Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 94–98

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Personality and Individual Differences

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Emotional intelligence and Borderline personality disorder

Kathryn Gardner *, Pamela QualterSchool of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 24 September 2008Received in revised form 2 February 2009Accepted 5 February 2009Available online 9 March 2009

Keywords:Borderline personality disorderTraitsAbility emotional intelligenceTrait emotional intelligence

0191-8869/$ - see front matter � 2009 Elsevier Ltd. Adoi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.02.004

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 (0)1772 894463.E-mail addresses: KJGardner@uclan.ac.uk, kjgar

Gardner).

a b s t r a c t

This study explored the relationship between trait and ability emotional intelligence (EI) and Borderlinepersonality disorder (BPD) criteria in 523 nonclinical adults. Ability EI was assessed using the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) and trait EI using the Schutte Emotional Intelli-gence Scale (SEIS). We assessed the four features of BPD identified by Morey (1991): affective instability,identity disturbance, negative relationships and self-harm, and each of the nine BPD DSM-IV (APA, 2000)criteria. Results suggested that persons with BPD traits are deficient in multiple aspects of trait EI(r = �.04 to �.70), but especially management of one’s emotions. For ability EI effect sizes were smaller(r = .01 to �.36). As expected, poor emotion management ability was important in BPD, and was nega-tively related to all BPD features/criteria. Poor emotional understanding was also important. These find-ings extend past work regarding the emotional functioning of nonclinical persons with BPD features. Therole of ability and trait emotion management in BPD is consistent with Linehan’s (1993) emotion dysreg-ulation theory of the disorder.

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1. Introduction

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is characterised byimpulsive behaviour, unstable self-image and interpersonal rela-tionships, and extreme difficulties in emotion and mood manage-ment (APA, 2000). It results primarily from an interactionbetween emotion dysregulation and an invalidating environment(Linehan, 1993). Emotion dysregulation itself is produced by emo-tional vulnerability (i.e. affective instability and high sensitivity toemotional stimuli) and deficient emotion modulation (i.e. inabilityto manage one’s emotions; Linehan, 1993).

The poor emotional functioning of individuals with BPD hasbeen evidenced. Early studies showed BPD outpatients to havemarked deficits in self-reported emotional awareness and emotionintegration, greater intensity of negative emotions, and poor accu-racy in identifying negative facial expressions, relative to non-psy-chiatric controls (Levine, 1992). Other studies also point toemotion dysregulation, or poor emotion management in BPD (e.g.Bland, Williams, Scharer, & Manning, 2004; Yen, Zlotnick, & Cos-tello, 2002). These studies typically use self-report measures andso results cannot be generalized beyond subjective experiencesof emotion regulation. They are also subject to limitations suchas social desirability (e.g. Kluemper, 2008).

Other explorations of emotion functioning in BPD haveconsidered it within the context of trait emotional intelligence

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dner10@hotmail.com (K.

(EI). This construct is conceptualized as a constellation of emotion-related self-perceptions (e.g. emotion perception/management) lo-cated at the lower-levels of personality hierarchies (Petrides,Pérez-González, & Furnham, 2007). It is only minimally related toability EI which is assessed using maximum performance measuresand defined as a cognitive ability involving the ability to perceive,use, understand and manage emotion (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

One study on trait EI and BPD (Leible & Snell, 2004) found thatBPD (assessed using the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4+:Hyler, 1994) was negatively associated with multiple aspects oftrait EI, including self-reported emotion management. However,correlations were typically small (below .35), and the study useda convenience sample of psychology students.

In another study using regression techniques, global trait EInegatively predicted BPD after variance from dispositional mood(a known correlate of personality) was removed (Petrides et al.,2007). However, the moderately-sized sample of 212 studentsquestions generalization of the results. The use of global trait EIalso masks the importance of individual EI facets and reducesexplanatory power. Likewise, the use of global BPD is problematicas EI may play different roles in separate BPD features. This conten-tion is supported by the finding that the trait of affective instabilityrelates to some but not all BPD criteria (Koenigsberg et al., 2001:affective instability is defined as a marked reactivity of mood andis therefore related to emotion management; according to Line-han (1993), these work together to produce emotion dysregulationin BPD). However, because emotion dysregulation is theorized todrive all BPD symptoms (Linehan, 1993), poor emotion manage-ment (trait or ability-based) might underlie all BPD criteria. For

K. Gardner, P. Qualter / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 94–98 95

example, the second BPD criterion of unstable and chaotic inter-personal relationships may arise from difficulties in appropriatelycontrolling painful emotions such as anger, whilst impulsivityand self-harming/suicidal behaviour (fourth and fifth criteria) areabnormal responses to emotions and may represent efforts to reg-ulate emotion.

