Psychotherapy Volume 33/Winter 1996/Number 4

ELEMENTS OF THE SOCRATIC METHOD:V. SELF-IMPROVEMENT

JAMES C. OVERHOLSERCase Western Reserve University

The Socratic method includes the use ofsystematic questioning, inductive ,vreasoning, universal definitions, and adisavowal of knowledge. The presentarticle describes a focus on self-improvement that often guides the clinicalapplication of the Socratic method. Self-improvement is based on three generalgoals: self-knowledge, self-acceptance,and self-regulation. Each of these goals isdiscussed in terms of the benefits itprovides the client, obstacles that preventor hinder its development, and the processof improving it through psychotherapy. Thefocus on self-improvement inpsychotherapy is clarified through severalbriefcase examples.

IntroductionThe Socratic method can provide a useful ap-

proach for clinical interviewing that is compatiblewith most forms of psychotherapy. Previous au-thors have alluded to the use of the Socraticmethod as part of cognitive therapy (Beck & Em-ergy, 1985; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979;Beck, Wright, Newman, & Liese, 1993), rational-emotive therapy (Ellis, 1994), and psychody-namic therapy (Rychlak, 1968; Stein, 1991).However, few authors have described the Socraticmethod in adequate detail. The Socratic method

The author is indebted to Stacy Freiheit, Eden Silverman,Mark Fine, Abe Wolf, Fred Zimring, Michelle Lee, JuliaGemma, Robin Cautin, and Patti Watson for their valuablecomments on earlier versions of this article.

Correspondence regarding this article should be addressedto James C. Overholser, Ph.D., Department of Psychology,Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleve-

, OH 44106-7123.

includes the use of systematic questioning (Over-holser, 1993a), inductive reasoning (Overholser,19936), universal definitions (Overholser, 1994),and an attitude of disavowal of knowledge (Over-holser, 1995). These components clarify the processof the Socratic method as used in psychotherapy.

The Socratic method shares many similaritieswith cognitive therapy. Both approaches share anemphasis on the client's cognitive functioning andability to cope with adversity through rational be-havior. Bom approaches rely on frequent ques-tioning and inductive reasoning. However, die So-cratic method differs from cognitive therapy inseveral important ways. Cognitive therapy is typi-cally structured and directive, with sessions orga-nized around explicit agendas (Beck & Emery,1985; J. Beck, 1995). The cognitive therapist islikely to assume the role of expert and take a direc-tive stance in therapy, hi contrast, the hallmark ofthe Socratic method is self-discovery, hi order toencourage self-discovery, the Socratic method em-phasizes the "ignorance" of the therapist (Over-holser, 1995). Furthermore, rather than empha-sizing a reduction of psychiatric symptoms, theSocratic method is more likely to address major lifeissues (e.g., "What personal qualities do you feelare most important for Jiving a good life?").

A recent study has examined the perceived dif-ferences between the Socratic method as com-pared with rational-emotive therapy and client-centered therapy (Cautin, 1996). Subjectsincluded both college students and clients whowere receiving outpatient psychotherapy. Afterlistening to audiotaped presentations of the threetypes of therapy, subjects rated each therapy vi-gnette on specific dimensions. Compared to thera-pists who used rational-emotive therapy andclient-centered therapy, therapists using the So-cratic method were rated as more empathic, morewarm and friendly, more honest and sincere, andmore collaborative. Thus, the Socratic methodwas perceived as optimal on several key dimen-sions of psychotherapy process. Although the So-

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cratic method and cognitive therapy are similarin many ways, the two approaches emphasizedifferent aspects of the therapy process. Boththerapeutic approaches focus on the client's cog-nitions as central areas to be changed, but theSocratic method emphasizes the client's self-dis-covery gently guided by the therapist. In cogni-tive therapy and rational-emotive therapy, thetherapist often assumes a more directive role ofteacher and repairman.

Although the Socratic method can be useful,it is not appropriate for all clients or all problems.The selection of clients can influence the effec-tiveness of the Socratic method. In general, theSocratic method seems to work best for clientswho are verbal, intelligent, and motivated fortherapy. These clients should prefer therapy thatis designed to help them confront chronic prob-lems of emotional distress or interpersonal diffi-culties. Clients who are most appropriate for theSocratic method are interested in self-explorationand self-improvement as general goals of therapy.The Socratic method is not well-suited for clientswho present with problems of psychosis, mentalretardation, organic mental problems, develop-

mental disorders, or acute suicidal tendencies.Also, the Socratic method can be difficult to im-plement with clients who are excessively talkativeand who display tendencies for circumstantial ortangential speech.

