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This article was downloaded by: [University of Western Ontario]On: 13 November 2014, At: 19:47Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,UK
The Serials Librarian: From thePrinted Page to the Digital AgePublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wser20
Electronic Journals as aPotential Solution to EscalatingSerials CostsRobert A. Pikowsky aa University of Idaho College of Law Library ,Moscow, ID, 83844-2334, USAPublished online: 22 Oct 2008.
To cite this article: Robert A. Pikowsky (1997) Electronic Journals as a PotentialSolution to Escalating Serials Costs, The Serials Librarian: From the Printed Page tothe Digital Age, 32:3-4, 31-56, DOI: 10.1300/J123v32n03_04
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ARTICLES
Electronic Journals as a Potential Solution
to Escalating Serials Costs
Robert A. Pikowsky
ABSTRACT. Research libraries are currently facing a dramatic escala- tion of the cost of managing their serials collections. The cost of maintaining scientific, technical, and medical (STM) journals is increasing at a particularly rapid rate because of (1) significant sub- scription price increases and (2) the proliferation of ever more spe- cialized journals that must be added to the collection. Together, these two factors threaten to overwhelm the serials budgets of even the wealthiest libraries. To cope with this situation, libraries are coming to measure their collections not merely by ownership of journals but rather by access to journals. At present, access most often comes about through utilization of interlibrary loan procedures or document delivery services. In the future, full text clectronic access will become more commonplace.
This paper summarizes the budgetary issues facing serials librari- ans in research libraries. It then discusses the evolution of electronic publishing from its origins in electronic bibliographic access to monographs as it moves toward full text access to electronic jour-
Bob Pikowsky is Assistant Law Librarian at the University of Idaho College of Law Library, Moscow, ID 83844-2334 (E-mail: [email protected]).
Thc Serials Librarian, Vol. 32(3/4) 1997 O 1997 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 31
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32 TllE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
nals. Although the rise of clectronic publishing is viewed as part of an inevitable progression from electronic bibliographic databases, electronic journals will coexist with print journals for the foreseeable futurc.
The paper concludes that electronic journals provide a preferable alternative to printed acadcmic journals in that electronic publishing facilitates more efficient communication among scholars at lower cost. Moreover, clectronic publishing could lead to a resurgence of the university press with a proportionate decline in the role of corn- mercial (STM) publishers. Such restructuring of the academic pub- lishing industry would be expected to result in significant reductions in the prices of scientific journals. Librarians should play an active role in the transformation or else they risk being left behind. [Arlicle copies available for a fee Jiom The Haworth Docuntetil Delivery Setvice: 1-800-342-9678. E-rr~nil addtws: ge~itfi@iuwor~ih.con~]
I. CHANGES IN THE ACADEMIC PUBLISHING INDUSTRY RESULT IN ESCALATION OF SERIALS PRICES
Modern scholarly publishing has traditionally been dominated by the university press. Commercial publishers of academic material wcrc gcner- ally family-owned businesses operating on small profit margins and man- aged by people with academic backgrounds. However, the industry began to change in the 1960s.'
At that time, large commercial publishers were attractcd to the aca- demic marketplacc by growing library budgets and the burgeoning num- ber of scholarlv writings available for uublication. Oncc established in the market, many commer~ial serials pubfishers seized the opportunity to sell additional subscriptions by creating new and more specialized titles paral- leling the rise o f specialTzation within the academic community.z This practice is particularly wcll known within the scientific, technical, and medical (STM) segment of the market.
Of cousse, universities inadvertently contributed to the growth of seri- als titles through the publication requirements for tenure of professors. Professors who are unablc to publish in the premier journals of their field often prefcr to publish in a new journal devoted to their narrow specialty rather than in a lesser established journal of broader scope.3
By thc carly 1970s, libraries reduced their purchases of new serials and began to cut back on their current subscriptions. In response, publishers gcncrally raiscd prices to make up for lost sales.4 his strategy provcd successful because every journal cnjoys a monopoly of its market and can not quite be replaced by other competing j o ~ r n a l s . ~ Thus, libraries were
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Robert A. Piko~rs@ 33
forced to continue subscriptions to all of those journals deemcd essential to the collection despite price increases.(' . A
Eventually, major international holding companies began to take notice of the profitability of commercial academic publishers. Today, most maior
are owned by multinational corpbrations, who are also acq&r- ing teleco~nmunications providers and database compilers to incrcase their presence within the information industry.'
As academic publishers consolidated among large, sophisticated busi- ness enterprises, new pricing strategies emerged to fully cxploit the market potential. For example, subscription rates are often higher for libraries than for individuals. Subscription rates for United States librarics are often higher than the ratcs charged to libraries in other countries. Further, large European-based publishers have begun to take into consideration interna- tional currency value fluctuations when dictating terms of paymcnt from libraries. Thus, American libraries have incurred increased costs during times when the value of the dollar has declined o v e r ~ e a s . ~
As the result of these factors, the cost of academic journals (particularly STM journals) has skyrocketed in recent years. Between 1981 and 1992, materials budgets have increased by 244% in ARL libraries, but collection size has grown by only 12%. U to 80% of the acquisitions budgets of ! research libraries goes to scrials. Joel S. Rutstcin et al. find it ironic that much of the information created at American universities is packaged by European publishers and then sold back to the American universities where the material originated.I0
In response to such steep price increases, libraries are evaluating inno- vative methods to regain control of their serials budgets. One promising avenue operates on the assumption that access to titles is oftcn an adequate substitute for ownership. Under this scenario, the library purchases those journals of greatest importance to its patrons, while ensuring that journals of lesser importance are accessible from other sources as needed. If prop- erly implemcnted, this strategy allows the library to make available in a timcly manner titles that it has not purchascd.
II. HIGH SERIALS PRICES LEAD TO THE DEBATE OVER ACCESS VS. 0 WNERSHIP
A. Budgetary Cortstraiitts Preclude "Warehousing " ofthe Growing Number of Published Journals
Academic libraries today are evaluated primarily on thc basis of the size of their collections. A high quality collection contains material cover-
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34 THE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
ing a broad range of disciplines with sufficient scholarly depth in each area. Yet this standard of excellence is becoming more dificult to maintain as the result of increased journal prices and theproliferation of new jour- nals. The strain imposed on library budgets has resulted in a call for the creation of a new measure of quality bascd on acccss to materials rather than ownership. '
The modern academic library can not be viewed simply as a warehouse for materials physically located on the premises. Budgetary constraints no longer permit "just-in-case" collection development policies under which materials are acquired because of the potential for use someti~ne in the unknown future. Instead, some research libraries are moving toward adop- tion of a "just-in-time" philosophy. From this perspective, the library purchascs only those materials that its users will need without delay, freeing up funds to provide access to less essential journals when actually rcquc~tcd. '~ The "just-in-time" approach allows the library to obtain access to more journals than it could afford to buy outright.