Given that trait EI overlaps with neuroticism (e.g. Petrides &Furnham, 2001), which is characteristic of BPDs (Saulsman & Page,2004), it is not surprising that those with BPD appear lower on traitEI. Linehan’s (1993) theory can also be used to explain these find-ings. Trait EI (which is largely personality-based) may act in a sim-ilar manner to Linehan’s concept of emotional or temperamentalvulnerability; it constitutes a risk factor that predisposes individu-als toward developing poor emotional functioning and maladaptiveBPD traits. In addition, there is considerable overlap between cer-tain trait EI facets and BPD traits (e.g. trait emotion managementand BPD affective instability). This overlap is consistent with theDSM-IV which partly defines BPD in terms of poor affect regulation,suggesting that BPD may be conceptualized in terms of poor trait EI.

Parallels can also be drawn between Linehan’s concept of emo-tion modulation and the emotion management component ofability EI; both incorporate skills such as being able to inhibit inap-propriate behaviour relating to strong positive or negative emotions.The ability EI skills of individuals with BPD have yet to be exploredusing established ability EI measures (e.g. Mayer–Salovey–CarusoEmotional Intelligence Test: MSCEIT; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,2002), and this is important for increasing understanding of actualrather than self-reported emotional functioning. Findings (Born-ovalova etal., 2007) that behavioural-based emotional managementplays a slightly stronger role in BPD than self-reported emotionmanagement (a component of trait EI) suggests utility in usingnon self-report measures of emotional functioning for understand-ing BPD. Using other skill-based tests, poor emotion perceptionhas been associated with BPD, although, findings are mixed (e.g.Bland et al., 2004; Levine, 1992; Lynch et al., 2006; Wagner & Line-han, 1999). Moreover, ability EI is associated with constructs suchas self-reported anxiety (e.g. Bastian, Burns, & Nettelbeck, 2005)and schizotypal personality (Aguirre, Sergi, & Levy, 2008), suggest-ing a role in mental health and personality functioning.

2. Rationale and aims

The empirical evidence suggests that individuals with BPD havedeficient emotional functioning. Because BPD is conceptualised asa disorder of emotion dysregulation (Linehan, 1993), EI is an idealcandidate for learning more about factors which might underlieBPD pathology, providing empirical investigations of Linehan’s the-ory. However, a study directly examining the extent to which ‘mul-tiple aspects of both trait and ability EI are implicated in thedisparate BPD criteria has yet to be undertaken. Understandingcommon psychological characteristics of the disorder (e.g. defi-ciencies in particular EI facets) is crucial for providing the knowl-edge-base for the development of effective treatments for BPDs;their mortality rate due to suicide is around 10% (see Oldham,2006).

Consistent with Leible and Snell (2004) and Petrides et al.(2007), we studied a nonclinical sample and assessed BPD viaself-report questionnaires rather than diagnosing via clinical inter-view. Such questionnaires identify persons with BPD traits who aremore representative of the less extreme manifestations of the dis-order. However, like clinical BPDs they experience dysfunctionacross a range of spheres (e.g. academic and interpersonal; Trull,Useda, Conforti, & Doan, 1997).

We used correlational analyses to determine which aspects ofemotional functioning (EI) might underlie BPD and its features.

In light of theories that conceptualise BPD as being partly due topoor emotion management, we predicted that global BPD will benegatively associated with trait and ability emotion management.However, trait EI may be more strongly implicated because person-ality disorders are conceptualized as extreme variants of normalpersonality traits, including aspects of trait EI (see Morey et al.(2002), in support of this dimensional approach to nesting BPDwithin normal personality models). Conversely, if ability EI is acognitive ability (cf. Brody) the influence on BPD may be small,as cognitive abilities and personality are typically orthogonal.Our assessment of BPD features included each of the nine DSM-IV criteria, and four broader BPD features that encompass these cri-teria (the latter are readily assessed via the Personality AssessmentInventory-Borderline Features Scale: Morey, 1991).

