Elusive Eden: A New History of California, fourth edition

CHAPTER TWENTY: PROSPERITY AND THE RISE OF SOUTHERN

CALIFORNIA

WATER AND POWER FOR GROWTH• So Cal pop growth prompted new water

projects--1941 Owens Valley aqueduct incorporated

Mono Lake watershed --Dam on Colorado River for Imperial Valley• Colorado Desert 150 miles southeast of Los

Angeles--bed of ancient inland sea--El Centro 50 ft below sea level

• 1896 Charles R. Rockwood, George Chaffey formed California Development Company

--Planned to cut into Colorado River above Mexican border

--Use existing flood channel to carry water below border, back into valley

--Mexican govn agreed for ½ of flow--US land available under 1862 Homestead Act--Renamed Colorado Desert "Imperial Valley"

• June 1901 first water arrived--Homesteaders built canals, planted fields, built

houses--w/I 8 mos 100,000 acres planted--By 1920 425,000 acres planted

• Rockwood, Chaffey underestimated silt, overestimated waterflow

--Spring 1904 no irrigation water--Farmers threatening lawsuits--1904 made new cut into Colorado River--Winter unusually wet

• March 1905 river broke through headgates--16 mos Colorado flowed directly into Valley--Created Salton Sea at low point--Submerged Southern Pacific Sunset Limited

tracks--Valley cut in half

• California Development Company appealed to Southern Pacific for help

--Southern Pacific appealed to Pres. Roosevelt--Assured of fed support, closed gap--Took assets of CDC in payment

• RR closed gap February 1907 --Diverted all trains to valley--Dumped carloads of rock into ½-mile wide

break--dumping millions of tons of rock into the half-

mile-wide break

• Southern Pacific reorganized CDC Imperial Irrigation District

--Directors, farmers agitated for improved canals

--Competing with farmers in Mexicali Valley--Wanted federally-funded "All American" canal

• IID lawyer Phil Swing lobbied US Reclamation Service for funding

--1919 enlisted director Arthur Powell Davis--Davis director of the U.S. Reclamation Service,

nephew John Wesley Powell --Lobbied Congress for federally-funded dam on

Colorado River, w all-American canal

• States with share in Colorado River protested--Prior use would prohibit development

elsewhere--Congress formed commission to negotiate 7-

state treaty--Chaired by Secretary of Commerce Herbert

Hoover

• 1921, 1922 produced Colorado River Compact--Divided river into upper basin (Wyoming,

Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico), source of water

--and lower basin (Arizona, California, and Nevada), recipients of water

--estimated annual average of fifteen million acre-feet of water

--divided estimate flow equally between upper, lower basins

--Arizona refused to sign

• Phil Swing and Hiram Johnson proposed legislation

--Fed. funds to dam Colorado at Boulder Canyon--eliminate Mexican portion of canal--only six states required to ratify Compact--limited Cal’s share to 4.4 million acre-feet/yr --passed late 1928--1931 Boulder Dam construction began --Finished 1936

• Los Angeles supported Swing-Johnson bill--Owens supply already inadequate--Created Metropolitan Water District to

minister developed water --Planned Parker Dam on Colorado River--155 miles downstream from Boulder Dam--242 miles of aqueduct to Lake Mathews

reservoir--Great Depression interrupted temporarily

• 1931 LA approved Parker Dam $220 million bond issue

--Reconstruction Finance Corp bought bonds--Meant fed provided construction funds--1933 construction began --1941 first water delivered

• 1941 All-American Canal completed--80 miles long --1948 completed 125-mile extension to

Coachella Valley• Hydroelectric power controversial--Development expensive--1893 4 hydroelectric plants in country, 2 in Cal--Development expensive--Handful of corporations controlled market

• 1905 San Francisco Gas & Electric merged with California Central Gas & Electric

--Renamed Pacific Gas & Electric --Eventually state's largest power utility--By 1930 served 38 northern, central counties

• By 1930, Southern California Edison dominated southland

• One or two municipally-owned systems--largest LA Bureau of Power and Light--sold electricity generated by Owens Valley

system

• government financing raised questions --generation, distribution, and marketing

potentially lucrative--conflict between public and private ownership--Los Angeles insisted on municipal ownership--private utilities opposed competition with

public entities

• 1930 Secretary of the Interior permitted LA to take 36% of Boulder Canyon power