Traditionally, the "just-in-time" approach has been dependent on inter- library loan arrangements with cooperating libraries or document delivery scrviccs. Unfortunately, both a proaches can cause delays before patrons obtain the materials they need. &
Of course, patrons must become aware of the existence of published information before the issue of access comes into play. Modern libraries typically help in this by providing bibliographic access through an elec- tronic bibliographic database.
I . Electronic Bibliographic Access to Books Began the Move Toward Electronic Full Text Access to Journals
a. Bibliographic access must be distinguished from full-text access
In discussing electronic access, one must distinguish bctween mere bibliographic access and full text access to material. Bibliographic access to journals not held by the library must be supplcmcntcd by interlibrary loan or document delivery service before the patron can view the text of an article. In contrast, full-text access permits immediate downloading and printing of an article not held on-sitc.14
Writing in 1993, William Potter divides full-text databases into thrcc categories:
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Robert A. Pikowsky 35
I. Rcference works, such as the electronic version of The Oxfod En- glish Dictionary;
2. Core journals, which include the 1500-2000 journals that are most commonly held by acadcrnic libraries and are indexed in Periodical Abstracts, the Expanded Academic Index, and the central H.W. Wil- son Indexes; and
3. High-end journals, whose prices are expensive even though the journals are not extensively used.15
In 1997, perhaps a t least two additional categories of full-text databases can now be identified:
A. Journals that are available through commercial services such as LexisMexis or DIALOG (mentioned briefly by Potter but generally outside the scope of his article); and
B. Electronic archives of articles that are available over the Internet but have no print counterpart, which will be discussed in more detail below.I6
When Potter wrote in 1993, none of his three categorics were widely available in full text format through electronic means. At that time, libraries focuscd their immediate attention primarily on bibliographic access insofar as electronic access was concerned.17
b. Electronic bibliographic databases replace print indexes in modern research libraries
Clifford A. Lynch explains that electronic bibliographic access was initially implemented in the carly 1980s when libraries began to replacc card catalogs with online catalogs containing bibliographic records for monographs (and often for serials as well). Bibliographic access to books was facilitated in large part by the rise of OCLC and RLIN.I8
However, ilnplementation of electronic bibliographic access to journal articlcs was more difficult to accomplish bccause journal literaturc data- bases are orders of magnitude largcr than those covering monographic databases. Moreover, journal databases are generally provided piecemeal by private database vendors so separate licensing from each vcndor is necessary to cover the entirety of the journal literature.I9 Cooperative efforts to provide bibliographic access to journal literaturc are limited by licensing restrictions imposed by the database
Despite these problems, bibliographic access to journal literature began in the late 1980s, when some libraries began to license Abstracting and
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36 THE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
Indexing (A&I) databases, which were mounted onto their online catalogs. Alternatively, other libraries experimented with CD-ROM versions of A&I databasesz1
In either case, a successful system of electronic access must permit the patron to locate relevant information contained within the library's collec- tion or elsewhere. Few patrons will discover an article that does not appear in at least one of the library's A&I databases, so libraries may be forced to buy multiple databases from competin vendors in order to provide thor- ough coverage of the existing journals. 52
A&I databases have virtually replaccd print indexes as the tool of choice among patrons of academic libraries. Lynch enumerates several implications of the increasing importance of A&I databases in the func- tioning of academic libraries. First, librarians will need to carefhlly select the appropriate A&I databases because of the high cost of licensing and mounting them. Second, academic faculty will need to play an active role in determining those journals that must be included in the A&I databases. Third, librarians will need to decide how much of their acquisitions budget should be spent on the procurement of A&I databases and how much should be spent on actual serials a cq~ i s i t i ons .~~
2. Factors to Consider When Choosing the Best Method ofproviding Electmnic Bibliographic Access to Journals
William Potter points out seven factors to be considered when selecting the best method of offering electronic bibliographic access to journals: ( I ) anticipated use, (2) cost of hardware, (3) cost of license, (4) functional- ity, (5) need to sup ort remote users, (6) possibilities of cooperation, and (7) political issues. 8
Potter reasons that a heavily used database would best be mounted on the library's online catalog to avoid paying a commercial vendor for con- nect time. If little use is anticipated, CD-ROM may be the best alternative.
Of course, the larger the database, the more expensive it will be to store locally. Mainframe disk storage of a database is the most expensive option, though hard disk storage costs are decreasing rapidly since Potter's writing in 1993.
An analysis of licensing costs must take into consideration any restric- tions on who may use the database as well as limitations on the number of simultaneous users.
The functionality of competing databases must be contemplated in that some databases offer better features than others. For example, one may offer a superior search engine over its competitors.
A database that permits dial-up access might be necessary for a largc
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library that supports remote users. A stand-alone CD-ROM might be ade- quate for a smaller library whose patrons generally work on-site.
Despite licensing restrictions, membcrs of a library consortium might be able to share a networked databasc. Acquisition costs may vary if the database is licensed by a group rather than an individual library.
Political considerations cannot be overlooked, so a university library that has loaded a set of scientific databases on its online catalog may necd to consider loading a database covering thc humanities.
B. Electroriic Bibliographic Access, Srrpple~rierrted by Interlibrnry L o w , Is Not on Adeqrrnte Srrbstitrrte for O~vrtcrs/rip
Elcctronic bibliographic databases permit library patrons to obtain cita- tions to journal articles, but they must then locate copies of the articles whose citations they have found. If the articlcs are contained in journals held by the library, they can be read without delay. If not, thc patrons must wait for interlibrary loan or document delivery serviccs to produce copics.
Murray Martin asserts that in many instances, patrons can not afford to wait for material to arrive from outside the library. For example, students writing class papers often require instant a ~ a i l a b i l i t y . ~ ~ They are working under tight deadlines and will limit their research to those journals that arc available on the premises.
Moreover, Martin asserts that scientists are notorious for demanding immediate response, though humanists often work rnorc slowly.26 Viewed from this perspective, reliance on access to print journals not owned by the library becomes a budgetary compromise that should not bc relied on more than is absolutely necessary.
111. REPLACEMENT OF PRINT JOURNALS WITH ELECTRONIC JOURNALS AS THE SOLUTION
TO RUNAWAY SERIALS COSTS
A. Alterrrntives to tlrs Trnditionnl Printed Jorrrrrrtl Hnve Alrendy Been Tried wit11 Lirrrited Sirccess
Anne Piternick lists four alternative formats of scientific journals that were created long bcfore the advent of the electronic journal: (I) dissem- ination of separates, (2) selective dissemination of scparatcs, (3) publica- tion of synopscs, and (4) publication in m i c r o f o r ~ n . ~ ~
In 1965, the Society of Automotive Engineers began to disseminate
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38 THE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
articlcs that could be purchased individually, as bound volumes, or as microfiche. In 1968, the American Mathematical Society set up the Math- ematical Offprint Service for the purpose of selectively distributing indi- vidual articles based on readcr profilcs. A fcw journals still publish in synopsis format, with copies of the full articles available on demand. Of course, microform has proven itself as a method of storage for back issues of journals, but has never succeeded as a format for publishing current issucs.
