Electricity Sector in India 1

8/2/2019 Electricity Sector in India 1

1/55

Electricity sector in India

The electricity sector in India is predominantly controlled by the Government of India's publicsector undertakings (PSUs). Major PSUs involved in the generation of electricity include

National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), National Hydroelectric Power Corporation(NHPC) and Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCI). Besides PSUs, several state-levelcorporations, such as Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB), are also involved in thegeneration and intra-state distribution of electricity. The PowerGrid Corporation of India isresponsible for the inter-state transmission of electricity and the development of national grid.

The Ministry of Power is the apex body responsible for the development of electrical energy inIndia. This ministry started functioning independently from 2 July, 1992; earlier, it was known asthe Ministry of Energy. The Union Minister of Power at present is Sushilkumar Shinde of theCongress Party who took charge of the ministry on the 28th of May, 2009.

India is world's 6th largest energy consumer, accounting for 3.4% of global energy consumption.Due to India's economic rise, the demand for energy has grown at an average of 3.6% per annumover the past 30 years. In March 2009, the installed power generation capacity of India stood at147,000 MW while the per capita power consumption stood at 612 kWH. The country's annualpower production increased from about 190 billion kWH in 1986 to more than 680 billion kWHin 2006. The Indian government has set an ambitious target to add approximately 78,000 MW ofinstalled generation capacity by 2012. The total demand for electricity in India is expected tocross 950,000 MW by 2030.

About 75% of the electricity consumed in India is generated by thermal power plants, 21% byhydroelectric power plants and 4% by nuclear power plants. More than 50% of India's

commercial energy demand is met through the country's vast coal reserves. The country has alsoinvested heavily in recent years on renewable sources of energy such as wind energy. As of2008, India's installed wind power generation capacity stood at 9,655 MW. Additionally, Indiahas committed massive amount of funds for the construction of various nuclear reactors whichwould generate at least 30,000 MW. In July 2009, India unveiled a $19 billion plan to produce20,000 MW ofsolar power by 2020.

Electricity losses in India during transmission and distribution are extremely high and varybetween 30 to 45%. In 2004-05, electricity demand outstripped supply by 7-11%. Due toshortage of electricity, power cuts are common throughout India and this has adversely effectedthe country's economic growth.[14][15]Theft of electricity, common in most parts of urban India,amounts to 1.5% of India's GDP.[16][17]Despite an ambitious rural electrification program, some400 million Indians lose electricity access during blackouts. While 80 percent of Indian villageshave at least an electricity line, just 44 percent of rural households have access to electricity.According to a sample of 97,882 households in 2002, electricity was the main source of lightingfor 53% of rural households compared to 36% in 1993. Multi Commodity Exchange has soughtpermission to offer electricity future markets.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector_undertakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector_undertakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Thermal_Power_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hydroelectric_Power_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra_State_Electricity_Boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerGrid_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushilkumar_Shindehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megawattshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KWHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_outagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_outagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KWHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megawattshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushilkumar_Shindehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerGrid_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra_State_Electricity_Boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hydroelectric_Power_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Thermal_Power_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector_undertakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector_undertakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India


2/55

Generation

Grand Total Installed Capacity is 149,391.91 MW

1. Thermal Power

Current installed capacity of Thermal Power (as of 12/2008) is 93,398.64 MW which is 64.7%of total installed capacity.

Current installed base ofCoal Based Thermal Power is 77,458.88 MW which comes to53.3% of total installed base.

Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is 14,734.01 MW which is 10.5% of

total installed base. Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,199.75 MW which is 0.9% of

total installed base.

The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in the country.

2. Hydro Power

India was one of the pioneering states in establishing hydro-electric power plants. The powerplant at Darjeeling and Shimsha (Shivanasamudra) was established in 1898 and 1902respectively and is one of the first in Asia. The installed capacity as of 2008 was approximately

36877.76. The public sector has a predominant share of 97% in this sector.

3. Nuclear Power

Currently, seventeen nuclear power reactors produce 4,120.00 MW (2.9% of total installedbase).

4. Renewable Power

Current installed base ofRenewable energy is 13,242.41 MW which is 7.7% of total installedbase with the southern state ofTamil Nadu contributing nearly a third of it (4379.64 MW)

largely through wind power.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectric_Powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darjeelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimshahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimshahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darjeelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectric_Powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_plant


3/55

Transmission

Fig: A power transmission cable operated by BEST in Mumbai, India.

Transmission of electricity is defined as bulk transfer of power over a long distance at highvoltage, generally of 132kV and above. In India bulk transmission has increased from 3,708ckmin 1950 to more than 165,000ckm today(as stated by Power Grid Corporation of India). Theentire country has been divided into five regions for transmission systems, namely, NorthernRegion, North Eastern Region, Eastern Region, Southern Region and Western Region. TheInterconnected transmission system within each region is also called the regional grid.

The transmission system planning in the country, in the past, had traditionally been linked togeneration projects as part of the evacuation system. Ability of the power system to safelywithstand a contingency without generation rescheduling or load-shedding was the main criteriafor planning the transmission system. However, due to various reasons such as spatialdevelopment of load in the network, non-commissioning of load center generating unitsoriginally planned and deficit in reactive compensation, certain pockets in the power systemcould not safely operate even under normal conditions. This had necessitated backing down ofgeneration and operating at a lower load generation balance in the past. Transmission planninghas therefore moved away from the earlier generation evacuation system planning to integratesystem planning.