3. Method

3.1. Participants and design

The study used a web-based approach to data collection. Partic-ipants accessed a website and provided demographic informationand completed the questionnaires, followed by a de-briefing state-ment. Power analysis revealed that to detect relatively small effectsizes of r = .20 for a two-tailed correlational analysis with p < .01,300 participants would give power of .82 (Cohen, 1988). Our selec-tion of r = .20 was based on past literature showing reasonablysmall relationships between ability EI and self-report measuresof psychological functioning (e.g. correlations with self-reportedanxiety fall below .28; Bastian et al., 2005). 523 UK native Englishspeakers completed all measures. Participants were recruited pre-dominantly via newspaper adverts across the UK, snowball sam-pling (i.e. word of mouth) and academic/student mailing lists.The age range was 18–79 years (M = 33.77, SD = 11.69). They weremostly female (77.7%). A large percentage of the sample wereWhite-British (90.9%), and came from the North-West (36.5%)and the South (23.9%) of England. Most were educated up to GCSE(General Certificate in Secondary [high school] Education) level(97.1%). Occupations were diverse, with highest percentages beingstudents or working in the academic sector, and others in thehealth services or other public sectors.

3.2. Materials

The Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (SEIS; Schutte et al.,1998) was used to assess trait EI. It does not comprehensively cov-er the trait EI sampling domain (see Petrides & Furnham, 2001), butassesses trait-based aspects of EI consistent with the ability model.The measure includes 33 items and some research supports theassessment of four facets: Managing Own Emotions, ManagingOthers’ Emotions, emotion perception and Utilisation of emotion(e.g. Ciarrochi, Deane, & Anderson, 2002; Saklofske, Austin, &Minski, 2003).

The Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Ver-sion 2.0 (MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2002) measures ability EI. It con-tains 141 items, measuring Perceiving, Using, Understanding andManaging Emotions (Mayer et al., 2002). There is some supportfor the four-factor structure (e.g. Day & Carroll, 2004; cf., Rossen,Kranzler, & Algina, 2008). The web-based MSCEIT was used anddata were scored by Multi-Health Systems, the test distributor,using expert rather than consensus norms. In the former, correctanswers have been determined by EI experts; in the latter, thecorrect answer is that which the majority of the group agreeson (Mayer et al., 2002).

BPD traits were assessed via self-report questionnaires. Becausesuch measures yield high false-positive rates (i.e. they incorrectly

96 K. Gardner, P. Qualter / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 94–98

identify BPD symptoms when absent, e.g. Wilberg, Dammen, &Friis, 2000), we used multiple BPD questionnaires and aggregatedacross measures to provide a more reliable assessment. Selectedwere two measures that targeted the DSM-IV BPD criteria, andone that captures some of the intricate features of BPD. Regardingthe former, we used the 9 BPD items of the Personality DiagnosticQuestionnaire-Fourth Edition – BPD Scale (PDQ4-BPD; Hyler, 1994:a widely used screening measure of BPD) and 10 items of theMclean Screening Instrument for BPD (MSI-BPD; Zanarini et al.,2003). In terms of the latter we used the Personality AssessmentInventory-Borderline Features Scale (PAI-BOR; see Morey, 1991,for reliability and validity data) to assess four broad features ofBPD: affective instability, identity disturbance, negative relation-ships and self-harm.

4. Results

Descriptive statistics and subscale reliabilities are shown in Ta-ble 1. The correlations between the ability and trait EI componentsand BPD variables are shown in Table 2. Global BPD was assessedby averaging the total score across the three BPD measures. Fourbroad BPD features were assessed via the PAI-BOR subscales, andwe assessed the DSM-IV BPD criteria by aggregating the ninePDQ4-BPD items with the matching ten MSI-BPD items (i.e. scoreswere paired then averaged). Thus, we aggregated across measuresbased on conceptual reasons to produce a more reliable and validestimate of the separate BPD criteria by averaging out errors ofmeasurement (Paunonen, 1984). The MSI-BPD includes two itemswhich assess the first and second aspects of the ninth DSM-IV cri-terion (transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or severe disso-ciative symptoms). However, because the DSM-IV groupsparanoid ideation and dissociative symptoms together, these twoitems were aggregated with the PDQ4-BPD item which also as-sesses this criterion. Correlations between the matched PDQ4-BPD and MSI-BPD items ranged between r = .31 and .85.