The present article describes the Socratic methodas focused on the goal of self-improvement. Anessential goal of the Socratic method is to facili-tate autonomy in the client. The Socratic methodencourages clients to self-reflect and examinetheir behavior and their life goals (Versenyi,1963). Three basic goals of the Socratic methodof psychotherapy involve helping clients to under-stand themselves, to accept themselves, and toregulate their emotions and behavior. These goalscorrespond to the three domains underlying self-improvement: self-knowledge, self-acceptance,and self-regulation. These interrelated areas oftenserve as the focus of psychotherapy sessions (seeFigure 1).

Self-knowledgeThe Socratic notion that the "unexamined life

is not worth living" can play an important role inpsychotherapy (Lageman, 1989). Self-knowledge

SELF-KNOWLEDGE

SELF-ACCEPTANCE SELF-REGULATION

Figure I. The interplay between self-knowledge, self-acceptance, and self-regulation.

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is a broad category that includes insight into thepresence and nature of one's psychological func-tioning (Maikova & Berrios, 1992). Self-knowledge refers to an understanding of one'sbehavior, emotions, cognitions, expectations, in-clinations, motives, and aspirations. Self-knowl-edge includes an understanding of past events thathave affected the person as well as an appraisal offuture goals and potential (Gergen, 1971). Self-knowledge includes an understanding of one'sstrengths and abilities as well as limitations.Often, self-knowledge involves an awareness ofbroad life goals in terms of desirable personalattributes. Because of the comprehensive natureof self-knowledge, it is best viewed as an ongoingprocess instead of a goal with a distinct end point(Evans, 1990).

Benefits of self-knowledge. Self-awareness canhelp clients assess their priorities in terms of life-long goals (Stalley, 1986). Through the Socraticmethod, clients can become more aware of whothey are and who they want to become, in terms ofdesirable personal attributes. Many clients benefitfrom distancing themselves from their daily rou-tine and beginning to appreciate their long-termgoals. Without adequate self-knowledge, clientsmay be driven by goals and values outside then-conscious awareness (Schmid, 1983). For exam-ple, one young adult male client had begun train-ing in computer science. However, he felt mildlydepressed, empty, and dissatisfied with his life.In therapy, he was asked about times when hefelt interested or excited about different aspectsof his life. He reported times when he was con-sumed by his hobby of painting and he becamecompletely focused on his artistic expression.When the therapy conversation shifted back ontohis college classes, both therapist and client no-ticed a dramatic shift in his mood and his energylevel. He began to realize that he had been ne-glecting his long-standing interest in art. Whenasked how he came to choose computer scienceas his major, he reported financial concerns. Hewas pursuing training in computers to increasehis chances of finding "a good job" after school.When asked what "a good job" meant to him, theclient said a job that paid a high salary yet it wasnot overly competitive so he could find a job inthe area. Therapist and client discussed the otheraspects of job satisfaction and the role that hispersonal interests could play in both his long-term career enjoyment and his career success.The therapist asked questions such as, "What do

you think your life would be like after workingon "a good job" in computers for twenty years?"The client began to see how he had valued finan-cial security over personal contentment. Manypeople choose careers because of financial oppor-tunities or family pressure. This often leads todissatisfaction with one's work, and can result inchronic feelings of frustration or resentment.Thus, self-knowledge can help clients make betterchoices about major life goals.

A second benefit of self-knowledge occurswhen clients begin to gain a new perspective thatreduces both maladaptive emotional reactions anddestructive behaviors. When viewed from theproper distance, difficult decisions become simpleand problems from daily life no longer appearoverwhelming. Furthermore, when clients under-stand their motives for different behaviors, it canbe easier for them to control or change their initialreactions to different events.

An adequate level of self-knowledge is a pre-requisite for more advanced interventions. With-out adequate self-knowledge, clients are not readyto proceed into areas of self-acceptance or self-regulation. If clients understand the motives thatunderlie their behavior, they can be in a betterposition to modify their behavior as needed.

Obstacles preventing adequate self-knowledge.Accurate self-knowledge can be difficult to attain.Because self-knowledge requires an ability to beaware of one's own shortcomings, some clients areoverly defensive and may be reluctant to view theirsituation openly. Self-awareness can be impeded byselective garnering of evidence, selective focusingon particular events, and a misinterpretation of events(Mele, 1987). Selective gathering of evidence canhinder self-awareness. Clients play an active rolein creating their perception of reality through theirexpectations, attributions, and interpretations(Moss, 1992). Clients may only seek informationthat is consistent with their pre-established views(Gergen, 1971; Swann & Read, 1981).

