Elements of Rhetoric English 1302: Composition II || D. Glen Smith, instructor 1

English 1302: Composition II || D. Glen Smith, instructor 1

Elements of Rhetoric


Definition

• Rhetoric—is the art of using language to communicate effectively and has been a major part of Western education since the Ancient Greeks.


Appeals in Writing

Three Types of Appeals ExistThese are rhetorical devices used to enhance observations in research papers:

A. logos— (rational)B. pathos— (emotional )C. ethos— (ethical )


Purposes

These are similar to the different purposes for papers:

inform, persuade, speculate, entertain, incite, instigate, etcetera.

All three of these purposes (logos, pathos, ethos) can be merged into one paper; the longer the work, the greater the necessity for multiple intentions.Likewise, just as one essay can fulfill multiple purposes, one essay can use multiple appeals; the purpose of the work controls the type of appeal in use.


Pathos (emotional)

• When using a persuasive purpose, an emotional appeal works best.• Emotional, personal writing produces a

reaction from the audience.• In this fashion, for personal essays, pathos

works best to connect with readers.• When analyzing an emotional appeal, look

carefully at the writer’s emotionally charged words and the nature of their use.


Pathos (emotional)

When reading an emotional appeal, be sure to determine: • What emotion is the writer wanting you to feel? • What manner is figurative language being used? • Is the audience being manipulated? • Is the emotion consistent with the purpose? • Is the emotion appropriate to the audience, the situation,

and the subject? • Is the emotion a dominant part of the essay (which shows a

bias) or do rational arguments appear the main focus? • Is the emotional material used to clarify a complex

argument?


Pathos (emotional)

Some theorists believe emotional defenses are stronger than logical defenses.

• When used appropriately the audience feels sympathy to the writer’s cause.

• However, it is best to avoid loaded language or emotionally charged phrases.

• If used incorrectly, the material shown can be seen as sentimental and forced.

• If over-used, the audience may feel manipulated.

• Do not over-exaggerate in order to build a sense of empathy.


Pathos (emotional)

Example of pathos-driven material:The wrath of God is like great waters that are dammed for the present; they increase more and more, and rise higher and higher, till an outlet is given; and the longer the stream is stopped, the more rapid and mighty is its course, when once it is let loose. It is true, that judgment against your evil works has not been executed hitherto; the floods of God's vengeance have been withheld; but your guilt in the mean time is constantly increasing, and you are every day treasuring up more wrath; the waters are constantly rising, and waxing more and more mighty; and there is nothing but the mere pleasure of God, that holds the waters back, that are unwilling to be stopped, and press hard to go forward. If God should only withdraw his hand from the flood-gate, it would immediately fly open, and the


Pathos (emotional)

fiery floods of the fierceness and wrath of God, would rush forth with inconceivable fury, and would come upon you with omnipotent power; and if your strength were ten thousand times greater than it is, yea, ten thousand times greater than the strength of the stoutest, sturdiest devil in hell, it would be nothing to withstand or endure it.

— Jonathan Edwards, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” delivered July 8, 1741 in Enfield, Connecticut


Logos (rational)

Using a rational appeal requires a burden of proof, or claim.• Academic writing requires evidence

to back up observations:• records, statistics, facts, quotes from

authorities

• Your thesis statement is logos-driven.• Your evidence is fact-based, without an

overt bias, shown in clear language.


Logos (rational)

Most importantly, avoid fallacies: mistaken logic, based on a flawed argument— we will go more in depth over these at a later date.

Avoid:• faulty ad hoc reasoning• present only one side to an argument• falsify information (fake credentials)• provide weak induction or deduction• red herrings (mislead or distract reader from main

point of discussion) or straw man techniques.