Table 1Descriptive statistics and reliability of EI and BPD measures.

Measure/subscales M (SD) Reliability

BPD measurea

PDQ-4-BPDb 3.26 (2.53) .81MSI-BPDb 3.90 (3.22) .86PAI-BOR total 26.71 (14.70) .93PAI-BOR affective instability 7.60 (4.52) .87PAI-BOR identity disturbance 7.31 (4.37) .79PAI-BOR negative relationships 7.11 (3.99) .76PAI-BOR self-harm 4.69 (4.00) .85

Ability EITotal ability EI .54 (.06) .88Perceiving emotionsc .56 (.13) .91Using emotionsc .48 (.05) .66Understanding emotionsc .66 (.10) .72Managing emotionsc .43 (.08) .76

Trait EITotal trait EI 3.65 (.49) .92Perception of Emotion 3.67 (.62) .85Managing Own Emotions 3.50 (.73) .88Managing Others’ Emotions 3.68 (.54) .74Utilisation of Emotion 3.81 (.53) .67

Note: PDQ-4-BPD = Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4 BPD scale; MSI-BPD = Mclean Screening Instrument for BPD; PAI-BOR = Personality AssessmentInventory-Borderline Features scale.

a For the BPD variables, minimum and maximum scores ranged from the lowestand highest points on each scale, except for PAI-BOR total (minimum = 2, not 0).

b Reliability represented by Kuder–Richardson 20 (K–R 20) for dichotomousitems.

c Split-half reliabilities with Spearman–Brown correction calculated due to itemheterogeneity (Mayer et al., 2002).

4.1. Trait EI

Correlations with trait EI were negative and typically moderate.However, some trait EI components were highly associated withaspects of BPD. In particular, global trait EI was substantially re-lated to global BPD, PAI-BOR affective instability, PAI-BOR identitydisturbance and the DSM-IV criterion of emptiness (rs > �.57);these correlations were even stronger for trait Managing OwnEmotions, suggesting substantial shared variance. In contrast, Util-isation of emotion was weakly associated with global BPD and BPDfeatures/criteria.

4.2. Ability EI

All significant correlations were negative, and by Cohen’s(1988) standards were small to medium in magnitude (rs < �.36).Global ability EI was significantly associated with global BPD andall BPD features/criteria (the largest correlation being with PAI-BOR identity disturbance: r = �.28), except the criteria of angerand impulsivity.

Regarding ability EI branches, perceiving emotions was not sig-nificantly related to global BPD or any BPD features. FacilitatingEmotions was significantly weakly associated with global BPD,PAI-BOR identity disturbance and negative relationships and theDSM-IV BPD criterion of paranoid ideation/dissociative symptoms.Understanding Emotions was significantly related to global BPD,PAI-BOR identity disturbance, negative relationships and self-harmand the following DSM-IV criteria: abandonment, identity issues,emptiness and paranoid ideation/dissociative symptoms. Unsur-prisingly, managing emotions correlations were larger than forthe other EI branches, with correlations being of a similar magni-tude for the four PAI-BOR features (rs = �.30 to �.35) and theDSM-IV criterion of emptiness (r = �.33). For this EI branch thesmallest correlation was with the DSM-IV impulsivity criterion(r = �.17).

5. Discussion

This study is the first to assess the role of multiple aspects ofboth trait and ability EI in BPD and its disparate features in non-clinical adults. Our findings were based on correlation which can-not infer causality, but are consistent with the notion that poortrait and ability EI underlie BPD features.

5.1. Trait EI

Consistent with the emotion dysregulation theory of BPD, traitmanagement of one’s emotions was negatively associated withglobal BPD. This consolidates findings that have used self-reportmeasures of emotional processing in BPD clinical women (e.g.Levine, 1992; Yen et al., 2002) and trait EI measures with pure stu-dent populations (e.g. Leible & Snell, 2004). The larger correlationsin our study compared to Leible and Snell may result from the useof different measures to assess trait EI and BPD. Alternatively, dif-ferences in replication across studies may arise due to the hetero-geneity of BPD (Blais, Hilsenroth, & Fowler, 1999). Trait emotionperception and management of others’ emotions were also moder-ately and negatively associated with global BPD, further suggestingthat persons with BPD traits experience difficulties in multipleemotional domains.