Selective focusing on particular events occurswhen clients exaggerate the good or bad qualitiesthey see in themselves. Sometimes, clients at-tempt to block their awareness of negative feel-ings. For example, an adult female client com-plained of chronic depression despite alwayspresenting a cheerful facade to others. In therapy,she became aware of how she "buried" her nega-tive emotions by eating excessive amounts of icecream. The therapist labeled her spoon as a sym-bolic shovel she used to bury her emotions under

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mounds of ice cream. The therapist helped hersee that she needed her "shovel" twice, first whenshe buried her emotions, and second to unburythem. Therapy focused on helping her learn toexpress her emotions directly and spontaneouslyas they arose in different situations. This was alengthy process that occurred over several monthsin therapy. She was praised for the direct expres-sion of emotions, and she was helped to identifythe interpersonal consequences of expressing bothpositive and negative emotions. In addition, sheneeded to use psychotherapy sessions as a secondshovel to dig up her buried emotions from longpast events. She held in a tremendous amount ofanger towards her mother and much shame fromcomments made by her father many years earlier.Over the course of therapy, this client became moreaware of her tendency to use food as a means ofcoping with negative emotional states, and beganconfronting her emotions more directly.

Self-deception involves a misrepresentation ofthe evidence in order to avoid unpleasant emo-tions (Silver, Sabini, & Miceli, 1989). Some cli-ents present a social facade whereby they try toappear a certain way in front of others. Whendone long enough, clients may start to believetheir own facade. For example, one female clientreported a lifetime of difficulties related to herchronic alcohol abuse. This included two di-vorces, three arrests for drunken driving, and re-peatedly getting fired from various jobs. How-ever, she denied that she had a problem withalcohol and instead attributed her problems tochronic depression. She believed that if she feltless depressed, she would no longer need to drinkalcohol. She was unable or unwilling to see thatshe typically became depressed over the problemscaused by her alcohol abuse.

The process of improving self-knowledge. Abasic prerequisite of the Socratic method is thatclients are expected to say only what they believe.The Socratic dialogue must be based on honesty,sincerity, and genuineness. The therapist can usea Socratic dialogue to help clients identify incon-sistencies among beliefs or contradictions be-tween the client's beliefs and observed behavior(Overholser, 1994). Typically, the focus is onlong-term life goals concerning the client's per-sonal attributes, rather than occupational perform-ance or financial success. If clients see that theirdaily behaviors conflict with their major lifegoals, they should become motivated to changetheir behavior or re-evaluate their goals.

The search for self-knowledge does not meanprivate reflection away from other people and lifeevents (Navia, 1985) but requires frequent inputfrom others (Cassam, 1994). Clients benefit froma wide range of life experiences in order to learnwho they are and who they want to become. Ade-quate self-knowledge involves an understandingof the client in relation to others (Annas, 1985).For example, one male client persistently behavedin socially deviant ways. He needed to learn notjust to accept himself but how to fit in with societyand live by societal standards. Only by continu-ally interacting with others could he try new waysof behaving and observe the effects on his rela-tions with others. To facilitate self-exploration,the therapist asked questions such as: "How doothers react when you behave this way?"; "Howdo you react when someone else treats you likethis?" Although this client resisted change be-cause accepting a different view would requiredifferent behaviors, his various social encountersgave him opportunities to explore his behavior,his motives, and the value he placed on interper-sonal relationships.

The Socratic method encourages a self-discovery process facilitated by the therapist's ques-tions (Overholser, 1993a). This self-discoveryprocess can focus on specific issues, such as iden-tifying patterns in behaviors or emotions (Over-holser, 1993*). For example, one client with gen-eralized anxiety learned to monitor situationsassociated with high versus low anxiety. Also,she developed a more refined differentiation ofvarious mood states. Instead of reporting a globalstate of agitation throughout most days, shelearned to differentiate anxiety from suppressedanger. This information helped her understandsituations that elicited different feelings and whyshe behaved as she did.

The self-discovery process also can focus ongeneral issues pertaining to personal attributesand life goals. When clients clarify their viewsabout their own life goals, they often develop abroader perspective that helps them cope withdaily problems in a different manner (Overholser,1994). For example, a recently divorced maleclient asked himself, "Why do I look at my lifeas over instead of a new beginning?" Through aseries of questions, he was able to see that he hadnot yet let go of his "previous life" with his wifeand kids. He was asked how his friends, his co-workers, his children and his minister would de-scribe the changes he had experienced since the

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divorce. He was asked how he would see a friendundergoing similar mid-life changes, and what hewould tell the Mend to help him cope with feel-ings of sadness or loneliness. Also, he was askedhow he would look back on these events in sixmonths, and in six years. Finally, he was askedto imagine a positive future in which he lost therole of husband but retained the role of father. Ingeneral, this client tended to focus on what hedid not have and ignored the many positive thingshe still had in his life. In therapy, he was able torefocus his goals onto becoming a good father forhis children despite being divorced from theirmother.

