Philosophy of Religion Course Notes -------------------------------------------------------------------------------"The Message of the Buddha", by Eliade To begin with, this reading deals mainly with a form of Buddhism which is somewh at removed from what the Buddha taught. There is some debate about what that is, but a complete treatment of the beliefs of Buddhism would acknowledge the diffe ring views of what 'path' the Buddha would have wanted people to take. At times I will refer in these notes to other sources on Buddhism, most notably the treat ment of it in "The World's Religions" by Houston Smith. I will also refer at tim es to an older text, "Philosophies of India" by Heinrich Zimmer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Who or what is "The Buddha"? There are many legends and tales about the first person who "became the Buddha". There is some confusion surrounding Buddhism in that when we talk about "The Bu ddha", we could be talking about a state of being or about a particular person i n history. This is only the first of many paradoxes in Buddhism. When we are dis cussing the attainment of Nirvana as an end to the endless cycle of lives, those who have attained this enlightened state are said to have "become the Buddha". This Doctrine holds that the self is annihilated at the point of enlightenment it ceases to exist as an individual self and merges with the universe. More on this doctrine later. When we are discussing the history of Buddhist thought, we use the term "The Bud dha" to refer to the individual person who (it is claimed) first achieved enligh tenment. While legends abound about the exploits and capabilities of the "Buddha ", it is generally agreed that before his enlightenment, the "Buddha" was known as one Siddhartha Gautama - a Hindu born to a wealthy family in India. Some lege nds have described him as a prince, some as the son of a prominent Brahmin - but all agree that he lived a sheltered and privileged life. At some point he becam e aware of the suffering and death around him and sought to find out its source. He left his wife and son and started living the life of the aesthetic - renounc ing all worldly pleasures. By most accounts he was better at it than many of the other aesthetics and took the principles of self-deprivation to an extreme. Deciding that this was not the way to attain enlightenment, he resolved to sit u nder a pepul tree until he had the answer. After some time (accounts vary) he di d indeed attain enlightenment and became "The Buddha". How his teachings were pa ssed on to others is unclear. Some legends tell that the Supreme God, Brahma - s aw that he was now "The Buddha" and convinced him to share his insights with the world. Other legends tell that "The Buddha" gave a sermon to some of his fellow aesthetics in a forest and that is the source of Buddhist teachings. Another pa radox of Buddhism is that is was never meant for the masses, but rather for a fe w almost enlightened people. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Page 1-------------------------------------------------------------------------------What are the central beliefs of Buddhism? The central doctrine of Buddhism is built around the realization of the true nat ure of the universe as related in The Four Noble Truths: The Four Noble Truths: Dukkha: Life is suffering - This truth reveals that our lives are less than sati sfactory in that no matter what we do, we are bound to suffer. Any contact withthe five skandhas(life components) leads to suffering. Any happiness or joy atta ched to these elements of our being are bound to lead to suffering because they are all impermanent. Body: A healthy body can get sick and/or die Thought: we cannot sustain clear thought for very long - and we cannot stop Sensations: are decidedly impermanent - and pain is very close to pleasure Feelings or Emotions: Love is a powerful force, but also impermanent. We are con stantly in fear that we will lose that which we love. Consciousness: While it may not seem impermanent to us, our consciousness of our selves is transitory - and at the root of almost all of our suffering. Samudaya: The cause of suffering is ignorance - This truth identifies the cause of all our suffering. It basically boils down to the doctrine that "all duality is an illusion" - we suffer because we make distinctions between things which do not exist in reality. It is this ignorance which leads us to desires or 'thirst s' (tanha). It is these desires which lead us to transmigrate - to be "born yet again and again" until we get rid of our ignorance. Nirada: The cessation of suffering can be attained - This is the good news - tha t we can attain Nirvana and become the Buddha. Nirvanais described in many ways, but Buddha was adamant that trying to investigate the concept or state metaphys ically was a waste of time. One has to experience Nirvana to know what it is - i t cannot be put into words or examined philosophically. Magga: The Eight-fold Path - While the Buddha was adamant that each individual h ad to work out their own path to