.6

KW/1000

Habitants

49 319 74 311 54

*Base year: Most recent year for which data is available for all countries of the power pool.

Table 2; World rate of electrification (Desertec-Africa. n.d).

Population

(Million)

Population with

electricity

(Million)

Population without

electricity

(Million)

Electrificatio

n rate

(%)

Urban Electrificat

ion rate

(%)

Rural Electrificati

on rate

(%)

Africa 891 337 554 37.8 67.9 19.0

Developing Asia 3,418 2,488 930 72.8 86.4 85.1

Latin America 449 404 45 90.0 98.0 65.6

Middle East 186 145 41 78.1 86.7 61.8

Developing

countries

4,943 3,374 1,569 68.3 85.2 56.4

Transition

Economies and

OECD

1,501 1,501 8 99.5 100.0 98.1

World 6,452 4,875 1,577 75.6 90.4 61.7

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Figure 5; (COMESA)- (EAC)- (SADC) Tripartite projects

Figure 6; Main Tripartite Power Grid of (COMESA)- (EAC)- (SADC), Supported by Trademark Southern Africa (TMSA).

Source: TMSA, (2012)

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Figure 7; Map of Africa, showing Significant, Minimal and Planned interconnections, with their Direction of flow. Source:

Global Energy Network Institute (n.d)

From table 1; it can be seen that, some countries are holding a dominant position in total installed

capacity of their power pool: Algeria with 41% of COMELEC, Egypt with 78% of EAPP, Republic of

South Africa (RSA) with 82% of SAPP, and Nigeria with 60% of WAPP (Infrastructure Consortium

for Africa, 2011). From figure 4. And figure 5. We can see the current status and potentials of

interconnections of electrical power systems among African nations through regional collaboration.

To facilitate regional interconnection of electricity grids in Africa, African leaders have to set the ball

rolling. Africa has been called the last investment frontier. While the United States and Europe have

been struggling to recover from the economic downturn of 2008, the International Monetary Fund

reports that the economies in over 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa have grown an average of

nearly 6 percent per year during the past five years. It is anticipated that these rates of growth will

continue for the foreseeable future (Krogh B. H. et al, 2012). This growth can only be sustained by the

availability and sustainability of electrical energy, as the whole world is looking up to Africa for the

overall socio-economic and technological transformation of the Human race. This can only be

achieved by the promotion of regional electrical projects and interconnections within the continent.

5. Recommendations for Promoting Regional Electrical Energy Projects and Interconnections

in Africa

1. Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) option should be considered as

complement to traditional transmission upgrade in Africa. FACTS, based on power electronics

devices have been developed to improve the performance of weak Alternating Current (AC) Systems

and enhance transmission capabilities over long AC lines. FACTS technologies allow for improved

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transmission system operation with minimal infrastructure investment, environmental impact, and

implementation time compared to the construction of new transmission lines.

2. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission technology, which allows the transport of bulk

power over long distances, with low losses. And used to interconnect asynchronous AC systems

having the same or different frequency should be considered as an alternative to power system

upgrades in Africa. The use of HVDC transmission technology is well known and has benefits in bulk

electricity delivery, long-distance transmission, asynchronous interconnections, transmission costs

and environment impacts.

3. Solar Radiation (SR) power conversion systems and Photovoltaic (PV) sources of Electrical energy

systems should be installed in areas with much sun-light, far away from the grid network, in-order to

make maximum use of energy from the sun which is in-abundance in Africa.

4. Solar aided power generation (SAPG) technology should be used in countries with significant fossil

fuel/non-renewable energy source base and good solar resource. The integration of solar thermal

collectors into conventional fossil plants, or SAPG, has proven a viable solution to address the

intermittency of power generation and combines the environmental benefits of solar power plants with

the efficiency and reliability of fossil power plants.

5. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) stand-alone solar thermal plants should be installed most

especially in areas such as the Sahara desert and other desert areas in the continent. CSP technology

offers an ideal alternative strategy to meet electricity demand in a future of uncertain conventional

resources.

6. SR and PV plant manufacturers should research into ways of possible production of SR panels with

high solar radiation intensity and PV panels with high temperature efficiency, suitable for tropical

climate in order for the African continent to be able to maximize the use of the sun-light in her

locality for the production of electrical energy. Solar energy from the Sahara desert if properly

harnessed can be utilized in other continents, it is in line with this idea that the Trans Mediterranean

Renewable Energy Cooperation (TREC), also known as DESERTEC, has proposed developing large-

scale solar thermal plants in the North Africa section of the Sahara desert transmitting the power to

Europe through high-voltage direct current power lines.

7. Technical planning of African grid interconnection should be properly carried out, pooling of large

power generation stations, sharing of spinning reserve and use of most economic energy resources

taking into account ecological constraints such as nuclear power stations at special locations, hydro

energy from remote areas, solar energy from desert areas, biomass (fuel wood, animal waste, energy

crops and agricultural residue) plants at strategic locations and connection of large off-shore wind

farms.

8. An effective international legal framework governing the construction and operation of an

international electricity grid interconnection should be reached among African nations. The hosting of

an international grid interconnection requires that the countries involved enter into a number of

different types of legal agreements, such as; sitting of power line and related infrastructure, operation

of power line, power line security, interconnection environmental performance, liability for power

line failure or damage, power purchase and pricing and other issues of legal liability concerning grid

operation.

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9. There should be training and retraining of personnel in modern Techniques of Power System

Operation and Control, Development of advanced power system analysis software and real-time

power system simulation, in order to have a reliable and efficient network. As the existing power

infrastructure is being upgraded and expanded for regional interconnection, power system personnel’s

should be trained and re-trained in-order for them to be knowledgeable in modern power systems

operation.

10. African leaders should show their political will to electrify the continent. There should be a

synergy between governments of African countries in the area of international grid interconnection

cooperation as this will bring about government-to- government cooperation in other areas, it will

improve energy security by reducing the likelihood of military action against each other by the nations

involved in the power trading, it encourages democratization, since grid interconnections help bring

stable electricity supplies to communities that previously had poor or no electricity, opportunities for

education and obtaining news are increased, which can in turn prepare more citizens to participate

meaningfully in democratic processes. It can also enhance political stability by offering opportunities

for employment.

11. Professional bodies affiliated to the World Federation of Engineering Organisations (WFEO)

should be consulted and carried along in engineering projects. Hence, engineering professionals

whose expertise is needed in the African electrical power interconnection project irrespective of race,

colour, tribe and political or religious affiliation should be consulted and engaged in the actualization

of the electricity power interconnection projects in Africa.

12. Research agencies, most especially in Africa such as; Universities, Polytechnics, and institutes

should be fully involved from the start to finish of interconnection projects in Africa in-order to have

an in-depth knowledge of the existing, planned and upgraded electrical power infrastructure for

possible expansion and interconnection. And development agencies both in Africa and beyond should

see to the implementation and actualization of blue prints from these research agencies.

6. Conclusion

African countries should work closely and cooperate in the overall planning, integration,

implementation and actualization of power systems interconnection projects in the continent. This is

imperative for the sustained development of countries in Africa as Electrical energy can be export

commodity to the industrialized nations from Africa. This will eventually bring about the socio-

economic and technological transformation of Africa and other continents.

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Acknowledgement

The authors kindly appreciate the financial support which was provided by the Internal Grant Agency

of the Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Electrical Engineering in the grant

no.SGS14/188/OHK3/3T/13, under the project - Local Automation Based on WAMPaC systems.