Nonc of thcse formats has cnjoycd widcsprcad succcss as an alternative to conventional print journals. Pitcrnick argucs that these experiments prove readers will not accept "unfriendly" formats, and authors are unwilling to write for them. If electronic journals are to survive, readers and authors must come to perceive them as a "fricndly" format.28
B. Electronic Journals Must Overcome Several Obstacles in Order to Beconre a Kable Alternative to Print Jorrnrals
In 1993, Margo Sasse and B. Jean Winkler described five specific obstacles that electronic journals must overcome: (I) many library patrons are not sufficiently computer literate lo gain access to electronic journals over the Internet, (2) few electronic journals are covered by the major Abstracting and Indexing services, (3) no systematic means for archiving of back issues has been established, (4) many authors arc unwilling to submit articles to electronic journals, none of which have the prestige of the leading print journals, and (5) most peo le prefer to read from paper despite improvements in display technology. ?!I
Sasse and Winkler's assessment remains accurate at present, though a growing number of academic library patrons are capable of accessing electronic journals over the Web. A more current summary of the issues facing publishers of electronic journals shows how the impediments to electronic publishing are evolving as networking technology becomes more commonplace: (1) publishers have not yet determincd a reasonable pricing structurc for electronic journals, (2) methods must be established to permit access by subscribers while locking out all others, (3) new page layouts that look good online and take advantage of electronic capabilit~es (such as linking to other sources) must bc dcviscd, (4) publishers must come to tcrms with a certain amount of copyright infringement due to the easc with which electronic articlcs can bc forwarded around thc Internet, (5) no means of ensuring backfile availability has been established, and ( 6 ) publishers must ensure that their journals can bc acccsscd reliably, especially during peak times, so sites must be mirrored or othcrwisc main- tained to guarantee dependable a~a i l ab i l i t y .~~
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C. Tlie Sitccess of Electrorric Publishing Coitld Drantaticnlly Redrice the Cost of Serials and Ultimately Lead to the Restriictirriirg of the Acadcrriic Prtblislring Industry
I . A Centrnl Electranic Collection us an Alternative to Print Journals Held by Libraries Throughout the Country
Over the last few years, several writers have discussed the concept of a central electronic collection of scholarly works that is immediately acces- sible to the entire academic community. A single electronic article in this collection would serve the same function now performed by print copics in research libraries throughout the country.
For example, Eldred Smith argues that a central electronic collection would transform research libraries into information centers where librari- ans serve as intermediaries between patrons and the master database. In this scheme, libraries would no longer incur the expense of acquiring, organizing and preserving duplicative, incomplete collcctions. Instead, libraries would entirely abandon the traditional notions of ownership in favor of a pure access paradigm.3'
Smith discusses four impediments to his vision of the hture, all of which he argucs can be overcome: (1) technology, (2) economics, (3) accep- tance, and (4) copyright.32
Technology alrcady permits the creation of huge databases, and ncw systems capable of implementing a central electronic collection could eventually be designed. A central electronic collection would be afford- able for libraries in view of publishers' cost savings resulting from the shift from print to electronic distribution. Scholars are making increased use of electronics for their informal communication, and will likely accept it as the method of choice for conducting their formal communication. Finally, a pure access paradigm based on a central electronic collection would reduce the need for scholarly publishers to depend on copyright protection^.^^
2. The Concept of a Central Electronic Collection Is Evolving in Favor of Nun~eraus Distributed Databases
The number of electronic journals increased from I I0 in 1991 to 440 in 1 9 9 4 . ~ ~ This figurc grew to 675 by 1995.3~ As of 1996, thc count stands at 1 ,688.36
Onc of thc lcading proponcnts of clcctronic publishing is physicist Paul Ginsbarg of the Los Alamos National Laboratory. In 1991, Ginsbarg
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40 THE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
began a new database that has since become one of the largest on the Internet, archiving unrefereed papers on high energy physics and about 25 additional disciplines. Access is available through the World Wide Web at http://xxx.lanl.govl and through anonymous FTP. Ginsbarg also maintains a listserv so that subscribers can receive a daily update of new titles and abstracts. Ginsbarg's archive processes about 350 new submissions per weck. Thc Wcb interface rocesses about 15,000 requests per day on weekdays as of April 1995. Q7
Ginsbarg believes that electronic dissemination of unrefereed articles was rapidly acceptcd by high energy theoretical physicists because thcy had long ago concluded that traditional refereed journals were irrelevant to ongoing research. Since at least the mid-1970s, physicists kept up with current developments by reading preprints of articles that were submitted to journals for publication. The prcprints were typically made available through professional associations at about the same time as they were submitted for publication. The published article would usually appear in print six to twelve months later. To avoid such a lengthy delay in the dissemination of research results, larger associations routinely incurred annual costs of $15,000-$20,000 related to the distribution of preprints.38
Without relying on the credibility of a journal publisher to help judge the value of an article, physicists simply decided whether to read any given article based on the title, abstract, and the authors. Physicists veri- fied the reported results themselves when necessary instead of relying on journal referees to do so. Ginsbarg asserts that the filtering function of refereed journals plays no meaningful role in high energy physics research due to the delay in publication of printed articles.39
The widespread acceptance of Ginsbarg's electronic archive was facili- tated by three recent technological advances: ( I ) extensive standardization on TeX as a scientific word processor which produces output of visual quality comparable to that found in print journals, (2) tremendous growth in the number of scientists connected to the Internet, and (3) general availability of workstations with high ca acity storagc media which make electronic archives feasible at low cost? t
While technology has facilitated the acceptance of electronic archives, it also raises new issues that are unique to the electronic format. The question of security is of critical importance. Ginsbarg maintains that archives can be maintained so as to be highly resistant to corruption of data by hacker^.^'
Another concern is the possibility that electronic distribution will encourage the submission of prcliminary research results that may be inaccurate. Ginsbarg refutes this notion, arguing that authors would be
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Rober.1 A. Pikowsky 41
embarrassed to disseminate erroneous information through electronic posting, which makes an article immediately available to large numbers of pcople throughout the scientific community. Having submitted incorrect data, the author cannot remove the posted article, but can only add a note indicating that the work has been withdrawn as flawed.'12
A third concern remaining to be addressed by unrefereed electronic journals is that of unqualified individuals posting research that does not meet the standards of the serious scientific community. Ginsbarg acknowl- edges that a mcchanism may eventually need to be implemented to prevent posting of such "crackpot" papers.43
Despite these unique issues, Ginsbarg points to several benefits of his electronic archive over printed journals: (I) electronic files are more accessible than paper copies of articles and negate the delay experienced when paper copies must be shipped around the world, (2) the cost of an electronic archive that is set up and maintained on an existing network is so low that it can be offered at virtually no charge, (3) electronic archives encourage interdisciplinary exchanges of ideas because authors can insert pointers to other papers stored in different archives, and (4) electronic archives will make information available to researchers in developing countries that otherwise would not have access because the cost of con- necting to an existing network is far less than the cost of constructing, supplying and maintaining a library.'14