enlightenment, there were some common elements of all paths which must be recognized. These elements are intended both as a gui de to enlightenment and as a focus of our meditation - concentrating on the mean ing of each of these elements in turn will help us along our path. The illuminat ion of each of these elements is paraphrased from Smith. right view: In this element the Buddha points out that to begin on a journey, we need some idea of where we think we are going - some method or view by which we can measure our progress. If we are traveling across the country, some sense of direction (which way is East, for example) is needed. If we are embarking on a journey of discovery, we must first decide which questions we are seeking to ans wer. right intent or thought: This element could be interpreted as saying we must hav e a focus - a supreme principle or goal which guides our actions and beliefs. We cannot make progress spiritually by quilting together a bunch of different view s but rather must integrate them into a unified whole. right speech: The central aim of this element is to get us to speak the truth. M erely resolving to do that will not succeed, we first need to pay attention to t he times we do deceive, and why we did so. We can then work on only speaking the truth to others - and refraining from speaking when we do not know the truth. F or the Buddha, lying was wrong not because it was morally wrong, but because it reduced our being. Ultimately there is no difference between our selves and the selves of others, so lying to others was - in effect - lying to ourselves. right activity: This is the Buddhist equivalent of the Ten commandments - but co ntained in five 'Precepts' or directives: Do not kill. (Some Buddhists extend this to animals as well) Do not steal Do not lie Do not be unchaste (for monks and single people, abstinence -for the married, re straint) Do not drink intoxicants (we cannot progress along our spiritual path if we are stumbling around drunk or high) right livelihood: We should not engage in professions which impede our spiritual progress. We should engage in professions which are conducive to furthering our spiritual progress and that of others. For those who are serious about attainin g enlightenment in this life, the life of a monk is the only vocation. right effort: Enlightenment is not easily attained - it takes a supreme act of t he will to succeed. "Mere Velleity - a low level of volition, a mere wish not ac companied by effort or action to obtain it - won't do." (Smith, pg. 109) In addition to the will to succeed is the knowledge of where we are on our spiritual jo urney - we should not attempt to complete stages for which we are not prepared. right mindfulness or attention: Since Buddha taught that all the universe, all r eality is a product of the mind, it is important that we have the correct mind s et if we are to achieve enlightenment. We must begin by trying to understand thi s reality so that we can understand how to change our perception of it - thus ch anging the reality itself. (We can see how this idea developed into some practic es of Psychology - if an individual can understand how much of their 'problem' l ies with their perceptions of what is, then they can change those perceptions.) right concentration: This element is achieved when the individual realizes the t rue path to enlightenment -and the reality of the universe and their place in it (or as it). When we know the world as it truly is, we have attained a clarity o f thought which inevitably leads to enlightenment. (Page 2) The Doctrine of "Anatta" or "no-soul": Meditation on the first two elements of t he Path reveal to us the impermanence of things in the world, including our selv es. For this reason, the Buddha seems to have denied the existence of an individ ual soul (atman). In fact, the Buddha would not even engage in metaphysical disc ussion or speculation about the soul or any other aspect of reality - simply bec ause it did not help in obtaining Nirvana or enlightenment. Eliade quotes the Bu ddhist philosopher Vasubandhu: "To believe in the existence of the 'Self' is to fall into the heresy of permanence; to deny the 'Self' is to fall into the heres y of annihilation at death" (pg. 84) This denial of the reality of the soul woul d seem to lead to all sorts of paradoxes, but then Buddhism seems to be full of those. The Buddha refused to discuss such metaphysical questions since they woul d all be answered (or revealed as trivial) once enlightenment was obtained. He w as much more interested in communicating the practical knowledge of how to obtai n enlightenment and less interested in the speculations of philosophers about wh at it would be like once it was obtained. (You got to love this guy!) The ideas mentioned above have been applied to other areas as well, and result i n the fundamental belief of the Buddhist that "all duality is illusion". This ma kes for some surprising views if applied to Buddhism itself - since a logical co nclusion would be that "all doctrines are false - including this one". Here