While the predominant technology for electricity transmission and distribution has beenAlternating Current (AC) technology, High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology has alsobeen used for interconnection of all regional grids across the country and for bulk transmissionof power over long distances.

Certain provisions in the Electricity Act 2003 such as open access to the transmission anddistribution network, recognition of power trading as a distinct activity, the liberal definition of a
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihanmumbai_Electric_Supply_and_Transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pylon-gorai.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pylon-gorai.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pylon-gorai.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pylon-gorai.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihanmumbai_Electric_Supply_and_Transport


4/55

captive generating plant and provision for supply in rural areas are expected to introduce andencourage competition in the electricity sector. It is expected that all the above measures on thegeneration, transmission and distribution front would result in formation of a robust electricitygrid in the country.

DistributionThe total installed generating capacity in the country is over 147,000MW and the total number ofconsumers is over 144 million. Apart from an extensive transmission system network at 500kVHVDC, 400kV, 220kV, 132kV and 66kV which has developed to transmit the power fromgenerating station to the grid substations, a vast network of sub transmission in distributionsystem has also come up for utilisation of the power by the ultimate consumers.

However, due to lack of adequate investment on transmission and distribution (T&D) works, theT&D losses have been consistently on higher side, and reached to the level of 32.86% in the year2000-01.The reduction of these losses was essential to bring economic viability to the State

Utilities.

As the T&D loss was not able to capture all the losses in the net work, concept of AggregateTechnical and Commercial (AT&C) loss was introduced. AT&C loss captures technical as wellas commercial losses in the network and is a true indicator of total losses in the system.

High technical losses in the system are primarily due to inadequate investments over the yearsfor system improvement works, which has resulted in unplanned extensions of the distributionlines, overloading of the system elements like transformers and conductors, and lack of adequatereactive power support.

The commercial losses are mainly due to low metering efficiency, theft & pilferages. This maybe eliminated by improving metering efficiency, proper energy accounting & auditing andimproved billing & collection efficiency. Fixing of accountability of the personnel / feedermanagers may help considerably in reduction of AT&C loss.

With the initiative of the Government of India and of the States, the Accelerated PowerDevelopment & Reform Programme (APDRP) was launched in 2001, for the strengthening ofSubTransmission and Distribution network and reduction in AT&C losses.

The main objective of the programme was to bring Aggregate Technical & Commercial (AT&C)losses below 15% in five years in urban and in high-density areas. The programme, along with

other initiatives of the Government of India and of the States, has led to reduction in the overallAT&C loss from 38.86% in 2001-02 to 34.54% in 2005-06. The commercial loss of the StatePower Utilities reduced significantly during this period from Rs. 29331 Crore to Rs. 19546Crore. The loss as percentage of turnover was reduced from 33% in 2000-01 to 16.60% in 2005-06.

The APDRP programme is being restructured by the Government of India, so that the desiredlevel of 15% AT&C loss could be achieved by the end of 11th plan.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crore


5/55

Power for ALL by 2012

The Government of India has an ambitious mission of POWER FOR ALL BY 2012. Thismission would require that the installed generation capacity should be at least 200,000 MW by2012 from the present level of 144,564.97 MW. Power requirement will double by 2020 to

400,000MW.

Objectives

Sufficient power to achieve GDP growth rate of 8% Reliable power Quality power Optimum power cost Commercial viability of power industry Power for all

Strategies

Power Generation Strategy with focus on low cost generation, optimization of capacityutilization, controlling the input cost, optimisation of fuel mix, Technology upgradationand utilization of Non Conventional energy sources

Transmission Strategy with focus on development of National Grid including Interstateconnections, Technology upgradation & optimization of transmission cost.

Distribution strategy to achieve Distribution Reforms with focus on System upgradation,loss reduction, theft control, consumer service orientation, quality power supplycommercialization, Decentralized distributed generation and supply for rural areas.

Regulation Strategy aimed at protecting Consumer interests and making the sectorcommercially viable.

Financing Strategy to generate resources for required growth of the power sector.

Conservation Strategy to optimise the utilization of electricity with focus on DemandSide management, Load management and Technology upgradation to provide energyefficient equipment / gadgets.

Communication Strategy for political consensus with media support to enhance thegeneral public awareness.

Subsidies

Several state governments in India provide electricity at subsidised rates or even free to somesections. This includes for use in agriculture and for consumption by backward classes. The
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidy


6/55

subsidies are mainly as cross-subsidisation, with the other users such as industries and privateconsumers paying the deficit caused by the subsidised charges collected. Such measures haveresulted in many of the state electricity boards becoming financially weak.

At present (2009), the price per unit of electricity in India is about Rs. 4 (8 US cents) for

domestic consumers, and Rs. 9 for the commercial supply.

Energy policy of India

Fig: A view of a wind power plant.

India has the world's fifth largest wind power industry, with an annual power production of 8,896MW. Shown here is a wind farm in Kayathar, Tamil Nadu.

Fig: Coal Quarry

India has the world's 3rd largest coal reserves. Shown here is a coal mine in Jharkhand.