Though his electronic archive is entirely unrefereed, Ginsbarg recog- nizes that the refereeing process continues to play a useful role in many disciplines other than his own. He points out that an electronic archive could be divided into different sectors based on the level of refereeing to which articles are exposed.4S
Moreover, Stevan Harnad argues that a significant benefit of thc new electronic medium is the capacity to make drafts of articles available for commentary throughout the scientific community before the author has completed a final article worthy of formal peer review and archiving. He refers to this early, almost real-time exchange of ideas as "scholarly sky- writing." Harnad believes that the expanded opportunity to exchange ideas while an article is in its formative stages will result in enhanced scholarship which proceeds at a more rapid pace than is presently possible. Upon completion, such an article remains subject to traditional peer review and could be archived in electronic form.46
Harnad contends that the significance of "scholarly skywriting" through electronic media lies in the speed with which ideas arc cxchanged between scholars. Harnad views scientific publishing as a two-way form of communication. Harnad persuasively argues that electronic commu-
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42 THE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
nication is fast enough to permit a meaningful exchange of ideas between the author and his audience. In contrast, print journals are too slow to reach their audience. By the time a reader has the opportunity to view an article and respond to the author's contentions, the author has moved on to other matters and the op ortunity for improved scholarship through peer interaction has been lost. i'7
In accordance with this theory, Harnad edits Psycoloquy, a refereed electronic journal sponsored by the American Psychological Association. There, authors can post short articles for the purpose of obtaining rapid feedback from other scholars.48
About 100 electronic journals have implemented a peer-review process, which can be as rigorous as that of any print journal. An example of a refereed electronic journal is Behavior and Brain Sciences, also edited by Stevan Harnad, which sends submitted articles to about five referees drawn from at least three different disciplines. If an article is approved by the referees, it is sent on to about 100 more experts for commentar Upon publication, as many as 30 commentaries appear with the article. 461.
3. Electronic Publishing Could Cause a Signifcant Shakeout of Certain Segments of the Academic Publishing Industry
Electronic publishing allows authors to make their work available directly to the public via the Internet without going through intermediaries such as commercial publishers, wholesalers or libraries. This process of disintermediation could potentially have a dramatic impact on the entire academic publishing industrys0
Eldrcd Smith maintains that commercial publishers came to promi- nence in the academic publishing industry in order to relieve university presses of the costs associated with the production and distribution of print journals.51 Of course, electronic publishing eliminates the need for these functions. Without them, Stevan Harnad argues that an clcctronic journal can be published at about 30% of the cost of a comparable paper journal.52
Further, Paul Ginsbarg has proven through his own experience that the cost of maintaining an electronic archive on an existing network is negligi- blc. Since major universities already have their own networks in place, it would seem to be a relatively inexpensive proposition for universities to publish electronic journals and create their own electronic archives with- out reliance on commercial publishers.
However, some disagree with this line of reasoning. Janet Fisher, associate director for journals publishing at the MIT Press, argues that the cost of publishing an electronic journal may not be significantly less than the cost of publishing a comparable paper journal. Fisher supports her
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argument by discussing the early experience of the MIT Press in publish- ing a new electronic journal, The Chicago Journal of Theoretical Com- puter Science. According to Fisher, the need for copy editing and other services provided by the publisher prevent major cost reductions regard- less of format. However, CJTCS had not been in existence long enough to reach a definite conclusion as of the time of Fisher's writings3
The truth may be somewhere between the positions of Harnad and Fisher. On one hand, an unrefereed archive such as Paul Ginsbarg's can run on an existing network virtually without cost in the absence of any editorial review of the authors' submissions. On the other hand, much of the editorial review required in a refereed journal must be accomplishcd regardless of electronic or paper format. Depending on the particular jour- nal, the cxpense of this function may be so high as to prevent a major cost reduction if the journal converted from print to electronic format despite the savings in paper, printing, binding, and mailing expenses. In other cases, significant savings might result.
Even if Fisher is correct in that total costs may not be substantially reduced by the shift from paper to electronic format, perhaps the lack of burdensome production and distribution functions could eventually entice more university presses to once again bccome major players in the aca- demic journal publishing market. After all, the discovery of knowledge and the announcement of those discoveries are more in line with the mission and expertise of the university than are the mechanics of printing and mass mailing thousands of copies of paper journals. Electronic jour- nals would allow universities to perform the basic functions of discovery and disclosure without the burden of performing the "non-academic" functions of printing and mass mailing.
What benefit would be gained by a resurgence of the university press? Would academic journal prices drop in the event that university presscs again came to dominate academic publishing? Although I am not an ccon- omist, I would expect that if all other factors remain equal, a non-profit university press would generally charge less for a given journal than a for-profit publisher would charge for a comparable title.
Scott Bennett argues that a move by university prcsses into electronic journal publishing would benefit the academic community and the presses as well. At prescnt, most university presses concentrate in the relatively unprofitable book publishing market while very few publish in the more lucrative markct for scientific, technical and medical journals. As a result, thc finances of university presses are becoming incrcasingly strained.54
Bennett sees electronic journal publishing as an opportunity for univer- sity prcsses to reenter the scientific, technical and mcdical journal market.
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By returning to the journal market, university presses could improve their financial condition while charging the academic community less than thc currcnt rates for comparable journals publishcd by commercial scientific publishers.
Moreover, the return of university presses to the market for scientific journals could create a more competitive atmosphere that would force commercial publishers to lower their prices. In the absence of lower priced, nonprofit entrants into the market, major price concessions could be dificult to obtain from commercial for-profit publishers whose journals enjoy copyright p r o t e c t i ~ n . ~ ~ Even if electronic publishing yields dramatic cost savings to publishcrs, for-profit commercial publishers have no obligation to pass the savings on to the academic
In contrast, the increased competition brought about by nonprofit uni- versity presses entering the market could force commercial publishers to reduce prices rather than face subscription cancellations by libraries that have lower priced alternatives available. In the past, the monopolistic nature of academic journals allowed commercial publishers to raise prices with virtual impunity since libraries would begrudgingly pay whatever the publisher demanded. Although every journal enjoys a monopoly of its market due to its uniqueness, commercial publishers today are undoubt- edly becoming sensitive to the reality of subscription cancellations now that prices have escalated beyond the budgets of many libraries. The added competition from lower cost university presses could force the publishers of all but the most essential journals to adjust their prices rather than lose subscriptions.