Clients may be helped to examine persistentbehavior patterns across diverse problem areas(Overholser, 1993&). For example, a female cli-ent had persistent difficulties maintaining a jobdespite what she perceived as exemplary workperformance. When she was asked to write a listof the major events she had encountered, andwhat she had learned from them, she spontane-ously provided an identification of several domi-nant themes across problems. She described re-current problems with jealousy and resentment,feelings of betrayal and abandonment, and fre-quent conflict with peers. In most work settings,she focused on issues of productivity and moralitywhile ignoring issues related to cooperative socialfunctioning. Therapist and client discussed thebenefits that can be obtained from work produc-tivity and the risks involved when maintaining anair of moral indignation toward co-workers. Shewas asked how she had related to co-workers whowere productive but unfriendly. Then, she wasasked how she related to co-workers who werefriendly but unproductive. Over several ses-sions, she began to appreciate the neglected so-cial areas of her life. This type of dialoguehelped her to identify aspects of her social func-tioning she needed to address in therapy (e.g.,cooperation, friendship, compassion, and car-ing for others).

Clients sometimes need to be encouraged totake risks, to try new behaviors, and to be readyto learn from their mistakes. When clients havestarted to make progress in therapy and then aset-back occurs, clients should retain the attitudemat they can learn from the events and often canuse the set-back as a means of moving even fur-ther ahead. Through these events, self-knowledgecan promote self-acceptance as a process of con-tinual change and growth.

Self-acceptanceSelf-acceptance refers to a general sense of ap-

proval of oneself as a whole. Self-acceptanceshould be based on a thorough and rational self-evaluation, including an awareness of bothstrengths and weaknesses (Annas, 198S). Thiscan help clients live within their means and notexceed their limitations (Seeskin, 1987).

Benefits of self-acceptance. Self-acceptanceimplies that clients are content with themselves,including their flaws. However, self-acceptancedoes not mean that they become unmotivated tochange, but it provides a stable foundation onwhich to strive for improvements. Self-acceptancecan promote emotional stability in clients. Forexample, an adult female client complained aboutdifficulties evaluating her life objectively. Shewas asked to write a list of her success experi-ences. As she discussed the list in therapy, shefocused on negative aspects of each event. Shewas asked what made the event negative, andwhat could be seen as positive about each situa-tion. Alternatively, she was asked what could beseen as negative in some situations that initiallyappeared all positive. She began to see that eachexperience involved a blending of success andfailure. In one case, she worked as a schoolteacher and had great relationships with her stu-dents and their parents, but was fired because offinancial cut-backs. She concluded that it was nolonger appropriate to view an experience as a"success" or a "failure" because all experiencesincluded elements of both. Instead, she saw thebenefit of examining her experiences in terms ofboth good and bad outcomes and how she hadlearned from both good and bad aspects of anevent. As she learned to appreciate the emotionaltexture of the different events, she realized thateven if she could have gone back in time andprevented some of the negative events from hap-pening, she would not choose to do this becauseshe would lose part of herself.

Self-acceptance can promote increased self-awareness by allowing clients an inner strengthto tolerate a critical but realistic appraisal of then-own strengths and weaknesses. Realistic stan-dards help promote emotional stability. The openacknowledgment and acceptance of one's limita-tions helps clients become more balanced, inte-grated, and calm. Clients can develop the abilityto appreciate the humor of their own deficiencieswhile also working to correct them (Zimmer-man, 1980).

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Obstacles preventing self-acceptance. Self-acceptance can be hindered by a tendency to focuson obtaining external goals and satisfying physi-cal desires. Many clients convert their wants intoneeds, and their desires into demands (Ellis,1994). When external circumstances prevent cli-ents from obtaining certain desires, clients cansimply adjust their desires to correspond to goalsthat are reasonably obtainable (Brickhouse &Smith, 1994). For example, a young adult femaleclient was having difficulties getting accepted intomedical school. Her GPA was low and she did notperform well on the Medical College AdmissionsTest. She was very upset because she believedthat in order to be happy and fulfilled, she"needed" to get into medical school. She soughttreatment for test anxiety and study skills training.The therapist wanted to help the client improveher chances of admission, and both test anxietyand poor study skills were relevant to the client'spoor performance. However, these did not seemto be the critical issues. Instead, career choiceseemed more central. The client did not seem tohave a natural affinity for the biological sciences,and did not find these topics-inherently interest-ing. Instead, she viewed medical school as ameans of becoming a physician, and she couldmen help others. She did not see the daily workof a physician as being a natural extension of theskills required both to get into and to successfullygraduate from medical school. Also, family mem-bers had placed subtle but persistent pressure onher to become the first physician in the family.The therapist did not want to take away the cli-ent's dreams of medical school, but it was notappropriate to provide study skills training to helpthe client pursue a goal that was probably unob-tainable and perhaps not truly desired. Instead, aseries of discussions helped the client clarify herview of a physician's job and the emotional andpsychological benefits from helping others. Shefocused on the personal feelings of gratificationthat come from helping others, and began explor-ing other careers that provided similar opportuni-ties to help people in need. She soon developedstrong interests in associated fields such as physi-cal therapy, recreational therapy, art therapy, anddrama therapy that coincided very well with hernatural abilities and long-term interests. She ap-plied and was accepted into a graduate trainingprogram in an allied health profession.