In recent years, Indias energy consumption has been increasing at one of the fastest rates in theworld due to population growth and economic development. During the 5-year period endedMarch 31, 2007, the CAGR of consumption of petroleum products was approximately 3.6%,compared to a CAGR for GDP of 7.6% for the same period. Despite the overall increase inenergy demand, per capita energy consumption in India is still very low compared to otherdeveloping countries.

Today, India has one of the highest potentials for the effective use ofrenewable energy. India isthe worlds fifth largest producer ofwind power after Denmark, Germany, Spain, and the USA.There is a significant potential in India for generation of power from renewable energy sources-,small hydro, biomass, and solar energy. The country has an estimated SHP (small-hydro power)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installed_wind_power_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_farmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jharkhandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAGRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:182619562_00d6f703b6_b.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windfarm_Kayathar_India_Tamil_Nadu_2005-10-8.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windfarm_Kayathar_India_Tamil_Nadu_2005-10-8.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:182619562_00d6f703b6_b.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windfarm_Kayathar_India_Tamil_Nadu_2005-10-8.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windfarm_Kayathar_India_Tamil_Nadu_2005-10-8.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:182619562_00d6f703b6_b.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windfarm_Kayathar_India_Tamil_Nadu_2005-10-8.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windfarm_Kayathar_India_Tamil_Nadu_2005-10-8.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAGRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jharkhandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:182619562_00d6f703b6_b.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_farmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installed_wind_power_capacity


7/55

potential of about 15000 MW. The energy policy ofIndiais characterized by tradeoffs betweenfour major drivers:

Rapidly growing economy, with a need for dependable and reliable supply ofelectricity,gas, and petroleum products;

Increasing household incomes, with a need for affordable and adequate supply ofelectricity, and clean cooking fuels; Limited domestic reserves offossil fuels, and the need to import a vast fraction of the

gas, crude oil, and petroleum product requirements, and recently the need to import coalas well; and

Indoor, urban and regional environmental impacts, necessitating the need for the adoptionof cleaner fuels and cleaner technologies.

These trade-offs are often difficult to achieve. For example, the supply of adequate, yetaffordable electricity generated and used cleanly is a continuing challenge because expansion ofsupply, and adoption of cleaner technologies, especially renewable energy, often means that this

electricity is too expensive for many Indians, particularly in rural areas.

In recent years, these challenges have led to a major set of continuing reforms and restructuring.

Energy conservation

Energy conservation has emerged as a major policy objective, and the Energy Conservation Act2001, was passed by the Indian Parliament in September 2001. This Act requires large energyconsumers to adhere to energy consumption norms; new buildings to follow the EnergyConservation Building Code; and appliances to meet energy performance standards and todisplay energy consumption labels. The Act also created the Bureau of Energy Efficiency to

implement the provisions of the Act.

Rural electrification

Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Uttranchal, Madhya Pradesh etc are some of the states

where significant number (more than 10%) of villages are yet to be electrified. Number of Villages (1991 Census) - 593,732 Villages Electrified (30 May 2006) - 488,173 Village level Electrification % - 82.2%
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Conservation_Building_Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Conservation_Building_Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Conservation_Building_Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Conservation_Building_Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India


8/55

Some rural areas in India remain to be connected to the electricity grid. Shown here villagersheating tea with the help offirewood.

The key development objectives of the power sector is supply of electricity to all areasincluding rural areas as mandated in section 6 of the Electricity Act. Both the centralgovernment and state governments would jointly endeavour to achieve this objective atthe earliest. Consumers, particularly those who are ready to pay a tariff which reflectsefficient costs have the right to get uninterrupted twenty four hours supply of qualitypower. About 56% of rural households have not yet been electrified even though many ofthese households are willing to pay for electricity. Determined efforts should be made toensure that the task of rural electrification for securing electricity access to all householdsand also ensuring that electricity reaches poor and marginal sections of the society atreasonable rates is completed within the next five years. India is using RenewableSources of Energy like Hydel Energy, Wind Energy, and Solar Energy to electrifyvillages.

Reliable rural electrification system will aim at creating the following:

(a) Rural Electrification Distribution Backbone (REDB) with at least one 33/11 kv (or 66/11 kv)substation in every Block and more if required as per load, networked and connectedappropriately to the state transmission system

(b) Emanating from REDB would be supply feeders and one distribution transformer at least inevery village settlement.

(c) Household Electrification from distribution transformer to connect every household ondemand.

(d) Wherever above is not feasible (it is neither cost effective nor the optimal solution to providegrid connectivity) decentralized distributed generation facilities together with local distributionnetwork would be provided so that every household gets access to electricity. This would bedone either through conventional or non-conventional methods of electricity generationwhichever is more suitable and economical. Non-conventional sources of energy could beutilized even where grid connectivity exists provided it is found to be cost effective.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indian_girls_making_tea_over_open_fire.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indian_girls_making_tea_over_open_fire.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indian_girls_making_tea_over_open_fire.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indian_girls_making_tea_over_open_fire.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewood


9/55

(e) Development of infrastructure would also cater for requirement of agriculture & othereconomic activities including irrigation pump sets, small and medium industries, khadi andvillage industries, cold chain and social services like health and education.

Particular attention would be given in household electrification to dalit bastis, tribal areas

and other weaker sections.