To achieve a general reduction in the price of STM journals, the pub- lishing function must be shifted away from commercial publishers to university presses. Only increased competition from nonprofit university presses will lower the prices of scientific, technical and medical journals. This proposition may be true regardless of whether journals are published electronically or in print. Electronic publishing might make this shift pos- sible by encouraging more university presses to enter the market.
Would authors be willing to submit their work to electronic journals that presently lack the prestige of the better-known print journals? Elec- tronic journals could be encouraged by tenure requirements that reward university faculty for submitting superior articles tb university-sponsored electronic publications rather than commercially published journals.57 Perhaps senior faculty with established reputations could be convinced by university administrators to submit articles to clectronic journals in an cffort to establish credibility. Or perhaps various segments of the academic community will submit articles to electronic journals simply because
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Robert A . Pikolvsky 45
researchers come to realize the inherent advantages of electronic publish- ing over paper journals.
IT university-sponsored electronic journals began to attract prestigious authors, their prominence could eventually rise to a level rivaling that of print journals now published by co~tunercial enterprises. Once university- sponsored electronic journals gain credibility, they could effectively replace many of today's expcnsivc print journals. At that point, thew would be little reason for universities to pay exorbitant subscription prices to conunercial STM publishers.
4. Major Research Universities Are Beginning to Publish Scholarly Electronic Journals
By the early part of 1996, Stanford University Libraries and Academic Information Resources were co-publishing clectronic versions of two print journals, Science and The Journul ofBiologicu1 Chemistry, on the Internet. Using the name "Highwire Press," they made these journals available at http://high~ire.stanford,edu/.~~
By May 1997, Highwire had 13 journals online, with anothcr 12 upcom- ing projects.59 Highwire offers scvcral levels of accessibility to nonsub- scribers. For example, Science On-Line permits nonsubscribers free access to tables of contents. Those who fill out a short survey are given partial free access to the journal for one year.60 In contrast, Journal o~Clinicul Investigation still permits full text access without charge during a trial period of unspecified d ~ r a t i o n . ~ '
The express mission of Highwire Press is stated as follows:
Foster research and instruction by providing a more direct linkage between the writers and readers of scholarly materials.
Use innovative network tools for capture, publishing, retrieval, read- ing and prcscntation.
Affect the economics of provision of scholarly information to rescarch- crs, especially science, technology and medical (STM) research information.
Ensure that the nascent marketplace for electronic com~nunication among scholars does not dcvelop along the semi-monopolistic lines of current STM publishing.
Build new tcchnological, economic and programmatic partnerships with others investigating related proble~ns.62
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Another experiment with electronic journals is taking place at Johns Hopkins University. Project Muse is a joint effort between Johns Hopkins University Prcss and the Milton S. Eisenhower Library. Its goal is to put online thc full text of ovcr 40 print journals published by the Press.
Access is limited in accordance with the "domain access" subscription scheme, undcr which users who belong to a subscribing institution can view the materials providcd that they log in from an approved Internet domain. Subscribing institutions can download and archive Project Muse publications, since subscribers archive the print copies anyway. Thc price of clectronic access is tied to thc cost of print journals, but discounts for consor- tiums are available. The URL for Project Muse is http://~nuse.jhu.edu/.~~
Forty titles were already available online as of May 1997. In addition, two electronic journals with no hard copy equivalent were available. Sam- ple issues were available for viewing by nonsubscribers.
Other experiments in the creation of online versions of print journals are underway at OCLC, Academic Press, and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (working with the University of ~ i c h i ~ a n ) . ~ ~ While one can argue that an electronic version of a print journal is not a truc clectronic journal, it is nevertheless significant that major academic institutions are experimenting with electronic full text journal acccss.
As the elcctronic versions become more commonplace and people become more familiar with them, thc print vcrsions may eventually be discontinued. In any evcnt, the experience gained by publishing these electronic versions will give universities an opportunity to directly compare the costs of producing and distributing these two formats. Based on this experience, universities will be in a better position to determine whether they can increase their role in scholarly publishing through elec- tronic journals.
5. Electrarzic Journals and Printed Text May Coexist in the Digital Library ofthe Futum, but the Role of Some Libraries Could Be D~amatically Altered to Better Serve the Needs of Their Patrons
Even if one assumes that electronic publishing can someday replace the traditional printed book or journal, not cveryonc agrces that society would benefit from exclusive reliance on this new medium. Having discussed the potential impact of clectronic publishing on commercial academic pub- lishers, I now come to address the subjcct of digital librarics.
Michael Gorman argues that academic libraries are under attack by forces who wish to "use technology to break up the culture of learning and, in a weird mixture of Nineties cybervision and Sixties radicalism, lo replace that world with a howling wilderness of unstructured, unrelated
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Robevc A. Pikowsky 4 7
gobbets of 'information' and random images in which the hapless individ- ual wanders without direction or sense of value."65
Specifically, Gorman expresses the concern that university administra- tors may attempt to unreasonably cut library budgets while placing unjus- tified reliance on electronically accessed information that would be avail- able to users at remote sites. Gorman apparently fears that such a move would prevent many library patrons from conducting meaningful research because hypertext links are no substitute for a comprehensive system of cataloging and the assistance of a librarian.
All would agree that cataloging of materials is an important tool for comprehensive research. However, I believe that Gorman underestimates the value of a full-text search engine supplemented with an electronic thesaurus such as can be found in DIALOG databases. Such research capabilities, when, further augmented with hypertext links to related articles, would present an impressive search mechanism.
Gorman raises two further points as well. First, he argues that printed text is far superior to any form of electronic medium for sustained reading. More importantly, he argues that only an alliance between government and industry could successfully invest the capital necessary to replace the print-based publishing industry with an electronic publishing industry. Just a relatively few corporations could afford to enter this new industry, creating a situation where a small number of information providers would have control over the information accessible to the public.66
In this regard, Gorman's views differ dramatically from Paul Ginsbarg, who argues that the expenses associated with running an electronic archive on an existing netwark are truly minimal. According to Ginsbarg, his active archive costs only about $70 per year for storing electronic articles. It places a negligible drain on his organization's resourccs. It has run entirely unattended for cxtended'periods while he was away on travel. Ginsbarg states that "it is difficult to estimate the potential for dedicated systems of thc future only because the resources of the current experimen- tal one (run free of charge) are so far from ~a tura t ion ."~~
Gorman's views are the subject of a symposium published in the Janu- ary 1996 issue of The Journal ofAcademic Librarianship. There, Michael H . Harris and Stan A. Hannah point out that the primary function of librarians is to serve the information needs of their clientele, which con- sists of information consumers (and also information producers, to a lesscr extent). Librarians have remained dedicated to printed text bccause the research patterns of their clicntele have heretofore been unaffected by communications revolutions such as telegraph, radio, movies, and TV.