Self-acceptance is hindered when clients feelguilt or shame over an aspect of their life. How-

ever, these negative emotions may be used tomotivate clients to make changes in their behav-ior. Clients can learn that if they engage in somebehavior they do not like, they should be moti-vated to stop it. This can help promote self-regulation. For example, an adult male client wasbeing treated for compulsive checking. He askedhis therapist, "Is this behavior normal?" When thetherapist discussed the rational safety concernsbehind making sure the stove is turned off, butdescribed it as a habit that had become too ex-treme, it helped reduce the client's feelings ofshame. As he felt more tolerant of his behavior,he was able to discuss his habits in therapy andbegin identifying areas to change. Self-acceptancedid not encourage him to accept his symptoms aspart of his identity, but helped to enhance hisself-knowledge and self-discipline. He learned toaccept himself, not as a stagnant entity, but assomeone who was willing to attempt to improvehimself in various ways. Furthermore, over thecourse of therapy, he frequently questionedwhether he had made sufficient progress. He washelped to see himself similar to a mountainclimber; if he only looked up, he would see hestill had a long way to go. If he occasionallystopped to look down, he could appreciate howfar he had come.

Self-acceptance can be hindered by a lack ofself-knowledge, such as when clients have unreal-istic goals or standards for themselves. For exam-ple, one client with depressive tendencies recentlyhad started a new job. She frequently becameupset with herself during her job training becauseshe felt she needed to learn tasks quickly. Forher, getting it right meant doing perfectly the firsttime she did a task. She stated, "I hate myselffor not being smart enough to do it right on myown the first time." She frequently implied thatshe felt she needed to be perfect in all areas ofher life. When the therapist confronted her withthis irrational attitude, she toned it down to state,"I want to do well in some areas." However, shehad a persistent tendency to focus on performing"A+" quality, striving for 120% performance.When the therapist discussed an analogy betweenher self-evaluation and her appraisal of her son'sperformance in school, she stated that she wouldbe happy if he got all "B's." This was used tohelp her identify a middle range of performancebetween total perfection and complete failure, andthen begin to re-calibrate her standards for self-evaluation. Gradually, she learned to see that 80%

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or "B" performance is often sufficient for a posi-tive evaluation of herself.

Process of facilitating self-acceptance. In orderto foster self-acceptance, clients must first under-stand themselves in a realistic and rational man-ner. Self-acceptance often requires that clientslearn they can change their typical way of behav-ing in a variety of situations. Clients can be en-couraged to explore different self-care behaviors,different interpersonal styles, and different careeropportunities. As they experiment with differentways of dealing with common situations, clientscan learn that it is alright to make mistakes aslong as they learn from the events. For example,a depressed male with low self-esteem saw him-self as a "jerk" because he chose to stay in townand work instead of joining his wife and childrenon their week-long vacation at the beach. Al-though he had legitimate work obligations, this"family vacation without dad" produced repeatedconflict with his wife, and eventually led up tohis divorce. Even after being divorced for a year,the client still tried to predict what his ex-wifewould want him to do in various situations. Whenhe described how his wife used to call him a"jerk" because of minor disagreements, the thera-pist asked him, "Are you a jerk?" This forcedthe client to identify his own criteria for self-evaluation and explain why he was not a jerk.The therapist encouraged him to find what hethought was right, not what his ex-wife told himto do. He had been using an inappropriate evalua-tor (his ex-wife) and inappropriate criteria (goalsset by his wife) to form his evaluation. Initially,the client had obsessed about what he perceivedas mistakes from his past, such as working longhours instead of taking a vacation with his family.This situation led to frequent disagreements andreduced intimacy with his wife. When the thera-pist asked, "What if you had acted differently atthat time?" the client learned to tell himself "Ican't go back to the past, what's done is done."Once he realized that he could not change hispast, he was better prepared to make the most ofhis future. He began telling himself, "I am goingto do what I can do and that's all I can do."Eventually, the client was able to say, "I'm ba-sically a good guy, I just married the wrong per-son." He began to develop internal standards forhis self-evaluation.