Rural Electrification Corporation of India, a Government of India enterprise will be thenodal agency at Central Government level to implement the programme for achieving thegoal set by National Common Minimum Programme of giving access to electricity to allthe households in next five years. Its role is being suitably enlarged to ensure timelyimplementation of rural electrification projects.

Targeted expansion in access to electricity for rural households in the desired timeframecan be achieved if the distribution licensees recover at least the cost of electricity andrelated O&M expenses from consumers, except for lifeline support to households below

the poverty line who would need to be adequately subsidized. Subsidies should beproperly targeted at the intended beneficiaries in the most efficient manner. Governmentrecognizes the need for providing necessary capital subsidy and soft long-term debtfinances for investment in rural electrification as this would reduce the cost of supply inrural areas. Adequate funds would need to be made available for the same through thePlan process. Also commensurate organizational support would need to be created fortimely implementation. The Central Government would assist the State Governments inachieving this.

Necessary institutional framework would need to be put in place not only to ensurecreation of rural electrification infrastructure but also to operate and maintain supply

system for securing reliable power supply to consumers. Responsibility of operation &maintenance and cost recovery could be discharged by utilities through appropriatearrangements with Panchayats, local authorities, NGOs and other franchisees etc.

The gigantic task of rural electrification requires appropriate cooperation among variousagencies of the State Governments, Central Government and participation of thecommunity. Education and awareness programmes would be essential for creatingdemand for electricity and for achieving the objective of effective communityparticipation.

Policy framework

In general, India's strategy is the encouragement of the development ofrenewable sources ofenergy by the use of incentives by the federal and state governments. Other examples ofencouragement by incentive include the use of nuclear energy (India Nuclear CooperationPromotion Act), promoting windfarms such as Muppandal, and solar energy (Ralegaon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Nuclear_Cooperation_Promotion_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Nuclear_Cooperation_Promotion_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windfarmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muppandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralegaon_Siddhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralegaon_Siddhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muppandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windfarmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Nuclear_Cooperation_Promotion_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Nuclear_Cooperation_Promotion_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy


10/55

Siddhi).A long-term energy policy perspective is provided by the Integrated Energy PolicyReport 2006 which provides policy guidance on energy-sector growth.

Electricity Industry

The electricity industry has been restructured by the Electricity Act 2003, which unbundles thevertically integrated electricity supply utilities in each state of India into a transmission utility,and a number of generating and distribution utilities. Electricity Regulatory Commissions in eachstate set tariffs for electricity sales. The Act also enables open access on the transmission system,allowing any consumer (with a load of greater than 1 MW) to buy electricity from any generator.Significantly, it also requires each Regulatory Commission to specify the minimum percentageof electricity that each distribution utility must source from renewable energy sources.

The introduction ofAvailability based tariffhas brought about stability to a great extent in the

Indian transmission grids.

A General & Brief Introduction on Indias Power sector

Bio-Fuels

The former President of India, Dr. Abdul Kalam, is one of the strong advocaters ofJatrophacultivation for production ofbio-diesel. In his recent speech, the Former President said that outof the 6,00,000 km of waste land that is available in India over 3,00,000 km is suitable forJatropha cultivation. Once this plant is grown the plant has a useful lifespan of several decades.

During it life Jatropha requires very little water when compared to other cash crops. For plan forsupplying incentives to encourage the use of Jatropha has been implemented.

Wind power showcase

The once-impoverished village ofMuppandal benefited from the building of the nearbyMuppandal wind farm, a renewable energy source, which supplies the villagers with electricityfor work. The village had been selected as the showcase for India's $2 billion clean energyprogram which provides foreign companies with tax breaks for establishing fields of windturbines in the area. Now huge power-producing windmills tower over the palm trees. The

village has attracted wind energy producing companies creating thousands of new jobs,dramatically raising the incomes of villagers. The suitability of Muppandal as a site for windfarms stems from its geographical location as it has access to the seasonal monsoon winds.

Oil

The state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) acquired shares in oil fields incountries like Sudan, Syria, Iran, and Nigeriainvestments that have led to diplomatic tensions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralegaon_Siddhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralegaon_Siddhihttp://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdfhttp://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdfhttp://powermin.nic.in/acts_notification/electricity_act2003/preliminary.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertically_integratedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_based_tariffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APJ_Abdul_Kalamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatrophahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatropha_incentives_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muppandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muppandalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatropha_incentives_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatrophahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APJ_Abdul_Kalamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_based_tariffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertically_integratedhttp://powermin.nic.in/acts_notification/electricity_act2003/preliminary.htmhttp://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdfhttp://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralegaon_Siddhi


11/55

with the United States. Because of political instability in the Middle East and increasingdomestic demand for energy, India is keen on decreasing its dependency on OPEC to meet its oildemand, and increasing its energy security. Several Indian oil companies, primarily lead byONGC and Reliance Industries, have started a massive hunt for oil in several regions in Indiaincluding Rajasthan, Krishna-Godavari and north-eastern Himalayas. The proposed Iran-

Pakistan-India pipeline is a part of India's plan to meet its increasing energy demand.

Nuclear power

India boasts a quickly advancing and active nuclear power program. It is expected to have 20GW of nuclear capacity by 2020, though they currently stand as the 9th in the world in terms ofnuclear capacity.