Logos (rational)

Red Herrings: see Texas State University web site for examples: http://www.txstate.edu/philosophy/resources/fallacy-definitions/Red-Herring.html

Straw Man: misrepresent your opponent’s view points or draw attention away from your weaker argument by pointing out other issues— commonly used with an audience with limited information on the full argument

http://www.txstate.edu/philosophy/resources/fallacy-definitions/Red-Herring.html

http://www.txstate.edu/philosophy/resources/fallacy-definitions/Red-Herring.html


Logos (rational)Example of logos-driven material:

Mark Anthony:Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.The evil that men do lives after them;The good is oft interred with their bones;So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus 5Hath told you Caesar was ambitious:If it were so, it was a grievous fault,And grievously hath Caesar answer'd it.Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest—For Brutus is an honourable man; 10So are they all, all honourable men—Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral.He was my friend, faithful and just to me:But Brutus says he was ambitious;And Brutus is an honourable man.He hath brought many captives home to RomeWhose ransoms did the general coffers fill:Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept:Ambition should be made of sterner stuff:Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;And Brutus is an honourable man.

You all did see that on the LupercalI thrice presented him a kingly crown,Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition?Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;And, sure, he is an honourable man.I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke,But here I am to speak what I do know.You all did love him once, not without cause:What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him?O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts,And men have lost their reason. Bear with me;My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,And I must pause till it come back to me.

—William Shakespeare, The Life and Death of Julius Caesar Act III, Scene II

Yet, notice although Anthony begins to seemingly open a logical argument against Caesar, by line thirteen, he shifts to using a heavy pathos-driven value claims to manipulate and incite the crowd against Brutus.


Logos Requires Claims

Rational appeals utilize different types of research or claims. • Different types of logical claims can be used to support both inductive and deductive arguments.• To put it simpler, claims are considered the facts (or statistics) used to help support an argument based on deduction or an argument based on induction.


Logos > Five Types of Claims

1. factual claim: declarative sentence that states• a current reality:– Austin is the capital of Texas.

• a future condition:– The US plans to colonize Mars by 2030.

• a past event:– Vikings discovered the New World

hundreds of years before Columbus.



2. value claim: opinion based declarative promoting personal feelings or tastes,• detailing preference between two

objects, people, situations.– The book, Ulysses, is James Joyce’s

strongest, and most complex, novel.



3. a moral claim is made on the basis of a prescribed code of values(not necessarily religious):

Despite the school board’s intentions, teaching creationism in a high school science class does not offer a

well-rounded education.



4. causal claims: asserts and defines causes for an event or situation:

Slavery was only one cause of the American Civil War.



5. deliberative claim: a declarative sentence which asserts something shouldor should not be done.

Capital punishment is a necessary deterrent to crime and should

continueas a part of Texas’ legal process.


Ethos (ethical)

Ethos is the most complicated portion of the rhetorical process• applies to good debate tactics and public

speaking• borders on philosophical approaches to your

particular life values and at the same time establishes your tone of authority—in an honest fashion

• you display ethical behavior while presenting the various sides of an argument

• avoidance of plagiarism or theft of another writer’s ideas


Ethos (ethical)

An Ethical Writer: • presents both sides of the issue in a parallel fashion;

seeks out a compromise between the two sides and allows equal time for different points of view (see Rogerian Method)

• provides multiple resources in accurate fashion to show a sense of authority

• when appropriate, supplies credentials as defense• does not sentimentalize the argument with excessive

pathos • can challenge other ideas in non-offensive manner• maintains good intentions throughout paper• presents tone of honesty and good-will, avoiding

sarcasm, condescension, and bullying


Logos, Pathos, Ethos

Using as an example Mortimer Adler’s essay “How to Mark a Book,” he combines all three types of appeals in his argument

• Logos: defines reading process, ownership of books, active reading, and also supplies seven steps for marking books

• Pathos: states reading is conversation; implies you are what you read

• Ethos: establishes himself as authority on reading; compromises in friendly fashion

Documents

Elements of Rhetoric English 1302: Composition II || D. Glen Smith, instructor 1