is w here we need to reflect on the Buddhist 'parable' of the ferryboat.The way to Nirvana: The understanding of the true nature of the elements of the Eight-Fold Path are only revealed by practicing a methodology of meditation whic h corresponds to the ancient Yogic traditions of Hinduism. The stages of the med itative process vary according to who is describing them, but several qualities remain. Foremost among these is the view that the meditation can begin to reveal the tru e nature of things by focusing on the everyday activities of the body - the auto nomic actions. This first meditative step seeks to attain a special 'consciousne ss' of previously unconscious activity. The second step is to go beyond normal consciousness to an awareness of reality which transcends normal consciousness. Here, truths are revealed to the meditati ve awareness which transcend normal reality and which are inexpressible in langu age - "the comprehension cannot be verbalized"(pg. 87) This is a tough concept to grasp - this level of awareness can be compared to th e mystical experience in that it is ineffable - unable to be expressed in human terms. Think of it this way - Imagine that you had to try to communicate to a pe rson who has been blind from birth what the color blue (or any other color) look s like. They have no concept of color - not even of the difference between light and dark. The concept seems clear enough to you - but you are still unable to e xplain it in any intelligible manner. It is at this level of understanding that 'miracles' become possible - knowing the true nature of the physical world allows the bhikkhu(monk) to manipulate it i n some pretty startling ways. The Buddha warned against this though, since such 'miracles' would only confuse those who were not aware, and were not necessary f or those who were aware of the true nature of the physical world. The third step in the meditative process culminates in an experience of Nirvana -a realization that the descriptions (such as they are) of Nirvana by the Buddha are true. This confirmation of the 'doctrine' of the Buddha has led Buddhism in two directions - there are those who insist that the Yogic methods of meditatio n are the only path to enlightenment, and there are those who claim that because the doctrines of the Buddha have been verified by others, we need only to study the doctrines to obtain Nirvana. For the Buddha, it is an integration of these two approaches which best prepared one for enlightenment. Persons who could mast er both would be rather rare indeed - for it took quite a bit of mental discipli ne to do either! This entire process - and the doctrine which grew up about it w ere the product of Mahayana Buddhism. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Beliefs about death - Nirvana Buddhists believe that, by following the Eightfold Path, they may achieve Nirvan a. This is a state of bliss, free from suffering and dissatisfaction. When desir e is completely extinguished, then Nirvana is reached. This is the ultimate goal of the Buddhist tradition. Nirvana is not describable. The word itself means 'blown out'. Those people who manage to achieve nirvana in this life are known as saints. They continue to exi st in bodily form for many years, but as they have managed to totally destroy th e roots of kamma, they will not be reborn after death. This means that they will reach the state of total extinction known as parinibbana. (Page 3)-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Hinayana Buddhism vs. Mahayana Buddhism There are at least two major schools of thought in Buddhism: Mahayana (Big Raft) Buddhism Hinayana (Little Raft) or Theraveda (Way of the Elders) Buddhism Of the two, Theraveda Buddhism claims to be the 'Original' Buddhism. Its basic f ocus in on the elimination of doctrines and the progress of the individual via t heir own efforts. Mahayana Buddhism claims to be the 'Buddhism of the masses' an d focuses on doctrines and beliefs which will lead people along the path to enli ghtenment and prepare them for the experience. There are some significant differ ences between the two approaches to Buddhism: For Theraveda Buddhism, spiritual progress is up to the individual - the prayers and supplications of others on our behalf will not help. We must create our own path to enlightenment. For Mahayana Buddhism, the fate and progress of the indi vidual in their quest for enlightenment is closely tied to that of all life. In Theraveda, humans are on their own in the universe - no one can help us - not gods, not the Buddha (since once he attained Nirvana he ceased to exist as an i ndividual self). In Mahayana, we get help from the Buddha and from the natural w orld in the form of an 'energy' or 'power' which draws everything toward enlight enment. (Sounds like Mana) For the Theraveda Buddhist enlightenment is seen as the attainment of bodhi (wis dom) - of the supreme knowledge of the reality of the universe. The paradigm of enlightenment is the arhat or saintly one - who obtains Nirvana and ceases to exist. For the Mahayana Buddhist