--Metropolitan Water District claimed 2 of 4 Parker generators

• LA control over water, power gave control over neighboring communities

--Annexed neighbors to prevent rival claims --Nearby towns accepted annexation for access

to water, power

CALIFORNIA AND THE AUTOMOBILE• Cars transformed California• Too expensive before 1920s• Henry Ford dropped price to $280--1919 - 1929 car ownership grew from 7 million

to 23 million--1929, 2 M registered cars in Californians --more cars per person than any other state

• personal autos decentralized cities--supported suburban expansion--diffused business districts--overburdened roads• Los Angeles best example--1920 LA pop 576,000 --1930 1,238,000

• LA, California boosterism appealed to Midwesterners

--Fleeing rural, depressed economies--Attracted to California industries, weather

• So Cal real estate boom in 1920s--LA approved 30-40 new subdivisions/week--Favored single family homes with yards--March 1923-1924 125,000 homes built LA Co.--Part of national real estate speculative bubble--Bubble collapsed 1925, but So Cal still growing--By 1930 + half LA lived in detached single-

family homes--3x any other US city

• Traffic congestion hurt downtown businesses, shopping district

--Gridlock threw off transit schedules--By mid-1920s Pacific Electric, Los Angeles

Railway losing money--LA widened streets, installed traffic signs, stop

lights--Trucks, autos killed mass transit, railroads

• State legislature responded with highway construction

--Construction companies lobbied for state road projects

--California State Automobile Association, Automobile Club urged state road-building

--State financed with bond issue, gasoline tax

• Road expansion helped other businesses--Gas stations--hotels, motor courts--restaurants

• towns grew where major roads crossed--attracted new businesses--stimulated tourism, recreation• 1920s federal building interstate highway

system--Boosters promoted Cal as ideal destination--Lake Tahoe, Big Bear, Lake Arrowhead --Beaches, parks

OIL• Expanding petroleum industry helped Cal

economy--Aided by development of oil-burning

locomotives--Rrs switched from coal to oil--Great for Texas, Oklahoma, California--WWI made crude oil processing profitable and

patriotic

• California oil companies followed John D. Rockefeller's formula

--horizontal integration: monopolize industry--vertical integration: control product from oil

well to gas station--By 1911 Standard Oil Company of California,

Union Oil major oil producers, refiners--Smaller operations: Shell, General Petroleum

• 1910s, 1920s new fields discovered--Coyote Hills, Baldwin Hills near Los Angeles--Kern River, Sunset, and Midway fields in San

Joaquin Valley--Larger market for gasoline

• 1920s oil discovered in Los Angeles basin--1920 Standard Oil struck oil at Huntington

Beach --1921 Union Oil opened Santa Fe Springs field--1921 Shell found Signal Hill --1921 annual crude oil yield 105 million barrels--1924 " " 264 million barrels

• Later finds at Dominguez Hills, Torrance, Whittier, Wilmington

--Offshore rigs sunk from Huntington Beach to Santa Barbara

--California #1 oil producer through 1920s• Industry restructured after 1920s oil boom --100s of small operators producing oil--Too much for refiners, storage facilities--1925 57 refineries processing 186 million

barrels per year

--1928 tank farms could store +340 million barrels, 2-year supply

--Oversupply drove down prices--Large operators bought out, merged smaller

competitors--By 1930 industry dominated by Standard,

Union, Shell, Tidewater-Associated, General Petroleum, Richfield, Texas Company

--Producers controlled production, price

THE MOVIES• 1896 - 1946 number one US form of

entertainment• 1916 - 1946 film-making #1 industry in

southern California• Earliest filmmakers produced 1-reelers, 12-15

minutes long--Films viewed individually

--Edison still working on viable projector--Vitascope available 1895--Growth of theatres, demand stimulated

filmmaking industry• Early leader Edwin S. Porter--1903 produced The Great Train Robbery --All the elements of modern film--Success produced first film star, Gilbert M.