An achilles heel of the Indian nuclear power program, however, is the fact that they are notsignatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. This has many times in their historyprevented them from obtaining nuclear technology vital to expanding their use of nuclear

industry. Another consequence of this is that much of their program has been domesticallydeveloped, much like their nuclear weapons program. United States-India Peaceful AtomicEnergy Cooperation Act seems to be a way to get access to advanced nuclear technologies forIndia.

India has been using imported enriched uranium and are under International Atomic EnergyAgency (IAEA) safeguards, but it has developed various aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle tosupport its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limitedimports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because itallows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has also done a greatamount of work in the development of a Thorium centered fuel cycle. While Uranium deposits in

the nation are extremely limited, there are much greater reserves of Thorium and it could providehundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. The fact that Thorium can theoreticallybe utilized in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor thatwould burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a Thorium blanket is under construction atthe Madras/Kalpakkam Atomic Power Station.

Uranium used for the weapons program has been separate from the power program, usingUranium from scant indigenous reserves.

Solar Energy

India's theoretical solar potential is about 5000 T kWh per year (i.e. ~ 600 TW), far more than itscurrent total consumption. Currently solar power is prohibitive due to high initial costs ofdeployment. However India's long-term solar potential could be unparalleled in the worldbecause it has the ideal combination of both high solar insolation and a big potential consumerbase density. With a major section of its citizens still surviving off-grid, India's grid system isconsiderably under-developed. Availability of cheap solar can bring electricity to people, andbypass the need of installation of expensive grid lines. Also a major factor influencing a regions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ONGChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godavari_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-east_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Pakistan-India_pipelinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Pakistan-India_pipelinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States-India_Peaceful_Atomic_Energy_Cooperation_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States-India_Peaceful_Atomic_Energy_Cooperation_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s_three_stage_nuclear_power_programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s_three_stage_nuclear_power_programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States-India_Peaceful_Atomic_Energy_Cooperation_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States-India_Peaceful_Atomic_Energy_Cooperation_Acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Pakistan-India_pipelinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Pakistan-India_pipelinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-east_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godavari_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliance_Industrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ONGChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEC


12/55

energy intensity is the cost of energy consumed for temperature control. Since cooling loadrequirements are roughly in phase with the sun's intensity, cooling from intense solar radiationcould make perfect energy-economic sense in the subcontinent, whenever the requiredtechnology becomes competitively cheaper.

Nuclear power in India

Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major source of nuclear fuel to India. Due to dwindlingdomestic uranium reserves, electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by12.83% from 2006 to 2008. Following a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group in September2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade, India has signed nuclear deals

with several other countries including France, United States, United Kingdom,Canada, Namibia.Mongolia, Argentina, Kazakhstan In February 2009, India also signed a $700 million deal withRussia for the supply of 2000 tons nuclear fuel.

India now envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricitygeneration capacity from 4.2% to 9% within 25 years. In 2010, India's installed nuclear powergeneration capacity will increase to 6,000 MW. As of 2009, India stands 9th in the world interms of number of operational nuclear power reactors and is constructing 9 more, including twoEPRs being constructed by France's Areva. Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4,both of which are 540 MW reactors. India's $717 million fast breeder reactor project is expectedto be operational by 2010.

Nuclear Power Growth in India

Growth

India, being a non-signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, has been subjected to adefacto nuclear embargo from members of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) cartel. This hasprevented India from obtaining commercial nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant components andservices from the international market, thereby forcing India to develop its own fuel, componentsand services for nuclear power generation. The NSG embargo has had both negative and positiveconsequences for India's Nuclear Industry. On one hand, the NSG regime has constrained Indiafrom freely importing nuclear fuel at the volume and cost levels it would like to support thecountry's goals of expanding its nuclear power generation capacity to at least 20,000 MW by
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-US_civilian_nuclear_agreement#NSG_waiverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Pressurized_Reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arevahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Non-Proliferation_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Non-Proliferation_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arevahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Pressurized_Reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-US_civilian_nuclear_agreement#NSG_waiverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_intensity


13/55

2020. Also, by precluding India from taking advantage of the economies of scale and safetyinnovations of the global nuclear industry, the NSG regime has driven up the capital andoperating costs and damaged the achievable safety potential of Indian nuclear power plants. Onthe other hand, the NSG embargo has forced the Indian government and bureaucracy to supportand actively fund the development of Indian nuclear technologies and industrial capacities in all

key areas required to create and maintain a domestic nuclear industry. This has resulted in thecreation of a large pool of nuclear scientists, engineers and technicians that have developed newand unique innovations in the areas of Fast Breeder Reactors, Thermal Breeder Reactors, theThorium fuel cycle, nuclear fuel reprocessing and Tritium extraction & production. Ironically,had the NSG sanctions not been in place, it would have been far more cost effective for India toimport foreign nuclear power plants and nuclear fuels than to fund the development of Indiannuclear power generation technology, building of India's own nuclear reactors, and thedevelopment of domestic uranium mining, milling and refining capacity.

The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the comingyears thanks in part to the passing of The Indo-US nuclear deal. This agreement will allow India

to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhanceits power generation capacity.]when the agreement goes through, India is expected to generatean additional 25,000 MW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear powergeneration to 45,000 MW.