Regarding the PAI-BOR features, given the theoretical overlapbetween trait management of one’s emotions and PAI-BORaffective instability, it is not surprising that these were highly asso-ciated. This trait EI facet was also highly related to PAI-BOR iden-tity disturbance, whilst correlations with PAI-BOR negative

Table 2Correlations between trait and ability EI components, Global BPD pathology, BPD features and nine DSM-IV BPD criteria.

SEIS MSCEIT

Total ME PERC MOE UT Total PER FAC UND MAN

Global BPDa �.62** �.70** �.48** �.47** �.13* �.26** �.06 �.12* �.19** �.36**

BPD PAI-BOR featuresAffective instability �.60** �.68** �.44** �45** �.13* �.19** �.04 �.06 �.11b �33**

Identity disturbance �.59** �.67** �.45** �.43** �.12* �.28** �.08 �.14** �.21** �.35**

Negative relationships �.49** �55** �.38** �.38** �.10 �.24** �05 �.11* �20** �.30**

Self-harm �44** �50** �.37** �.29** �.10 �.24** �.08 �.09 �.18** �.30**

DSM-IV BPD criteria1. Abandonment �.32** �37** �27** �.19** �07 �.21** �.05 �.10 �.19** �.24**

2. Unstable relationships �.36** �42** �.26** �.26** �.11 �16** �.02 �.08 �.10 �.27**

3. Identity issues �.51** �57** �.38** �.41** �13* �.19** �05 �.11 �.12* �26**

4. Impulsivity �30** �34** �27** �.20** �.02 �.11 �.02 �.02 �.09 �.17**

5. Self-harm/suicidal behaviour �.42** �.49** �.29** �33** �10 �.18** �.06 �.10 �.11 �.25**

6. Affective instability �.46** �.49** �.38** �.36** �.09 �.13* �02 �.05 �10 �.20**

7. Emptiness �57** �62** �41** �.48** �.15** �.21** �.05 �.09 �.13* �33**

8. Anger �.42** �.47** �.32** �.32** �.06 �.10 .01 .01 �08 �.21**

9. Paranoid ideation/dissociation �.49** �.51** �.39** �.42** �.04 �.22** �04 �.14** �18** �.29**

Note: ME = Managing Own Emotions; PERC = Perception of Emotion; MOE = Managing Others Emotions; UT = Utilisation Of Emotion; PER = Perceiving; FAC = Facilitating;UND = Understanding; MAN = Managing.

a Global BPD = the mean of the PDQ4-BPD, MSI-BPD and PAI-BOR total score. Aggregating across the PDQ4-BPD and MSI-BPD only (measures with similar structure andcontent) would not largely alter results, since the aggregated PDQ4-BPD/MSI-BPD scale correlates at r = .98 (p < .001), with the BPD score aggregated across all threemeasures. In addition, the pattern of correlations amongst MSCEIT and SEIS subscales and global BPD in Table 2 is virtually identical to the patterns observed when the threeseparate BPD measures are used. However, the former provides a more reliable assessment of BPD.

b Near significant result (p < .014).* p < .01.

** p < .001.

K. Gardner, P. Qualter / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 94–98 97

relationships and self-harm were smaller. The same pattern wasobserved for trait perceiving emotion and management of others’emotions. These findings suggest that evaluative judgments aboutone’s emotional skills (trait EI) are more important to affective andself aspects of BPD (measured by PAI-BOR affective instability andidentity disturbance) than interpersonal and behavioural aspects(PAI-BOR negative relationships and self-harm). This conclusionis supported by the correlations with the DSM-IV criteria, wherecriteria tapping aspects of self-dysregulation (identity issues andchronic emptiness) tended to overlap most with components oftrait EI. Strong relationships with identity issues are understand-able given that self-identity/concept is considered the core of per-sonality (Epstein, 1973). Chronic emptiness on the other hand mayarise because the individual cannot manage emotions by self-soothing or investing time in relationships and goals (Westen,1991).

5.2. Ability EI

Poor emotion management was negatively related to globalBPD. However, the effect size was modest. This may arise becausethe MSCEIT tests knowledge of emotion management strategiesand not actual skill in dealing with emotions (Brody, 2004).

