Emotion

General Psych 1 Modules 37 & 38

May 3, 2005Class #27

Emotion

Involve a mixture of: Physiological arousal

Heart pounding, etc. Expressive behavior

Teeth clenched Conscious experience

Interpreting others behaviors Interpreting your own feelings

The Physiology of Emotion When you are emotionally aroused, your body is physically

aroused… Autonomic Nervous System

Remember this is the “automatic pilot” part of the nervous system – controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs (like your heart)

It’s a dual system that is working together to help maintain homeostasis

This dual system is constantly active trying to keep a steady internal state

Sympathetic Nervous System Arouses the body – mobilizes energy in stressful situations Increases such things as HR, breathing, production of

sweat, and the flow of epinephrine (adrenaline) Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms you down

The Physiology of Emotion

Opponent Process Theory (Solomon & Corbit, 1974) Two assumptions:

Any reaction to a stimulus is followed by the opposite reaction

For example: sky-diving Initial reaction: arousal (terror) Opposite reaction: calm (relief)

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus causes the initial reaction to weaken and the opposite reaction is quicker and stronger

For example: the fifth or sixth ride on the same roller coaster on the same day doesn’t produce the effect it did on the first ride

Early Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory (James, 1890)

According to this theory, people experience emotion based on observations of their own physical behavior and peripheral responses

We basically check our body responses to determine our emotions

We feel sorry because we cried…

We feel afraid because we are trembling…

The feeling follows the response and is caused by the response

The smile made me happy…

James-Lange Theory

Emotions are caused by a change in our physiological state

This change in the physiological state is caused by some stimulus in our environment

Criticism of James-Lange Theory

The problem is that this theory predicts that there should be a fairly fixed relationship between physiological state and emotion

But other researchers feel there is not this one-to-one relationship

A single physiological state change may actually be correlated with a number of different emotions

Early Theories of Emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory This theory developed in response to this observation

that there is not a one-to-one relationship between our physiological state and our emotional state

This theory of emotion states that an emotion is produced when some stimulus triggers the thalamus to send information simultaneously to the brain (specifically, the cerebral cortex) and the autonomic system (including the skeletal muscles)

Thus, the stimulus is perceived at both a physiological and the subjective level

Cannon-Bard Theory

These researchers felt that body arousal and the experience of emotion occur simultaneously Your heart starts pounding at the same

time you experience the fear But one does not cause the other

Other Theories of Emotion

Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factor Theory The intensity level of our body responses determines

the intensity of the emotion but doesn’t tell us which emotion we are experiencing

We must use cognitive processes to determine and label which emotion it is

More awareness here than in James Lange theory This interpretation involves reflecting back on the

situation the physiological response is coming from Thus, giving a cognitive appraisal so we can

determine the emotion

Transferred Excitation

Reisenzein (1983) Also, referred to as a “spillover effect”…

When arousal from one experience carries over to an independent situation

Non-emotional sources may intensify a new emotional experience

For example, you just finish your weight-lifting work-out and you are provoked by someone 10 minutes later – you become more angry than you would had you not been working out

So, maybe overt signs of physical arousal had subsided but the sympathetic nervous system is still active

Transferred Excitation

Also possible is that one emotion can also transfer to another… Dutton & Aron (1974)

Found that a the emotion of fear enhanced men’s sexual feelings

Dutton & Aron (1974)

Participants: Men Ages 18-35

Site: Capilano Canyon Method

Procedures: Men approached by experimenter Asked to invent short story from TAT picture Encouraged to call experimenter for results

High Bridge

• 230 feet above ground• 5 feet wide• Very unstable: sways

Another view of the high bridge

Dependent and Independent Variables

DV: ???

IV1: ??? IV2:???

Results

Considering this Transferred Excitation Theory what would you predict the results to be???

Social Referencing

The process of letting another person’s emotional state guide our own behavior Especially for those that are unsure Might check others facial expressions before

producing a behavior

Schachter and Singer (1962)

Procedures: Gave injections to participants Deception used in several ways

Schachter and Singer (1962)

DV: social referencing

IV1: injection of epinephrine vs. saline solution

IV2: information IV3: euphoric or angry “confederates”

Schachter and Singer (1962)

Results: Any guesses???

The two dimensions of emotion…

Watson, Russell, and Tellegen (1989) Described emotions as variations of two

dimensions: Unpleasant vs. pleasant feelings Low vs. high arousal

The two dimensions of emotion…

Need to take that big psychology test, participate in some sporting event, or give a speech??? Some label this arousal as energizing…

They feel “up” for the game It gives them an edge Just a few ‘butterflies” – I’ll be okay This is a positive valence

But some become terrified… I’m going to have a panic attack when I give that presentation Some even get physically ill Here, arousal is both too high and valence is unpleasant

Detecting Emotion: Lie Detection

Polygraph (“the lie detector”) Once employed in both law enforcement work and national security

matters By mid-1980’s it was used approximately 2 million times a year in

U.S. Mostly in attempts to screen new employees for honesty or to

uncover employee theft Does not literally detect lies…

It measures several of the physiological responses that accompany emotions including HR, BP, and electrical conduction of the skin (perspiration)

Underlying assumption is that lying is stressful and that a person who is lying will become physiologically aroused

The Typical Procedure

First of all, the examiner tries to convince the individual that the instrument is highly accurate A lie in itself ???