enlightenment is seen as the realization of karun a (compassion). The paradigm of enlightenment is the boddhisatva - the being who is able to obtain Nirvanabut remains in this world to aid others along their pa th. This view points to the example of the Buddha himself, who remained on this plane to communicate his truths before going on to Nirvana. The Mahayana Buddhis t would identify Jesus and probably Mohammed as examples of boddhisatvas. In Theraveda the only way to obtain enlightenment is to join a monastic order an d devote the rest of ones life to spiritual awakening. Mahayana is the religion of the common man and woman - one is allowed to participate in 'normal' activiti es of society (even getting married) while still attempting to obtain enlightenm ent. Theraveda regards the Buddha as a supreme sage, of which there may be others. In fact, the knowledge that the Buddha was a human being gives hope to the Buddhis t that enlightenment is attainable for them as well. Mahayana regard the Buddha as a savior - his is almost revered as an aspect of the godhead - the supreme en ergy of the universe. Theraveda renounces all doctrines as false and spurns metaphysical speculations as useless and impractical. Mahayana Buddhism, on the other hand is full of elab orate cosmologies, with seven levels of heaven and all kinds of traditional cere monies and rituals. The Theravada scriptures: The first Buddhist scriptures were said to have been w ritten down by Theravada monks at a council in Sri Lanka in the first century BC E. They were written in an ancient Indian language called Pali. The collection o f writings became known as the Pali canon or the Tipitaka - the Three Baskets. T he three sections of the Tipitaka are: The Vinaya Pitaka The Sutta Pitaka The Abhidhamma Pitaka Mahayana scriptures: The Mahayana scriptures were written in Sanskrit not Pali ( which is the language of the Theravada scriptures). This accounts for the differ ences in spellings: Nirvana instead of Nibbana, Sutra instead of Sutta, etc. In the writings of the Mahayana Buddhists, Prince Siddattha took on a more mystical role. These scriptures also introduce the idea of the Bodhisattva. Bodhi means enlightenment and Sattva means essence. A Bodhisattva is a person who delays enl ightenment ir order to stay in contact with humans to help them along the path o f Buddhism. The Pranjaparamita Sutras: These sutras were written in Sanskrit between 100 BCE and 600 CE. They are thought to be the perfect guide to achieving the wisdom of the Bodhisattva - wisdom which goes beyond this world. The Pranjaparamita Sutra s include the Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. The Lotus Sutra: This sutra contains what Mahayana Buddhists believe to be the f inal teachings of the Buddha. (These attributes are paraphrased from the treatment by Houston Smith and from t he Mentorom CD-ROM "Religions of the World") (Page 4)-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Is Buddhism a religion? The account given by Eliade is not quite clear as to which form of Buddhism he i s examining. It would seem that it is closest to Mahayana Buddhism in that he st resses the ties it seems to have with Hindu Yogic traditions. While the views of the Buddha certainly grew out of that tradition, if we look to Theraveda Buddhi sm he seems to have renounced or transcended the importance of those traditions. With this in mind, we could probably conclude that Mahayana Buddhism is fairly close to what we would define as a religion. The same cannot be said of Theraved a Buddhism. According to Smith, it lacks certain qualities which most religionsshare: There is no authority figure -each individual must set their own path. There are no set rituals It avoids or renounces all metaphysical musings or pronouncements There are no traditions - it transcends all traditional beliefs. Self effort is essential to obtaining enlightenment - it is not 'given' There is no Supernatural element: All that is is an aspect of "all-that-is" no 'self' or soul no 'God' in the sense of a personal being who created the universe. no heaven or hell - there is only ignorance and enlightenment (and even that dis tinction is erased once enlightenment is obtained) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discussion Questions: Will Buddhism best be described as a Circle Religion or as a Ladder Religion? (O r as no religion at all?) If Buddhism claims that "all duality is illusion" , what sorts of opposites/dual ities would be revealed as illusions? How can we account for the paradox that a belief system meant for the few has at tracted so many believers? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------End of notes on "The Message of the Buddha" by Mircea Eliade -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Other good resources on Buddism: Buddhist Basics: Tricycle Buddhist Review The ABC's of Buddhism(a nice synopsis of Buddhism) The life of the Buddha A Buddhist Glossary Buddhism in a Nutshell - the Noble Eightfold Paths The Essentials of Buddhism (a complete listing with good organization)