It is unsurprising that emotion perception ability was unrelatedto global BPD; past studies have documented patterns dependenton emotional valance (i.e. whether the facial expression is neutral,positive or negative, e.g. Levine, 1992; Wagner & Linehan, 1999), orfound differences between BPDs and non-BPDs for morphed facesonly (i.e. faces not expressing a full emotion; Lynch et al., 2006).The MSCEIT does not account for these factors.

In contrast, our data suggest that persons with BPD traits havepoor ability to understand, and to some extent use their emotions.The significant, albeit small, relationship with understanding emo-tions is consistent with clinically diagnosed BPDs’ self-reportedinability to coordinate mixed-valence feelings (Levine, 1992).Understanding emotions is also the ability EI component that ap-pears most cognitively saturated and so likely to be intelligence-based (e.g. Bastian et al., 2005); if this is the case, borderline

pathology may partly arise due to a relatively fixed and innate def-icit in this area. In practical terms, this potentially ‘hardwired’ def-icit may be partially accountable for the difficulties in recoveringfrom BPD, as this appears to contribute to emotion managementdifficulties (Barrett, Gross, Christensen, & Benvenuto, 2001). Ofcourse, such poor emotional understanding may develop in alearning context via parental influences such as abuse (Shipman& Zeman, 1999).

Poor emotion management skill was also associated with allBPD features/criteria. Correlations were of modest magnitude,although some DSM-IV criteria were more strongly related thanothers (e.g. emptiness vs. impulsivity, suggesting a slightly stron-ger role of emotion management in self relative to behavioural as-pects of BPD). Results are therefore congruent with Linehan’s(1993) theory whereby all BPD features are to some extent influ-enced by emotion dysregulation (comparable to poor emotionmanagement). Regarding the other ability EI branches, correlationswith BPD features/criteria were smaller than for managing emo-tions, with understanding emotions being less crucial for affectiveaspects of BPD.

5.3. Practical implications, limitations and future directions

This research has practical implications. If individuals with BPDtraits are deficient in trait and ability EI, designing and tailoringintervention programmes to address EI facets may help to reduceBPD symptoms. Group-based interventions that develop emotionmanagement and understanding skills may be especially useful gi-ven the costly and timely nature of individual psychologicaltreatment.

Future studies should address the causal sequence of EI and BPDin longitudinal studies. They should also determine whether thesame pattern of relationships exist in clinically diagnosed BPDswho suffer more extreme dysfunction.

Important limitations include common method variance whichmay account for the larger associations between self-reported traitEI and BPD. For example, social desirability may introduce system-atic variance or bias when assessing both traits. However,

98 K. Gardner, P. Qualter / Personality and Individual Differences 47 (2009) 94–98

Saklofske et al. (2003) report only a small correlation of .12 be-tween the SEIS and social desirability in their student sample. Thismay reflect the fact that students (including those in our sample)have no motivation to respond favorably (Kluemper, 2008). Studieshave also supported the independence of self-report BPD measuresfrom social desirability (e.g. Zimmerman & Coryell, 1990). More-over, it is unlikely that method variance fully accounts for traitEI-BPD associations, given the lack of a baseline level of signifi-cance levels and correlation sizes.

Proponents of the dimensional approach (e.g. Morey et al.,2002) also suggest cautious interpretation of our findings: theywould question the validity of the BPD construct (e.g. whether itis qualitatively distinct from other personality disorders: Widiger,2007). Thus, this pattern of correlations with EI may not be uniqueto BPD features/criteria. In addition, the validity of the MSCEIT hasbeen questioned. MSCEIT scoring techniques do not permit factu-ally correct answers and are inappropriate for the assessment ofa cognitive ability (e.g. Brody, 2004). Thus, our findings show theemotional abilities of persons with BPD and not necessarily cogni-tive skills they actually use.

6. Conclusion

In conclusion, the findings suggest utility in assessing multipleaspects of ability and trait EI to learn about the emotional function-ing of nonclinical adults with BPD traits. The results highlightedthe importance of emotion management (trait and ability EI) inall BPD features/criteria. Trait EI is most relevant to areas involvingaffective instability and self-dysregulation. In addition, personswith BPD traits appear to have poor emotional understanding abil-ity, although, deficits in this skill seem less relevant to the affectivecomponents of the disorder.

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