Anderson

• 1907 Anderson w/ George Spoor founded Essanay Film Company

--Set up studio at Niles for countryside--1910-1916 made 375 "Bronco Billy" westerns --Eventually moved to So Cal

• So Cal industry dominated by Jewish immigrants

--Adolph Zukor, Samuel Goldwyn, Louis B. Mayer, Marcus Loew, Jesse L. Lasky

--LA ideal: weather, location, open shop--By 1914 +70 studios producing films--Slowly formed nucleus at Hollywood, western

outskirts of Los Angeles

• 1914 David W. Griffith produced landmark film The Birth of a Nation

--Used all the old tricks, plus cast of 1000s--Popularly successful--Socially disastrous

• Studios developed "star" system --Housed, groomed young actors, actresses--Promoted through fan magazines--Favorites like Charlie Chaplin could earn

$10,000 / week

• 1920s studios built theatre chains--Movie palaces for growing MC audiences• 1927 Warner Brothers produced The Jazz

Singer --first talking picture

• Some Americans worried about provocative films, stars

--Fatty Arbuckle/Virginia Rappe scandal (1921)• Hollywood agreed to self-censorship--1922 industry reps hired Will H. Hays as movie

czar--Head of Hayes Office earned $150,000/year

• Some still thought movies scandalous--Tarzan and His Mate (1932)--Baby Face (1933)--She Done Him Wrong (1933)

• June 1934 Catholic Church organized Legion of Decency

--Called on nation's 20M Catholics to boycott indecent films

--Hollywood created Breen Office --Breen code in force for rest of 1930s

AGRIBUSINESS• Farmers adopted 1920s corporate structure--State land practices supported horizontal

integration--by 1930s 4 % of California growers controlled

62 % of all farmland

• Tejón Ranch Company one example--Formed from large conjoining Mexican land

grants belonging to Edward F. Beale--Arrived 1846, served under Commodore

Stockton--Joined rescue of General Kearny at San Pascual--1853 appointed first superintendent of Indian

Affairs for California, Nevada--Bought 5 grants totaling 221,838 acres in

1860s

--Over 30 years bought 100,000 acres more--1912 son Truxton sold all for $3 million to

Harry Chandler, LA syndicate--Incorporated as Tejón Ranch Company--One of state's largest producers of livestock,

alfalfa, fruit, potatoes

• 1903 James Ben Ali Haggin, associates incorporated holdings as Kern County Land Company

--Original holdings of Tevis & Haggin subject of Lux v. Haggin lawsuit

--1903 amounted to 350,000 acres --One of largest corporate farms in the world• By 1920s, Miller and Lux, Newhall Land and

Farming Company, Irvine Company, Standard Oil Company of California also corporate farmers

• Vertical integration followed horizontal integration

--1916 Mark J. Fontana merged 4 packing companies into California Packing Company

--largest canning company in the world--farmed thousands of acres --contracted with independent growers for fruits,

vegetables --CalPack processed, packaged, shipped to network

of warehouses--Redistributed to markets / Del Monte label

• Joseph DiGiorgio did the same--Owned, leased 1000s of acres--Owned canneries, lumber mills--Armies of workers picked, packed, shipped

crops--Marketed under S&W label

• California agriculture more diverse after WWI--By end of 1920s producing 200 commercial

crops--Most states produce 12-15 crops--#1 in vegetables, fruits, nuts, poultry

• marketing of specialty crops handled by exchanges like Sunkist's

--co-ops controlled harvests of walnuts, almonds, dates, figs, raisins

--stored, released to control price

• 1920s saw 2 new staples, rice and cotton--Japanese farmers introduced rice--By 1920s important Sacramento Valley product--Cal #3 in national rice production--Cotton introduced Imperial Valley 1916--Quickly dominated San Joaquin Valley --California soon top 3 cotton producer

• Japanese success enraged nativists--72,000 by 1920--By 1930, women 1/3 of Japanese pop--8,500 in Los Angeles County

• Urban, rural Japanese connected to agriculture

--Farmers, wholesalers, retailers, distributers--Created vertical organizations--E.g., Japanese nurseries produced flowers,

plants for sale in Japanese shops--From Imperial to Sacramento valleys, Japanese

boardinghouses, hotels, restaurants, barbershops, gambling houses served migrant Japanese workers