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Howcver, that same clientele is rapidly acceptin electronic publishing as the desired means of knowledge dissemination. 6 f
Librarians have no choice but to adapt to the changing needs of their patrons or run the risk that the library will become increasingly irrelevant to intellectual endeavors. To meet client needs, librarians must consider the opportunity costs associated with the purchase of print texts. If patrons would be better served through electronic media, then the library must balance its purchases of print materials with electronic media in such a way as to maximize utility to its patrons.6g
Gorman speaks out against those who advocate replacement of the traditional library through computing technology. Yet few proponents of electronic journals and digital libraries argue for the total elimination of the print format. David M. Levy and Catherine C. Marshall point out that in view of the enormous amounts of paper used by society today, the only way to create digital-only libraries in the short run would be to construct thcm with the intention to exclude print materials. In this scenario, digital libraries would coexist side-by-side with nondigital l i b r a r i c ~ . ~ ~
In the long run, nondigital libraries could entirely disappear only if the vast archives of printed documents were to be digitized while new docu- ments were published exclusively in digital form. Levy and Marshall doubt the likelihood that either of these situations will come about because (1) it is unlikely that all of the print material in our libraries will ever be digitized, and (2) libraries contain many non-print items that simply can not be digi t i~ed.~ '
Levy and Marshall go on to speculate that technology may substantially transform libraries, possibly beyond recognition. Yet libraries will con- tinue to maintain a variety of formats of materials, so that the better term for these institutions of the future is simply "library" rather than "digital library."72
Without question, every library will determine its own unique emphasis on digital technologics depending on the needs of its clientele. As pointed out by Miriam Drake, patrons want information in the format that is most helptkl in accomplishing their various objectives. Accordingly, libraries must be prepared to store books, journals, microforms, maps and other formats well into the future.73 Patron nceds will dictate the extent to which a library's collection will focus on these traditional formats or on the new digital format.
I agree with Levy and Marshall in that libraries of the future will not easily be classified as either "digital" or "nondigital." Depending on the needs of their clientele, some libraries may rely heavily on digitized mate- rials that permit remote acccss, while other libraries may emphasize
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Robert A . Pikowsky 49
printed texts in their collections. In any event, the library's collection development policy will be designed to balance the needs of the "tradi- tional" clientele with the needs of the "new breed" of client.
The library's traditional patrons may prefer print materials because print is easier to read for extcnded periods of time and is far casier to manage when a person needs to view two or more pages simultaneously. Some traditional patrons may prefer print simply because they are not sufficiently computer literate to work with material stored electronically.
In either case, these traditional patrons might be expected to desire paper copies of heavily used journals, relying on full-text electronic access only for (1) journals that are published exclusively in electronic form, (2) journals whose paper copy lags too far behind the electronic version, and (3) lesser used journals acknowledged to be too expensivc to purchase or judged to be nonessential to the collection. Of course, traditional patrons are willing to perform thcir research on the library's premises.
In contrast, the new breed of patron who demands remote access to the collection will never be satisfied by a library whose collection emphasizes print materials. These patrons could become increasingly influential in some libraries, resulting in significant restructuring of library operations.
In such a library, reference librarians might staff a call-in help desk whcre patrons who need assistance can telephone in to discuss their research prob- lems. Reference librarians would help to devise a search strategy at their own computers and relay that strategy to the patrons, who then duplicate the search off-site. Such a scenario would be very similar to the successful systems of telephone technical support run by LexisNexis and Westlaw.
Gorman derides such cfforts that would lead to the "reduction of librarians to $5-a-minute '900-number' consultants. . . . "74 Yet tclcphone reference help can be a valuable rescarch aid that should not be dismissed so cavalierly. Having telephoned Lexis/Nexis consultants and Westlaw reference attorneys on more than one occasion, 1 have generally found them to be highly skilled and very helpful. Of course, the nature of their job negates any opportunity for the face-to-face patron contact that many reference librarians enjoy. Neverthcless, such changes in the fundamental nature of reference librarianship may be necessary in order to better servc the needs of patrons in some circumstances.
Could a major research library shiA its emphasis from print to electronic joumals? Could a large university library scale back its reference staff in the belief that faculty members are generally capable of conducting their research activities from remote locations without the intervention of a librarian'?
Any such substantial change in the nature of the library is limited by the fact that many journals currently held in print form (particularly the oldcr
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issues) are unlikely to bc widcly available online in the near futurc. Accordingly, conventional reference services performed on the library's premises will continue to be a necessary library function as long as thesc print journals are deemed useful by researchers. Nevertheless, reference services could undergo dramatic alterations in a short period of time.
A case in point is the library of Bakcr & McKenzie, a law firm of 1,600+ attorneys headquartered in Chicago with offices around the world. In March 1995, the Chicago office laid off 35 support staff employees including all 10 employees of the firm's library. The library staff was replaced by an outside source under contract to provide library scrvices. Firm management gave the press three reasons for terminating the entire library staff: (1) the layoffs were part of a general plan to reduce costs and end overstaffing, (2) an outside firm would be bctter able to make the headquarters library a show- case for telecommunications services and would provide improved support for branch ofices around the world, and (3) management wanted to force its attorneys to make better use of the fum's electronic library resources rather than ask librarians to locate books for them.75
The third issue is most interesting for purposes of this paper as it provides an example of disintermediation caused by electronic databases. Top management at Baker & McKenzie apparently believes that the firm's lawyers are generally capable of performing their research through elec- tronic means without the intervention of a reference librarian. Of course, these attorneys retain the option of using print materials in the firm's library, but are increasingly expected to do so without reference assistance. As of May 1996, the library was down to a staff of four under contract through a temporary employment agency.76
Could a similar transformation succeed in an academic library? If attor- neys are able to perform sophisticated, deadline-sensitive research in an electronic environment with declining reliance on librarians, perhaps uni- versity professors can do the same. Though academic libraries will need to continuc to provide refercnce support for students who have not fully developed their research skills, cutbacks remain conceivable to the extent that librarians spend their time providing assistance to faculty members. To avoid this scenario, librarians will have to continually demonstrate the value added by their services in a digital library.
Perhaps librarians can take comfort in recent developments at Baker & McKenzie. On March 17, 1997, Baker & McKenzie hired a new manager of libraly scrvices to supervise a reference librarian and two library assis- t a n t ~ . ~ ~ Apparently, we have not reached the point whcre librarians are unneeded aftcr all.