Self-acceptance can be fostered through thegenerous use of self-praise and self-reinforcement.Clients can learn to value themselves and their

behavior as they struggle with daily challenges.Clients can learn to reward their effort and prog-ress, not simply the attainment of goals. Mostimportantly, clients can learn to feel good aboutwho they are, looking at themselves and then-lives from the broad perspective provided by ade-quate self-knowledge. Clients are capable of con-trolling their own happiness by setting their ownstandards for performance and success. Lastinghappiness comes not from external goals norphysical pleasures but from becoming a good per-son (twin, 1992; Reale, 1987). A Socratic dia-logue can help clients explore their life eventsand long-term goals. After the goals of self-improvement have been internalized, emotionalstability can come from within the client and notremain dependent on life stressors or interper-sonal conflict.

Clients can be helped to focus on the positiveaspects of their lives. For example, Socratesdownplayed the negative aspects of his physicalappearance (e.g., bulging eyes) and instead em-phasized the positive qualities from a functionalperspective (e.g., good vision). He emphasizedthat beauty and ugliness come not from what isseen but how it is interpreted (Bumyeat, 1990).Socrates defined beauty as something that is welladapted to its function (Guthrie, 1971; Parker,1979). If something works well for its intendedpurpose, it should be praised and appreciated.When something causes emotional distress or re-duced ability to function, it should be changedand improved.

Self-regulationSelf-regulation refers to the ability to direct

one's life in the manner desired by the individual.Socrates emphasized self-control (Chessick,1982) or self-regulation throughout his lifetime.Socrates described the tripartite soul includingreason, spirit (or emotions), and desire (or instinc-tive appetites). Self-regulation requires an abilityto control one's instinctive appetites and emotions(Tredennick & Waterfield, 1990) by using reasonto guide behavior. In a similar manner, Socratespresented an analogy of a winged charioteer striv-ing to use reason to control two horses, one nobleand the other unruly (full of spirit and desire).Self-regulation requires self-knowledge to pro-vide clients with an adequate understanding oftheir emotions and desires.

Benefits of self-regulation. Self-regulation canhelp clients reduce the tendency to engage in mal-

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adaptive behaviors. When clients are capable ofself-regulation, they are no longer controlled bytheir primitive urges (Kidd, 1994). The self-regulated person controls his/her passions ratherthan being controlled by them (Versenyi, 1963).However, self-regulation does not require clientsto avoid pleasures when they are appropriatelyavailable, but just encourages clients not to focuson these transitory events (Irwin, 1992). The self-regulated person is capable of retaining flexibilityand spontaneity. Self-discipline does not have toguide all behavior at all times. Instead, whenproblems develop, self-regulation can help con-trol them. Self-regulation refers to the ability tocontrol short-term impulses and desires in favorof long-term goals (Annas, 1985).

Self-regulation can allow clients to pursue thelife path they have rationally selected. When cli-ents focus on boredom, hunger, loneliness, orsexual arousal, the frequency and intensity ofthese urges are likely to increase. Regulatingone's urges does not mean attempting to suppressor ignore them entirely. Instead, clients can learnto moderate their urges by focusing on long-terminterests, controlling specific emotions, and be-haviors on the path to obtaining broader life goals.

The goal of therapy can sometimes be viewedas helping reason to control both emotions andbodily desires (Reinhold, 1964). For example, amale client reported a series of relationship prob-lems. He was romantically involved with awoman he felt incapable of loving. When alonewith the woman, he often succumbed to his sexualdesires, and it conveyed to the woman his desireto establish a more lasting relationship. In ther-apy, the client frequently expressed his rationalgoals of ending this relationship and beginningnew with someone else sometime later. He wasasked what guided his current behavior, and howmuch his behavior was determined by his headversus his heart versus his hormones. He wasasked what he wanted his social life to be like in5 days, 5 months, and 5 years. He began to seethe value of strengthening reason over desire inorder to help balance his short-term desires versushis long-term goals.