India has already been using imported enriched uranium and are currently under InternationalAtomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, but it has developed various aspects of the nuclearfuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affectedby limited imports. Use ofheavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nationbecause it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has alsodone a great amount of work in the development of a Thorium centered fuel cycle. WhileUranium deposits in the nation are limited (see next paragraph) there are much greater reservesof Thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. Thefact that Thorium can theoretically be utilized in heavy water reactors has tied the developmentof the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating aThorium blanket is under construction at the Madras/Kalpakkam Atomic Power Station.

Uranium used for the weapons program has been separate from the power program, usingUranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium(approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial andmilitary reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently,India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 metric tonnes of uranium per year. Even ifIndia were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20GW by 2020, nuclearpower generation would only consume 2000 metric tonnes of uranium per annum. Based onIndia's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, thisrepresents a 40 to 50 years uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note withreprocessing and breeder reactor technology, this supply could be stretched out many timesover). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's Nuclear Arsenal are only a fifteenth(1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning that India's domesticfissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-US_nuclear_dealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s_three_stage_nuclear_power_programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s_three_stage_nuclear_power_programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-US_nuclear_deal


14/55

Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirementsfor the foreseeable future.

Nuclear power & power plants

Operational plants:Kaiga, Kakrapar, Koodankulam,Kalpakkam, Kota, Tarapur, Narora

Research and testing:CIRUS reactor, Dhruva reactor, Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Institutefor Plasma Research (IPR), Heavy Water Board, Pokhran, Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre(VECC), Smiling Buddha, Pokhran-II

Organizations:Atomic Energy Commission, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), Department ofAtomic Energy,Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL)

Projects and Nuclear Testing:Smiling Buddha, Pokhran-II

Other topics:Energy policy of India,Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement

CIRUS reactor

CIRUS (Canada India Research U.S.) is a research reactor at the Bhabha Atomic Research

Center (BARC) in Trombay near Mumbai, India. CIRUS was supplied by Canada in 1954, butuses heavy water supplied by the U.S. (hence its name). It is the second oldest reactor in India.It is modeled on the Canadian Chalk River National Research X-perimental NRX reactor. The40 MW reactor burns natural uranium fuel, while using heavy water (deuterium) as amoderator. It is a tank reactor type with a core size of 3.14 m (H)x2.67 m (D). It first wentcritical July 10, 1960.

The reactor is not under IAEA safeguards (which did not exist when the reactor was sold),although Canada stipulated, and the U.S. supply contract for the heavy water explicitlyspecified, that it only be used for peaceful purposes. Nonetheless CIRUS has produced some ofIndia's initial weapon plutonium stockpile, as well as the plutonium for India's 1974 Pokhran-I

(Codename Smiling Buddha) nuclear test, the country's first nuclear test. At a capacity factor of50-80%, CIRUS can produce 6.6-10.5 kg of plutonium a year.

CIRUS was shut down in September 1997 for refurbishment and was scheduled to resumeoperation in 2003. The reactor was brought back into operation two years late in 2005. Duringrefurbishing, a low temperature vacuum evaporation-based desalination unit was also coupledto the reactor to serve as demonstration of using waste heat from a research reactor for seadesalination. Even if the reactor has a life of twenty more years, India has recently declared that
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiga_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiga_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakrapar_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakrapar_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koodankulam_Nuclear_Power_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koodankulam_Nuclear_Power_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajastan_Atomic_Power_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajastan_Atomic_Power_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narora_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhruva_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhruva_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGCARhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGCARhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Plasma_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Plasma_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Plasma_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_water_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_water_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_Energy_Cyclotron_Centrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_Energy_Cyclotron_Centrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_Energy_Cyclotron_Centrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Regulatory_Boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Regulatory_Boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Atomic_Energy_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Atomic_Energy_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Atomic_Energy_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-US_civilian_nuclear_agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-US_civilian_nuclear_agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_moderatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAEAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAEAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_moderatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-US_civilian_nuclear_agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Atomic_Energy_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Atomic_Energy_%28India%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Regulatory_Boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_Energy_Cyclotron_Centrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_Energy_Cyclotron_Centrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_water_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Plasma_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Plasma_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGCARhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhruva_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narora_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajastan_Atomic_Power_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koodankulam_Nuclear_Power_Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakrapar_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiga_Atomic_Power_Station


15/55

this reactor will be shut down by 2010 in accordance with the Indo-US nuclear accord reachedbetween Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and US President George W. Bush.

Madras Atomic Power Station

Madras Atomic Power Station

Data

Country India

OperatorNuclear Power Corporation of

India LTD.

Built 1970

Start of commercial operation January 24, 1984

Reactors

Reactors active 2 (440 MW)

Reactors under construction 1 (500 MW)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bushhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bushhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singh


16/55

Power

Total power

generation in 2006 2,311 GWh

Average annual generation

(last 5 yrs)1,476 GWh

Net generation 37,546 GWh

Other details

Website

Nuclear Power Corporation of India

As of July 24, 2007

Madras Atomic Power Station located at Kalpakkam about 80 km south ofChennai, India, isa comprehensive nuclear power production, fuel reprocessing, and waste treatment facility thatincludes plutonium fuel fabrication for fast breeder reactors [FBRs]. It is also India's first fullyindegenously constructed nuclear power station. It has two units of 170 MWe capacity each.The first and second units of the station went critical in 1983 and 1985 respectively. The stationhas reactors housed in a reactor building with double shell containment ensuring total protectioneven in the remotest possibility of loss of coolant accident. An Interim Storage Facility [ISF] isalso located in Kalpakkam.