Once he/she feels the individual is relaxed (another problem?) several control questions are asked These are designed to make anyone a little nervous

In the last 10 years have you ever taken something that didn’t belong to you

Many tell a “white lie” here and often the polygraph picks up on this with slight physiological changes

Then the critical questions are asked: Did you steal that laptop from your professor’s office last week???

The Typical Procedure

Analysis: If the subject’s physiological reactions to the

critical questions are stronger than the control questions, then the examiner can infer that they are lying on the critical questions

The assumption is that only a thief would become agitated when denying the theft

How well does the lie detector work?

Do liars exhibit anxiety when lying? Can a hardened psychopathic criminal “beat” the machine? Or worse yet, can an innocent person feeling a heightened

degree of tension caused by the accusations fail the test? Despite these problems some the American Polygraph

Association points to near 100% accuracy (if not counting the inconclusives) Daytime talk shows say its like 99.99%

Most other studies say its about 66% accurate So not much better than flipping a coin (50% accurate)

False Positives

Most of the errors made by the polygraph are “false alarms” Falsely predicting that innocent people are lying

Many psychological studies have witnessed the polygraph call more than half of the innocent as liars Maybe we should flip a coin?

The biggest advantage of the polygraph appears as a tool in criminal investigations as police are sometimes able to use the polygraph to induce confessions by criminals who are not knowledgeable enough to know the pitfalls involved in this type of testing

Experiencing Emotion: Anger

Anger Sometimes referred to as a “short madness” Can lead to acts of aggression Can be many times more hurtful than the injury that

caused it Can make a coward act brave

Averill (1983) Anger is often a response to a perceived misdeed of

a friend or loved one when it is considered willful, unjustified, and avoidable

Lets take a look at what makes us angry?

Anderson and Anderson (1984, 1998) Found that uncomfortably hot weather

heightened aggressive reactions

Effects of Temperature on Anger and AggressionEffects of Temperature on Anger and Aggression

Source: Anderson, C. A. & Anderson, K. P. (1998)

Anderson (1987) (Anderson, Bushman, & Groom (1996)

Time period studies show that violent crimes are more likely to occur during warm-weather months than on cold weather months, and also that violent crimes tend to be more common in hot years than in cooler years and that the usual summer increase in violent crime is magnified during hotter years

Unpleasant Situations:Sweltering heat

Increases in temperature are associated with: More aggressive

horn-honking Increases in

assaults Increases in

murders Increases in

urban riots Major league

pitchers throwing more balls at batters

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Unpleasant Situations

Swedish teens asked to categorize anger-producing situations commonly listed: Thwarted plans

Example: Your parents refuse to send money for your

planned spring break ski vacation) Environmental frustrations

Example: A traffic jam when you’re late for class

GETTING IT OFF YOUR CHEST

Many therapists believe that unconsciously repressed emotions cause a variety of major problems: neurotic and psychotic behaviors, interpersonal conflicts psychosomatic disorders, etc.

Some people become overwhelmed by their emotions; others hold in their feelings and may not even know they are there

Catharsis... Venting... Discharging...

Expressing Emotions...

Freud felt that holding in one’s feelings causes mental and physical stress

And, stress can be very destructive Often suppressing and hiding "awful"

thoughts actually results in uncontrollable obsessions about the very thing we are trying to hide

It might make you feel better…

So, maybe its better to let all our vile feelings spew out to the guy down the block who is happily watering his lawn on a summer day?

Catharsis: Good or Crazy?

Well, maybe that’s going too far but… Venting or discharging emotions involves

vigorously expressing the emotion--fear, sadness, anger, dependency--so completely you feel "drained"

Then, according to Freud, the strength of the emotion is markedly reduced or eliminated. And you feel better. Are healthier.

So is it healthy or abnormal to punch a hole in the wall when you bomb that big psych test???

It worked when we were kids…

We all knew how to throw a temper tantrum at age 3…it worked back then

But not all researchers agree…

Expressing anger can be temporarily calming but usually it fails to cleanse one’s rage

Often expressing anger breeds more anger May provoke retaliation May become reinforcing and thus habit forming

Ebbesen, Duncan, & Konecni (1975)

Interviewed recently fired employees and encouraged them to talk about their hostility towards the company

Interestingly, this talking increased their hostility Catharsis actually led to greater amounts of anger

Like a movie played over and over…

The researchers concluded: If we talk about it then we tend to think about it a

lot It becomes an obsession, like a movie played

over and over The more we think about it, the angrier we get

So, what then is the best way to handle anger?

Anger Management Relaxation Cognitive Restructuring Problem Solving Better Communication Using Humor Changing Your Environment Don’t be defensive Wait Give a friend a call Do something constructive Forgiveness (Witvliet, 2001)