• After WWI, new pressure on legislature to restrict Japanese agriculture

--V. S. McClatchy of Sacramento Bee, American Legion, Native Sons of the Golden West, others pressed Congress for immigration reform

--Voters passed 1920 proposition expanding Webb-Heney Act

--"aliens ineligible to citizenship" could not lease land, invest in companies that owned land

• 1921 legislature amended education codes --allowed separate schools for children of Indian,

Chinese, Japanese, or Mongolian parentage--once separate schools established, children

barred from other public schools--Sacramento school districts built separate

schools for Chinese, Japanese, Filipino children --Florin, Walnut Grove, Isleton, Courtland schools

segregated until WWII

• Congress barred Japanese immigration completely in Immigration Act of 1924

--Initially drafted for southern and eastern European immigration

--California representatives added provisions barring Asian immigration

--1924 act revoked Gentlemen's Agreement--By 1941, 2/3 of US Japanese American-born

FARM LABOR• Corporate farms relied on cheap, available

labor pool • Historically American farmers relied on family,

hired help at harvest

• Large-scale operations labor demands made that model unworkable

--Most specialty crops required intensive labor for short periods

--No reason to retain large labor force other periods

--Corporate farmers preferred oversupply to keep wages low, ensure crops picked at peak

• Expanding corporate farms meant fewer employers, larger labor force

--By 1935, 1/10 of growers hired ¾ of laborers• 1920s organized labor bureaus --estimated labor needs--hired workers, agents--agreed on wages, piece rates--system reduced wages by 30 %

• field conditions poor--provided minimal housing, sanitation--farmers' importance to economy ensured

political support• sources of farm labor changed after WWI--After 1917 growers relied on Filipino, Mexican

workers--Filipinos residents of American protectorate,

could legally enter --Often came by way of Hawaii

• California Filipino population grew slowly--5 in 1910--+2,600 in 1920--20,000 in 1930• Mexicans, Mexican Americans with

automobiles backbone of Cal farms--Drawn to farms, manufacturing, food-

processing, garment and construction--By 1930 Mexicans + 80 % farm labor force

• Nativists demanded immigration control--Employers in California, Texas insisted on

Mexican exception• So Cal Mexican community grew --Housing discrimination kept in East LA--Community orgs provided services, recreation--By 1930, Mexican Los Angeles + 97,000 --largest concentration of Mexicans outside

Mexico City

OTHER INDUSTRIES• Growing population, economic specialization

demanded new industries• 1904 Amadeo P. Giannini founded SF's Bank of

Italy --Encouraged neighbors to open penny savings

accounts--Loaned money on credit after San Francisco

earthquake, fire --Loans for small businesses, farms

--Branch banks in small communities brought new customers

--by 1927 Bank of Italy held mortgages on 1 of 11 eleven Cal farms

--1930 merged bank holdings as Bank of America

--1945, largest bank in world

• 1919 Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company opened LA branch

--Firestone, B. F. Goodrich, U.S. Rubber Company followed

--Los Angeles became nation's second-largest tire manufacturer

--Satellite industries followed• 1927–1928 Ford, Willys-Overland opened

state's first auto plants in LA--Owens-Illinois Glass Company--Bethlehem Steel, U.S. Steel

• Swift & Company, Procter and Gamble opened LA plants

• LA developed competitive industrial sector--1919 LA 28th in US manufacturing centers --1930 LA 9th " " --Beat SF--by 1930, California 8th US manufacturing state

THE DECLINE OF ORGANIZED LABOR• Post WWI nadir of US labor unions• "red-baiting" linked unions with radical

politics, anarchy, violence• Energized employer associations --LA's Merchants & Manufacturers Association

succeeded in keeping out unions--1929 Los Angeles Times attributed state

prosperity to open shop

• Battle in SF resumed after WWI--By 1921 Merchants' Association broke

longshoreman's, seafarer's unions --Replaced w owner controlled "blue-book"

unions--Industrial Association maintained open shop

through 1920s--employers of union labor denied credit,

building materials --Union membership in California, nation fell

• criminal syndicalism law effective weapon--drove IWW from fields--intimidated labor organizers through 1920s,