Reactors

The facility houses two indigenously built CANDU type PHWRs called MAPS-1 and MAPS-2.MAPS-1 was completed in 1981, but start-up was delayed due to a shortage of heavy water.After procuring the necessary heavy water, the MAPS-1 went critical in 1983 and beganoperating at full power in January 1984. MAPS-2 obtained criticality in 1985 and began fullpower operations in March 1986. The two Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR) arecapable of generating 170MWe each which is lower than the designed power of 235MWe sincesome zircaloy pieces from the cracked cooling system was found in a moderator pump.
http://www.npcil.nic.in/main/ProjectOperationDisplay.aspx?ReactorID=75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpakkamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHWRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHWRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpakkamhttp://www.npcil.nic.in/main/ProjectOperationDisplay.aspx?ReactorID=75


17/55

Tarapur Atomic Power Station

Tarapur Atomic Power Station

Data

Country India

OperatorNuclear Power Corporation of

India LTD.

Built 1962

Start of commercial operation October 28, 1969

Reactors

Reactors active 4 (1,400 MW)

Power

Total power

generation in 20064,829 GWh

Average annual generation

(last 5 yrs)2,925 GWh
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India


18/55

Net generation 71,188 GWh

Other details

As of July 24, 2007

Tarapur Atomic Power Station (T.A.P.S.) is located in Tarapur, Maharashtra (India). It wasinitially constructed with two boiling water reactor (BWR) units of 160 MW each by Bechteland GE under the 1963 123 Agreement between India, the United States, and the InternationalAtomic Energy Agency. These were the first of their kind in Asia. More recently, an additionaltwo pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) units of 540 MW each were constructed by L & T

and Gammon India, seven months ahead of schedule and well within the original cost estimates.

With a total capacity of 1400 MW, Tarapur is the largest nuclear power station in India. Thefacility is operated by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited. The personnel operatingthe power plant live in a residential complex called T. A. P. S. colony. This residential complexis a fifteen minute drive from Boisar, the nearest railway station. The residential complex wasalso constructed by Bechtel to house both Indian and American employees. Due to this, theresidential complex had a very American small-town look, with neat sidewalks, spacioushouses, a club with tennis courts and swimming pool, a commissary etc. While the originalAmerican residents have long gone, the colony continues to thrive.

The sprawling resedential now boasts of 3 Schools with moderately spacious classrooms.TheRecreational facilities in colony is well maintained.The local beach is flocked by fishermanvillagers and the regular picnikers.

Currently, nineteen nuclear power reactors produce 4,560.00 MW (2.9% of total installed base).

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)

Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 220 x 3 660

Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 220 x 2 440

Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu PHWR 220 x 2 440

Narora NPCIL Uttar Pradesh PHWR 220 x 2 440
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bechtelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/123_Agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurised_heavy_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_%26_Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammon_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_India_Limitedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakrapar_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpakkamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpakkamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakrapar_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_India_Limitedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammon_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_%26_Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurised_heavy_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/123_Agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bechtelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur,_Maharashtra


19/55

Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR

100 x 1

200 x 1

220 x 4

1180

Tarapur

NPCIL Maharashtra BWR (PHWR)

160 x 2

540 x 2 1400

Total 19 4560

The projects under construction are:

Power stationOperator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)

Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 220 x 1 220

Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 2 2000

Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu PFBR 500 x 1 500

Total 4 2720

The planned projects are:


Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 640 x 2 1280

Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR 640 x 2 1280


Jaitapur NPCIL Maharashtra EPR 1600 x 4 6400

Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PWR 1000 x 1, 1500 x 1 2500

Bhavini PFBR 470 x 4 1880

NPCIL

AHWR 300 300
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawatbhatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpakkamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFBRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakrapar_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawatbhatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaitapurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Pressurized_Reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFBRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHWRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHWRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFBRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Pressurized_Reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaitapurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawatbhatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakrapar_Atomic_Power_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFBRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpakkamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur,_Maharashtrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawatbhata


20/55

NTPC

PWR 1000 x 2 2000

NPCIL

PHWR 640 x 4 2560

Total 10 20600

The following projects are firmly proposed.

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)


Jaitapur NPCIL Maharastra EPR 1600 x 2 3200

Pati Sonapur Orissa PWR

6000

Kumaharia Haryana PWR

2800

Saurashtra Gujarat PWR

Pulivendula NPCIL 51%, AP Genco 49% Andhra Pradesh PWR 2000 x 1 2000

Kovvada Andhra Pradesh PWR

Haripur West Bengal PWR - -

Total 15

The following projects are proposed and to be confirmed soon.


Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1200 1200 x 22400

Total 2 2400
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Thermal_Power_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaitapurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharastrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Pressurized_Reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orissahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orissahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Pressurized_Reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharastrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaitapurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVERhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudankulamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Power_Corporation_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Thermal_Power_Corporation


21/55

Thermal power station

A thermal power station

Geothermal power station

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water isheated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which either drives an electrical generator ordoes some other work, like ship propulsion. After it passes through the turbine, the steam iscondensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle.The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources.Some prefer to use the term energy centerbecause such facilities convert forms ofheat energyinto electrical energy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_planthttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prime_moverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship#Propulsion_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_condenserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankine_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohave_Generating_Station_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TermoElectricaBulgaria.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankine_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_condenserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship#Propulsion_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prime_moverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_power


22/55

Introductory overview

Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as wellas many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gasturbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in acombined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, oil, or naturalgas are often referred to collectively asfossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermalpower plants have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueledplants, which do not use cogeneration are sometimes referred to as conventional power plants.