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Robert A. Pikowsky 5 1
IK THE MOVE TOWARD ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING WILL TAKE PLACE WHETHER OR NOT LIBRARIANS PLAY
AN ACTIVE ROLE IN THE TRANSITION
In my opinion, the move toward widespread acceptance of electronic journals is inevitable. The high energy physics community has already embraced electronic publishing for the speed with which it permits the exchange of information. Meanwhile, the number of university faculty members who are connected to the Internet is growing rapidly, so the potential audience for such materials is expanding. Improved display technology is making electronically published material easier to vicw, thereby making the format friendlier to readers. The means of access through the Internet is becoming simpler as file transfers can now be accomplished using graphical Web browsers as well as through less user- friendly FTP. Search engines are becoming increasingly sophisticated, jhough improvement is needed in this arca. Access is reasonably depcnd- able, though improvement is needed here too.
AS electronic journals become increasingly commonplace, some will gain in prestige. The format will attract more authors in additional disci- plines. Evcntually, A&I databases will routinely include electronic jour- nals. In time, electronic journals will become a legitimate forum in which to publish the scholarly articles needed to gain tenure at major universities.
It is only natural that the academic community as a whole will eventu- ally come to accept electronic journals. The library patrons who in the last decade came to prefer electronic bibliographic access over print indexes would be ex~ected to orefer full-text electronic access over print format, particularly when the print journals cannot publish as quickly i s electronic journals and often are not immediately available on-site.
Apart from the issues of technology and acceptance is the matter of subscription price. STM journals published by commercial enterprises will remain expensive whether in print or electronic form to maximize profit- ability. However, nonprofit university presses that publish electronic jour- nals would presumably be more willing to pass the cost savings of elec- tronic publishing along to the purchaser. If Eldred Smith is correct in asserting that commercial academic publishcrs took over the scholarly publishing industry because university presses could not cope with publi- cation expenses, then electronic journals (with low cost of publication) provide an opportunity for nonprofit university presses to regain their preeminence in academic publishing at reduced cost to the academic com- munity.
In this scenario, university-published electronic journals f i l l the void left by prohibitively expensive STM journals published commercially. AS
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growing numbers of reputable university presses publish clcctronic jour- nals, prestigious writers might be more willing to submit their articles in recognition of thc fact that a larger audience will have ready access in a more timely manner compared to commercially published print journals. Thus, the high cost of commercially published journals could encourage thc ncw market for university-published electronic journals. Potentially, commercial STM publishers could somcday be driven from the market unless they substantially reduce their subscription prices.
Librarians have a major role to play in influencing the growth of elec- tronic journals. Because academic librarians are most familiar with the difficulties of acquiring an expanding number of high priced print jour- nals, we should encourage university administrators to support the growth of electronic journals sponsored by our own univcrsities. Since librarians are responsible for organizing and retrieving information held in our libraries, librarians should take part in the design of search engines neces- sary to locate the electronic articles needed by library patrons.78 Further, librarians should work toward solving the issue of archiving electronic journals since archiving has traditionally been a function of libraries.
There are strong reasons to believe that clcctronic journals will eventu- ally become commonplace because they offer distinct advantages over print journals at lower cost. Given these powerful driving forces, we should not ignore the chance to play a major role in advancing the rise of this new medium.
ENDNOTES
I. James C. Thompson, "Confronting the Serials Cost Problem," Serials Review 15 no. 1 (1989): 43.
2. Ibid. 3. Roger Noll and W. Edward Steinmucller, "An Economic Analysis of
Scientific Journal Prices: Preliminary Results," Serials Review 18 nos. 1-2 (1992): 33-34.
4. Thompson, 43. 5. Paul Metz and Paul M. Gherman, "Serials Pricing and the Role of the
Electronic Journal," College and Research Libraries 52 no. 4 (July 199 1): 3 17. 6. Joel S. Rutstein, Anna L. DeMiller, and Elizabeth A. Fuseler, "Ownership
versus Acccss: Shifting Perspectives for Librarics," Advances in Librarianship 17 (1993): 36.
7. Thompson, 43. 8. Ibid. 9. Rutstein et a]., 37, citing S.K. Baker and M.E. Jackson, "Maximizing Access,
Minimizing Cost; A First Step Toward the lnformation Access Future." Prepared for the ARL Committee on Access to lnformation Resources (September 1992).
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Roberl A . Pikowsky 53
10. lbid., 36. I I. Thomas W. Shaughnessy, "From Owncrship to Access: A Dilemma for
Library Managers," Journal oJLibrary Adrninislrntion 14 no. 1 (1991): 1-7. 12. Rutstein et al., 47-8. 13. Today, immediate access can oRcn be obtained through commercial ser-
vices such as Nexis or DIALOG, though subscriptions can be cxpensive. As will be discussed later herein, electronic publishing holds thc potential to dramatically alter the academic publishing industry so as to permit affordable immediate access to much of the academic literature.
14. Rutstein et al., 48-49. 15. William G. Potter, "Access to Electronic Information: Exploring thc
Options," Advances in Libmrianship 17 (1993): 64. 16. The entirety of the files found on the lnternet could be considercd another
full-text database, though relatively few of these files are updated serially. 17. Potter, 64. IS. Clifford A. Lynch, "Serials Management in the Age of Electronic
Access," Serials Review 17 no. 1 (1 991): 8-9. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid., l I . 21. Ibid., 9. 22. Ibid., 9-10. 23. Ibid., 9-1 I. 24. Potter, 67-70. 25. Murray S. Martin, "The Invasion of the Library Matcrials Budget by
Technology Serials and Databases: Buying More with Less?," Serials Review 18 no. 3 (1992): 12.
26. Ibid. 27. Anne B. Pitemick, "Electronic Serials: Realistic or Unrealistic Solution to
the Journal 'Crisis?,' " Serials Librarian 21 nos. 213 (1991): 19-21. 28. Ibid. 29. Margo Sasse and B. Jean Winkler, "Electronic Journals: A Formidable
Challenge for Libraries," Advances in Librarianship 17 (1993): 162-66. 30. "Electronic Journals: Trends in World Wide Web (WWW) Internet
Access," Online Libraries and Micvocornpurers, April 1, 1996. 31. Eldred Smith, "Resolving the Acquisitions Dilemma: Into the Electronic
Information Environment," College and Researlch Libraties 52 no. 3 (May 1991): 236. 32. Ibid., 236-39. 33. Ibid. 34. Gary Stix, "The Speed of Write," Scienlijic Aslerican December 1994 108
citing DL.ecrory of Eleclmnic Jour7ials. Newsletters and Acadenrnic Discussion Lists (Association of Research Librarics 1994).