1930s

URBAN RIVALRY AND THE MILITARY• California cities competed for dominance--Competed for federal spending, esp. military

facilities--San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vallejo,

Alameda competed for military bases

• US Navy created Pacific Fleet after WWI--San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco

competed--San Diego outbid, outmaneuvered SF--Fed poured $ millions into San Diego

installations, salaries--Spilled over into real estate, supporting

commerce

• southern California wooed Air Force--desert good for planes• attracted private aircraft manufacturing

companies --Douglas, Lockheed, Consolidated moved to

southern California--By 1941, military key to prosperity

A CHANGING SOCIETY• 1920s paradoxical decade• Revolutionary new influences--Automobile transformed economy--movies, radio created mass culture--19th amendment gave women political equality --"flappers" suggested new morality

• Profound resistance to change at same time--Fear of foreigners, radicals--Immigration reform--Revival of religious fundamentalism--Embrace of prohibition--Revival of KKK

• Black Californians consolidated gains--Pop still small: 40,000 by 1930--Two-wage-earner families typical--Over ½ working-age women employed--Blacks concentrated in Watts neighborhood in

Los Angeles --Smaller enclave in West Oakland, at Southern

Pacific terminus

--Leaders showed new confidence--1919 Delilah Leontium Beasley published

Negro Trailblazers of California --Frances Albrier protested segregation in

Berkeley, Oakland with boycotts

• White hostility evident in popularity of KKK--Reappeared after WWI--Klaverns in San Francisco, Oakland,

Sacramento, Fresno, San Joaquin Valley--Strongest in Los Angeles --1924 Klan took over Anaheim city council

• In California, KKK associated with prohibition--Northern California stronghold of anti-

prohibition sentiment--Southern California dominated by newcomers

from Midwest, many transplanted southerners

--Many members of fundamentalist church groups, Anti-Saloon League

--Associated alcohol with foreigners, esp. Catholics

• 1920s good for mc white women--College enrollments increased--Entrance into professions increased--Entry into paid work increased

• Economic autonomy linked to reproductive autonomy

--Contraceptive advice, devices increasingly available

--Physicians, American Birth Control League clinics distributed advice

--"companionate" marriage suggested husbands, wives could be "pals"

• Opportunities expanded for Asian women • SF Korean women organized associations--raised funds for social welfare services --sent money to Korea for independence

movement

• SF Chinese women organized too--1911 Chinese Women's Self-Reliance

Association raised funds for social welfare, education

--Sent $$ to Dr. Sun Yat-Sen revolutionary movement at home

--Hoped education would improve women's status in US and China

RELIGION• California attracted faith healers, spiritualists,

health faddists, cult leaders --gave Los Angeles unorthodox reputation --many newcomers felt isolated--many attracted to Aimee Semple McPherson

• By 1944, Church of the Foursquare Gospel huge success

--410 churches in North America--200 missions--29,000 members--assets of $2,800,000

• Theosophical Society produced spiritual leaders

--Combined Buddhist, Brahman teachings--1900 Katherine Tingley (Purple Mother) began

Point Loma community --Annie Besant formed colony in Ojai Valley

PROHIBITION• California ratified Eighteenth Amendment in

1919 • Volstead Act went into effect on January 17,

1920--prohibited manufacture, sale of beverage

containing more than ½ of 1% alcohol--fed supposed to enforce, but states required

to create enforcement mechanisms

• 1920 Anti-Saloon League pushed for Harris Act--legislature passed it--dominated by rural, southern representatives --wets defeated bill with referendum• 1922 before legislature voted for enforcement

arm--Law barely enforced--1929 state spent $1,767 on enforcement

• 26 counties, 56 cities and towns passed "little Volstead" ordinances

--Fined violators--Mostly about revenues• SF, Sacramento ignored prohibition

• Almost impossible to keep liquor out--1,200-mile coastline--ships from Vancouver, British Columbia

brought in--By 1926 smuggling Canadian liquor major

industry--southern California imported + 150,000 cases

of scotch whiskey / year

• home-made liquor flourished--1927 agents seized 185 distilleries, 572 stills --Set up everywhere: basements, garages,

canyons, stables, dairies, tents• Hard on California's wine industry--Suspicious number of vinters began producing

sacramental wines--Prohibition finally repealed 1933

ONE-PARTY GOVERNMENT• 1920s nadir for Democratic party in California• Conservative influences aligned behind