Obstacles inhibiting the development of self-regulation. Self-regulation can be inhibited by theseeking of physical pleasures or the avoidance ofpains. Physical urges can be strong, and whensatisfied, can be enjoyable. However, self-regulation involves an ability to control one's be-havior, not simply when it is easy but most im-

portantly when the client feels tired, in pain, orprompted by urges, passions, or pleasures (Reale,1987). For example, Socrates espoused the im-portance of eating only when hungry, and drink-ing only when thirsty. Furthermore, a person whois hungry should hunger for food, not necessarilya particular type of food. Finally, Socrates en-couraged people to avoid immediately satisfyingtheir every desire. In this way, the person will beassured to feel hungry at mealtimes, allowing thenatural appetite to enhance the flavor of the meal(Parker, 1979). For example, an adult male haddifficulties controlling his weight over an eightyear time span. He was successful in losingweight when he learned to eat only when he washungry, not when he saw tasty foods or had timeto kill. When watching television at night, insteadof spontaneously seeing snack food and eating it,he began to ask himself if he was hungry or couldwait until breakfast the next morning. He wassurprised to find how many times he could hon-estly say he was not hungry, and how effectivethis awareness was in helping to suppress hiseating. He learned to not use food to cope withnegative emotions, and began to view food asfuel, only consuming enough to get him to hisnext meal. Also, he began to perceive sensationsof hunger prior to mealtimes as good feelings,telling him he was effectively working towardshis weight loss goal, and that the sensations ofhunger would help him appreciate his next meal.Finally, he learned that there were numeroustemptations and it required persistent effort to regu-late thoughts and behaviors that could obstruct hisprogress. Without the change in underlying atti-tudes towards food and health, there would havebeen no change in behavior and no weight loss.

Self-regulation involves behaving in a mannerthat is consistent with one's long-term goals evenwhen situational factors tend to elicit behaviorsthat would be more enjoyable in the short-term.Part of the difficulty lies in the tendency of mostpeople to maximize their immediate pleasure andminimize their pain. However, short-term hedo-nism is often destructive in the long run. In manysituations, the client's best interests may be aidedwhen the appeal of pleasure is resisted (Brick-house & Smith, 1994). Most clients can benefitfrom developing what has been called long-rangehedonism (Ellis & Dryden, 1987), whereby cli-ents perform behaviors that are likely to enhancetheir well-being over the long-term. Instead ofresponding to temporary physical pleasures, cli-

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ents can learn to focus on their long-term goals.Clients do not need to eliminate, restrain, or frus-trate their pleasures, but should identify the actsthat bring long-term benefit and lasting satisfac-tion (Brickhouse & Smith, 1994).

Process of developing self-regulation. Self-regulation often involves making maladaptive be-haviors more difficult by emphasizing their unde-sirable features or by altering the environment tomake these behaviors more difficult (Mele,1987). Self-regulation also involves promotingnew adaptive behaviors (Rosenbaum, 1993) bycontrolling the positive consequences that affecttheir behavior (Goldfried & Merbaum, 1973).

Self-regulation is facilitated when clients areaware of their natural tendencies and limitations.This awareness can help clients avoid high risksituations. For example, one client was sufferingfrom chronic depression and alcohol abuse. Hewas able to learn that he typically abused alcoholin certain places with specific people and at pre-dictable times (especially when he was feelingdepressed). He was helped to learn to avoid peo-ple and places that increased his risk for usingalcohol, especially when he was feeling de-pressed. He learned to think it through before heplaced himself in high risk situations. However,he also learned that it was not always possible toavoid high risk situations, such as immediatelyfollowing a major argument with his girlfriendand he was feeling sad and lonely. He needed tolearn to suppress his destructive behaviors whenexposed to such situations. Finally, he needed tolearn to fight off urges that underlied his maladap-tive behavior by asking himself, "Do I really wanta drink?"; "How will drinking help me improvemy situation?"; "Am I ready to deal with theconsequences?"

Self-regulation can be used to manage veryspecific complaints as well as more general lifeissues. Specific problems can often be addressedby enhancing the client's ability to control a badhabit. For example, an adult male client had re-current difficulties maintaining a positive relation-ship with his wife. After fourteen years together,their relationship had been neglectful and at timesabusive. During therapy, he learned the impor-tance of the early stages of any encounter, andbegan actively working to keep the first few min-utes of his time with his wife as pleasant as possi-ble. Even on days when he felt stressed and wornout from his job, he worked to keep the first fewminutes at home pleasant and sociable. Then, it

was easier for him to express his feelings of stressor frustration with his wife instead of acting outagainst her.

Clients tend to guide their behavior based ona subjective estimate of the amount and intensityof pleasure and pain likely to be obtained throughdifferent courses of action. However, the estimateof an act's pleasure may be miscalculated by itsproximity. When pleasure is soon and pain is inthe distant future (as in the case of overeating),the person is likely to see more pleasure than pain(Santas, 1979). Pleasures coming from immedi-ate gratifications appear greater at the moment ofdesire (Grube, 19S8). The perceived pleasure willoutweigh the expected pain, and the client willact accordingly. Effective self-regulation involvesa cognitive shift whereby clients learn to empha-size long-term goals over short-term pleasures.To accomplish this shift of focus, it is often help-ful to ask clients what they hope the situationwould look like 10 years from now. After thelong-term goals have been identified, the therapistcan begin helping clients to work towards theirgoals.