Commercial electric utility power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale anddesigned for continuous operation. Electric power plants typically use three-phase or individual-phase electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of50 Hz or 60 Hz (hertz, which is an AC sine wave per second) depending on its location in theworld. Other large companies or institutions may have their own usually smaller power plants tosupply heating or electricity to their facilities, especially if heat or steam is created anyway forother purposes. Shipboard steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships in thepast, but these days are used most often in large naval ships. Such shipboard power plants aregeneral lower power capacity than full-size electric company plants, but otherwise have manysimilarities except that typically the main steam turbines mechanically turn the propulsionpropellers, either through reduction gears or directly by the same shaft. The steam power plantsin such ships also provide steam to separate smaller turbines driving electric generators to supplyelectricity in the ship. Shipboard steam power plants can be either conventional or nuclear; theshipboard nuclear plants are mostly in the navy. There have been perhaps about a dozen turbo-electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers anelectric motor for propulsion.

In some industrial, large institutional facilities, or other populated areas, there arecombined heatand power(CHP) plants, often called cogeneration plants, which produce both power and heatfor facility or district heating or industrial applications. AC electrical power can be stepped up tovery high voltages for long distance transmission with minimal loss of power. Steam and hotwater lose energy when piped over substantial distance, so carrying heat energy by steam or hotwater is often only worthwhile within a local area or facility, such as steam distribution for a shipor industrial facility or hot water distribution in a local municipality.

History

Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the 18thCentury, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first commercialcentral electrical generating stations in New York and London, in 1882, also used reciprocatingsteam engines. As generator sizes increased, eventually turbines took over they encres the hosepower.

Efficiency
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incinerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gas_emissions_from_fossil_fuel_combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil-fuel_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil-fuel_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil-fuel_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogenerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-phasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_gearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo-electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo-electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_propulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_heat_and_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_heat_and_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_heat_and_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_heat_and_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_heat_and_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_heat_and_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_propulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo-electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo-electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_gearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_generatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-phasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogenerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil-fuel_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gas_emissions_from_fossil_fuel_combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incinerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal


23/55

Power is energy per unit time. The power output or capacity of an electric plant can be expressedin units of megawatts electric (MWe). The electric efficiency of a conventional thermal powerstation, considered as saleable energy (in MWe) produced at the plant busbars as a percent of theheating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48% efficient. This efficiency is limitedas all heat engines are governed by the laws ofthermodynamics (See: Carnot cycle). The rest of

the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. This waste heat can go through a condenserand be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilizedfor district heating, it is called cogeneration. An important class of thermal power station areassociated with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with largesupplies ofnatural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equallyimportant co-products.

Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolutetemperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency improvements require use ofhigher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other working fluids suchas mercury have been experimentally used in a mercury vapour turbine power plant, since these

can attain higher temperatures than water at lower working pressures. However, the obvioushazards of toxicity, and poor heat transfer properties, have ruled out mercury as a working fluid.

Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal power station
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_%28physics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_condenserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogenerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_vapour_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PowerStation2.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_vapour_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogenerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_condenserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_%28physics%29


24/55

Steam generator

In fossil-fueled power plants,steam generatorrefers to a furnace that burns the fossil fuel to boilwater to generate steam. In the nuclear plant field,steam generatorrefers to a specific type oflarge heat exchanger used in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to thermally connect the primary(reactor plant) and secondary (steam plant) systems, which of course is used to generate steam.

In a nuclear reactor called a boiling water reactor (BWR), water is boiled to generate steamdirectly in the reactor itself and there are no units called steam generators. In some industrialsettings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called heat recovery steamgenerators (HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process. The steam generating boilerhas to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbinethat drives the electrical generator. A fossil fuel steam generator includes an economizer, a steamdrum, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and superheater coils. Necessary safetyvalves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas pathequipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID)fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack.[1][2][3]

Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heatexchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessivesuspended solids. Nuclear plants also boil water to raise steam, either directly generating steamfrom the reactor (BWR) or else using an intermediate heat exchanger (PWR).

For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by installingduplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating dampers. On someunits of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided.

1. Cooling tower 10. Steam Control valve 19. Superheater

2. Cooling water pump11. High pressure steam

turbine20. Forced draught (draft) fan

3. transmission line (3-phase) 12. Deaerator 21. Reheater

4. Step-up transformer (3-phase) 13. Feedwater heater 22. Combustion air intake

5. Electrical generator (3-phase) 14. Coal conveyor 23. Economiser

6. Low pressure steam turbine 15. Coal hopper 24. Air preheater

7. Condensate pump 16. Coal pulverizer 25. Precipitator

8. Surface condenser 17. Boiler steam drum 26. Induced draught (draft) fan

9. Intermediate pressure

steamturbine18. Bottom ash hopper 27. Flue gas stack
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler_%28steam_generator%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler_%28steam_generator%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler_%28steam_generator%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wik

Documents

Electricity Sector in India 1