Republicans--influx of Midwestern Republicans --increased power of large-scale business--cross-filing, non-partisan balloting--prohibition

• Democratic party divided over prohibition • 1920 to 1930 Democrats won only 25 of 555

elections• not one Democrat won statewide executive

office• Progressive Party dissolved 1917 when Hiram

Johnson left --Most members returned to Republican party

• Gov. William D. Stephens shared southern counties' sentiments

--ardent prohibitionist--anti-union--anti-Japanese--pro Criminal Syndicalism Act of 1919--he got one of the letter bombs • 1918 won election in own right

• Oversaw several reforms--State regulation of business --development of water and power resources--$40 million bond issue for hwy construction--Engineered 50 % increase in 1921 state budget --35 % increase in corporation taxes paid for it--consolidated dozens of independent state

agencies into 5 departments --improved state budgeting, accounting system

• 1922 campaigned for reelection on pragmatic business-manager record

--Opponent Friend W. Richardson--publisher of Berkeley Gazette --incumbent state treasurer

• Richardson attacked budget increases --called for a massive reduction in state

expenditures--emotional issue with great appeal to voters--defeated governor in primary, ensured

Richardson's election• 1923 budget cut education, social welfare,

state services--Republican legislature adopted--vetoed spending bills

• provoked Progressive resurgence--Progressive Voters League prompted

progressive candidates in 1924 --Created Republican standoff in legislature--Governor blocked budget increases 1925

budget--vetoed more than ½ of bills passed by 1925

legislature --still a record

• 1926 Progressive Voters League Lieutenant Governor C. C. Young for governor

--former teacher, businessman--Young campaigned for government

reorganization, highway development, conservation, forest pres ervation, tax reform, development of water and hydroelectric resources

--narrowly defeated the governor in primary, elected in general election

• Gov. Young administration passed important reforms

--support for conservation, parks--first state old-age pension law in US--aid to the blind, physically handicapped, and

needy--regarded one of best California's governors

• Reapportionment key issue 1926 election --1920 census showed southern California

underrepresented in legislature--legislature failed to pass reapportionment bills

in 1921, 1923, 1925

• Southerners mounted reapportionment initiative

--Northern, rural interests launched counter-initiative--proposed "federal plan" --assembly members apportionment based on

population--state senate equal, based on number of counties--no county could have more than one senator --no senator could represent more than three

counties

• "federal plan" initiative passed--Result 40 years of underrepresentation for

urban counties--especially acute in southern California• 1965 Los Angeles County state senator

represented 450 times as many people as senator for Mono, Inyo, and Alpine counties

--Held until 1964 U.S. Supreme Court ruling--Reynolds v. Simms declared "one man, one

vote"

• prohibition undermined C. C. Young in 1930 governor's race

--Young supported prohibition--Opponent James ("Sunny Jim") Rolph, Jr.--long-time mayor of San Francisco--Los Angeles district attorney Buron Fitts

entered primary race--Young and Fitts split the dry vote--Rolph won the nomination, assured election in

November

• Probably worst governor in California history--Just in time for the Great Depression

Downtown Los Angeles, circa 1929Downtown Seventh Street in Los Angeles, in about 1929, decorated for a Shriner’s convention. Note the automobile traffic and Pacific Electric cars. Auto congestion contributed to the financial decline of the Pacific Electric and its eventual replacement with bus lines. This item is reproduced by permission of The HuntingtonLibrary, San Marino, California.

Henry Huntington at the Doors of His Library, 1920sThis item is reproduced by permission of The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.

The Milestone Mo-Tel (later the “Motel Inn”) circa 1930San Luis Obispo Historical Museum.

The Milestone Motel, circa 1994Photograph by William A. Bullough.

Robinson JeffersPhotograph by Edward Weston, Courtesy of The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

Whittier Boulevard, 1928California highway development in the 1920s was the envy of the nation. This 1928 photo of Whittier Boulevard as it cuts through Los Angeles County orange groves shows the concrete roadway with curbs typical of highway construction of the period. © California Department of Transportation.