35. Press release for Directory of Eleclt~onic Jotrr.r~als, Newleflets and Aca- dentic Discussion Lists (Association of Research Libraries 1995), gopher:// arl.cni.org:70/00/scornm/edir/edir95/about (site visited May 7, 1997). This figure also incluhes electronic newsletters and "related titles such as newsletter-digcs&."
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54 THE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
For the index to the Direclory, see gopher://arl.cni.org:70/1 I/scomm/edir/edir95 (site visited May 7, 1997).
36. Press release for Dirwtoty of Elecftonic Jotonals, Newsleuers and Acadentic Discussion Lists (Association of Research Libraries 1996), http://arl.cni.org/ scomm/edir/dej96pr.html (site visited May 7, 1997). This figurc also includes electronic newsletters and "related titles such as newsletter-digests." For the index to the Directory, see http://arl.cni.org/scomm/cdir/ (site visited May 7, 1997).
37. Paul Ginsbarg, "First Steps Towards Electronic Research Communication," http://xxx.lanl.gov/Ap/hep-th/papers/macroslurbtex (site visited May 7, 1997), which updates an earlier article published as Paul Ginsbarg, "First Steps Towards Electronic Research Communication," Conrpulers in Physics 8 no. 4 (JulIAug 1994): 390-96. Future references to this article will cite the printed text where its content has not been superseded so that I can refer to specific page numbers, which are not available on the World Wide Web version.
38. Ibid., 390. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid., 390-91. 41. Ibid., 394. 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid., 395. 44. lbid., 393-94. 45. Ibid., 394-95. 46. Stevan Hamad, "Scholarly Skywriting and the Prepublication Continuum
of Scientific Inquiry," Psychological Science 1 (1990): 342-43. This article can also be found on the Internet at ftp://cogsci.ecs.soton.ac.uk/pub/hamad/Hamad/ hamad90.skywriting (site visited May 7, 1997).
47. Stevan Harnad, "Interactive Publication: Extending the American Physical Society's Discipline-Specific Model for Electronic Publishing," Serials Review 18 nos. 1-2 (1992): 58-59,
48. "Sidebar: PSYCOLOQUY: A Model Forum for 'Scholarly Skywriting,' " Serials Review 18 nos. 1-2 (1 992): 60.
49. Stix, 108-09. 50. Brett Butler, "Electronic Course Reserves and Digital Libraries: Progeni-
tor and Prognosis," Journal ofAcademic Librarianship 22 no. 2 (1996): 125. 5 1 . Smith, 235,238. 52. Stevan Hamad, "Electronic Scholarly Publication: Quo Vadis?," Serials
Review 21 no. 1 (1995): 79. This article is part of a larger article entitled "The Economics of Electronic Publishing" edited by Ellen Finnie Duranceau.
53. Janet H. Fisher, "The True Costs of an Electronic Journal," Serials Review 21 no. 1 (1995): 89-90. This article is part of a larger articlc entitled "The Eco- nomics of Electronic Publishing" edited by Ellcn Finnie Duranceau.
54. Scott Bennett, "Repositioning University Presses in Scholarly Commu- nication," Journal of Scholarly Publishing 25 (July 1994): 243-46.
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Roberl A. Pikowsky 55
55. Marlene Manoff, Eileen Dorschner, Marilyn Geller, Keith Morgan, and Carter Snowden, "Report of the Electronic Journals Task Force MIT Libraries," Serials Review 18 nos. 1-2 (1992): 126.
56. Michael A. Stoller. Robert Christopherson, and Michael Miranda, "The Economics of Professional Journal Pricing," College & Research Libraries 57 no. 1 (Jan. 1996): 17.
57. lbid. 58. "Electronic Journals" in Online Libraries and Microcompttters. 59. http://highwire.stanford.edu/ (site visited May 8, 1997). 60. http:llwww.sciencemag.org/help/sub1howto.shtl#cop-q (site visited
May 8,1997). 61. http:l/www.jci.org/subl (site visitcd May 8, 1997). 62. http://highwire.stanford.edul. 63. "Electronic Journals" in Online Libraries atid Micrwcompuler.~. 64. Ibid. The Andrew W. Mellon has funded similar projects at several other
major universities as well. Richard E. Quandt, "Elcctronic Publishing and Virtual Libraries: Issues and an Agenda for the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation," Serials Review 22 no. 2 (Summer 1996): 18-2 1.
65. Michael Gorman, "The Treason of the Learned," Library Journal (Febru- ary IS, 1994): 130.
66. Ibid., 13 1. 67. Ginsbarg, Computers in Physics. 393. 68. Michael H. Harris and Stan A. Hannah, " 'The Treason of the Librarians':
Core Communication Technologies and Opportunity Costs in the Information Era." Jotrrnal ofAcademic Librariarlship 22 no. 1 (1996): 4.
69. Ibid., 5. 70, David M. Levy and Catherine C. Marshall, "Going Digital: A Look at
Assumptions Underlying Digital Libraries," Comn~urlicalions of the ACM 38 no. 4 (1995): 79.
71. Ibid. 72. Ibid,, 83. 73. Miriam Drake, "Technohype and thc Book," Journal oJAcademic Librari-
anship 22 no. 1 (1996): 9. 74. Walt Crawford and Michael Gorman, Furlttz Libraries: Dreams Madness &
Reality (Chicago: American Library Association, 1995): 60-61. 75. Carol McHugh Sanders, "Baker & McKenzie Trims Support Staff 10 Per-
cent," Chicago Daily Law Bullerin. April 3, 1995, p. I; Nancy Millman, "Laws of Cost, Competition Take Hold; .New Economic Limitations are Squeezing Legal Firms," Chicago Fibune, July 23, 1995, Business Section, p. I; Donna Gill, "Shelv- ing the Library Staff at Baker & McKenzie," Chicago Lawyer, July 1995, p. 1.
76. Carol McHugh Sanders, "Law Librarians Take Concerted Approach to Keep a Way of Life from being Shelved," Chicago Daily Law Bullelin, May 28, 1996, p.1.
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56 THE SERIALS LIBRARIAN
77. Wendy R. Leibowitz, "Librarian is Nceded," The Nrr~iotiol LnwJorrrtlrrl, April 28, 1997, p. A04. This articlc is also available on the Web at http://library. Ijextra.corn/needed.ht~n (site visited May 7, 1997).
78. Onc such experimental search cngine designed by librarians is LIBClient, a specialized tool for legal research on the World Wide Web. http://ils.unc.cdu/ -vreer/libclient/ (site visited May 8, 1997).
HAWORTH JOURNALS ARE AVAILABLE ON MICROFORM
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Orders for microform may also be placed with Unlverslty Microfilms Internotional. 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, MI 48106; Tel: (303) 761-4700,
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