One aspect of self-regulation involves control-ling negative emotions (Rosenbaum, 1993).Sometimes clients resort to food or alcohol con-sumption as a maladaptive means of suppressingnegative mood states (Morris & Reilly, 1987).For example, a male client displayed frequentperiods of acting-out whenever he became emo-tionally upset over problems in his close interper-sonal relationships. His acting-out included im-pulsively spending large sums of money onfrivolous items, going on eating binges, experi-encing bouts of intense anger, excessive alcoholconsumption, suicidal ideation, and various sex-ual indiscretions (e.g., masturbating in a parkedcar and making expensive long-distance tele-phone calls for phone sex). Between sessions, theclient recorded when these maladaptive behaviorsoccurred, where they happened, and what situa-tional or emotional factors had prompted them.Over time, he was helped to increase his aware-ness of situations and emotions that elicited thesevarious problem behaviors. Therapy initially fo-cused on reducing the impulsive spending be-cause it had occurred frequently, it appeared leastthreatening to the client, and it seemed most ame-nable to change. After he learned ways of control-ling his urges to overspend, the same principleswere used to help him control his impulses in theother problem areas. His therapist tried to address

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his problems in terms of both self-knowledge oflife goals as well as self-regulation of maladaptiveimpulses. He was helped to increase his relianceon reason, and decrease his indulgence of variousurges. He was able to learn to control his negativeemotions (anger, depression, lust) so they did notgrow uncontrollably and dominate his choice ofbehaviors. The focus shifted from short-termpleasures to long-term hedonism. It can be essen-tial to start at the client's level of control andabilities and move from there (Martin & Po-land, 1980).

Therapy designed to promote self-regulation isnot always easy. For example, one adult femalewith chronic depression told her current therapisthow a previous therapist had comforted her whenshe was feeling depressed (e.g., daily telephonecalls, personal disclosure of therapist's own strug-gles). The current therapist explained that depres-sion can be seen as a deep, dark hole of despair.The previous therapist figuratively climbed downinto the hole and offered soft, warm blankets tohelp the client feel better. However, in the longrun, this approach got the client accustomed tothe darkness and loneliness, and became depen-dent on the therapist for feeling safe and content.The current therapist was figuratively using ther-apy to remain above ground and hand down sticks(behavioral changes) and ropes (cognitivechanges) that could be used as tools to help theclient build her own ladder so she could climbout of the hole. Hence, this client needed to toler-ate her negative emotions in order to increase hermotivation to make more lasting changes.

DiscussionAccording to the Socratic method, self-

improvement involves a dynamic interplay be-tween self-knowledge, self-acceptance, andself-regulation (see Figure 1). Furthermore, theidentification of and adherence to long-term lifegoals plays a central role in the Socratic methodof self-improvement. Although the focus on self-improvement is not unique to the Socraticmethod, it played a central role in the lifestyleespoused by Socrates. Furthermore, the attemptsto develop self-improvement according to the So-cratic method are best derived through the useof systematic questioning, inductive reasoning,universal definitions, and a disavowal of knowl-edge. Therefore, the focus on self-improvementcannot be examined in isolation, but is best incor-porated within the broader framework supplied

by the Socratic method. The Socratic dialoguecan help clients learn to explore their own valuesinstead of blindly accepting values imposed bysocietal conventions or personal habits. More-over, the Socratic method can help clients learnhow to continue the process of self-explorationand change outside of therapy sessions.

Despite the clinical utility of the Socraticmethod, it is not without its limitations. Socratesneglected the irrational aspects of human behaviorand may have overemphasized the ability of hu-mans to use reason to control their behavior(Chessick, 1982). Most clients initially lack theability to focus on long-term goals over short-term satisfactions. Therapeutic change takes timeand persistence. Only through a gradual processof self-exploration can most clients become sensi-tive to long-term interests and begin to balanceacceptance and change. Not all clients are capableto these kinds of cognitive shifts.

Although the goal of therapy may include ma-jor changes in the client's personal attributes, thefocus within sessions may be narrow as therapistand client attempt to make specific changes inemotions and behaviors. Self-knowledge, self-acceptance, and self-regulation can help clientsmanage difficult times and stressful periods intheir lives. By promoting a number of positivebehaviors, the client can develop the desirableattributes capable of providing long-term content-ment.

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