Empire of Maintenance and Empire of Maintenance and ConsolidationConsolidation

Augustus’ Imperial Policy Augustus’ Imperial Policy (?): Grand Strategy or Ad (?): Grand Strategy or Ad

Hoc Reaction?Hoc Reaction?

Roman Empire in 27 BCE

Roman Frontiers, ca. 200 CE

““For these [the Romans] I For these [the Romans] I place neither time nor place neither time nor limits; I have given power limits; I have given power without end.”without end.”

Vergil, Vergil, AeneidAeneid, 1.278-9 , 1.278-9 (Jupiter)(Jupiter)

““The The princepsprinceps recognized recognized that prudent diplomacy and that prudent diplomacy and discreet display of force were discreet display of force were preferable to expensive and preferable to expensive and hazardous ventures.”hazardous ventures.”

E.S. GruenE.S. Gruen

““[P]ower born of potential [P]ower born of potential force is not expended when it force is not expended when it is used, nor is it a finite is used, nor is it a finite quality. Force, on the other quality. Force, on the other hand, is just that; if directed hand, is just that; if directed to one purpose, it cannot to one purpose, it cannot simultaneously be directed simultaneously be directed at another, and if used, it is at another, and if used, it is ipso factoipso facto consumed.” consumed.”

E.N. LuttwakE.N. Luttwak

““What, with hindsight, What, with hindsight, historians analyze as historians analyze as Roman ‘policy’ was often, Roman ‘policy’ was often, simply, the Roman simply, the Roman government’s pragmatic government’s pragmatic reaction to situations.”reaction to situations.”

J.A. CrookJ.A. Crook

Raw Numbers and Territorial Raw Numbers and Territorial Extent of the Roman EmpireExtent of the Roman Empire

Twenty-eight legions (25 after 9 Twenty-eight legions (25 after 9 CECE): ): 300,000 troops (150,000 legionaries; 300,000 troops (150,000 legionaries; 150,000 auxiliaries)150,000 auxiliaries) Terms of Service: 16 years for Praetorian Guard; Terms of Service: 16 years for Praetorian Guard;

20 years for regular legionaries (after 5 20 years for regular legionaries (after 5 CECE)) Four-thousand mile long frontier of varied Four-thousand mile long frontier of varied

nature (mountain, forest, desert)nature (mountain, forest, desert) Economics of DefenseEconomics of Defense

Land grants to Discharged Veterans before 6 Land grants to Discharged Veterans before 6 CECE

Cash payments thereafter from Cash payments thereafter from aerarium aerarium militaremilitare (financed by personal contributions, a (financed by personal contributions, a 1% sales tax, and a 5% inheritance tax)1% sales tax, and a 5% inheritance tax)

Augustus and Imperial Augustus and Imperial IdeologyIdeology

Luttwakian Force?Luttwakian Force?

““I extended the boundaries of all the I extended the boundaries of all the provinces of the Roman people which provinces of the Roman people which were bordered by nations that were were bordered by nations that were not subject to our empire. I pacified not subject to our empire. I pacified the provinces of the Gauls, the the provinces of the Gauls, the Spains, as well as Germany…I Spains, as well as Germany…I pacified the Alps…My fleet sailed pacified the Alps…My fleet sailed through the Ocean from the mouth of through the Ocean from the mouth of the Rhine eastwards to the territory the Rhine eastwards to the territory of the Cimbri, a place to which no of the Cimbri, a place to which no Roman had gone before either by Roman had gone before either by land or sea…”land or sea…”

Augustus, Augustus, Res GestaeRes Gestae, 26, 26

““By conquering enemies, I By conquering enemies, I recovered many military recovered many military standards—from Spain, Gaul, standards—from Spain, Gaul, and the Dalmatians—which had and the Dalmatians—which had been lost by other generals. I been lost by other generals. I forced the Parthians to return to forced the Parthians to return to me the spoils and standards of me the spoils and standards of three Roman armies, and, as three Roman armies, and, as suppliants, to seek the suppliants, to seek the friendship of the Roman people. friendship of the Roman people. And I deposited those standards And I deposited those standards in the innermost shrine which is in the innermost shrine which is in the Temple of Mars the in the Temple of Mars the Avenger.”Avenger.”

Augustus, Augustus, Res GestaeRes Gestae, 29, 29

Triumphal Arch , ca. 20 CE in Orange, France

Disaster of 9 Disaster of 9 CECE::Varus’ Three Lost LegionsVarus’ Three Lost Legions

Attempt to push Roman frontier to Elbe Attempt to push Roman frontier to Elbe RiverRiver

Massacre of Three Legions in Teutoburg Massacre of Three Legions in Teutoburg Forest by German Chieftain Arminius Forest by German Chieftain Arminius (September, 9 (September, 9 CECE))

Romans fall back to Rhine-Danube Romans fall back to Rhine-Danube frontierfrontier

Changes in Roman Imperial Policy from Changes in Roman Imperial Policy from Offensive to Defensive Imperialism?Offensive to Defensive Imperialism?

““And yet Augustus had appointed And yet Augustus had appointed Germanicus, Drusus’s offspring, to the Germanicus, Drusus’s offspring, to the command of eight legions on the Rhine, command of eight legions on the Rhine,

and required Tiberius to adopt him, and required Tiberius to adopt him, although Tiberius had a son, now a young although Tiberius had a son, now a young

man, in his house; but he did it that he man, in his house; but he did it that he might have several safeguards to rest on. might have several safeguards to rest on. He had no war at the time on his hands He had no war at the time on his hands except against the Germans, which was except against the Germans, which was

rather to wipe out the disgrace of the loss rather to wipe out the disgrace of the loss of Quintilius Varus and his army than out of Quintilius Varus and his army than out of an ambition to extend the empire, or of an ambition to extend the empire, or

for any adequate recompense.”for any adequate recompense.”

Tacitus, Tacitus, AnnalsAnnals, 1.3, 1.3

Augustus’ Will Read to Senate by Augustus’ Will Read to Senate by His Successor, TiberiusHis Successor, Tiberius

“This contained a description of the “This contained a description of the resources of the state, of the number resources of the state, of the number of citizens and allies under arms, of of citizens and allies under arms, of

the fleets, subject kingdoms, the fleets, subject kingdoms, provinces, taxes, direct and indirect, provinces, taxes, direct and indirect, necessary expenses and customary necessary expenses and customary bounties. All these details Augustus bounties. All these details Augustus had written with his own hand, and had written with his own hand, and

had added a counsel, that the empire had added a counsel, that the empire should be confined to its present should be confined to its present limits, either from fear or out of limits, either from fear or out of

jealousy.”jealousy.”

Tacitus, Tacitus, AnnalsAnnals, 1.11, 1.11

Appearance and Reality:Appearance and Reality:Power vs. ForcePower vs. Force

Augustus: limited success in Spain, Augustus: limited success in Spain, Germany and the East (Gruen)Germany and the East (Gruen)

Return of Crassus’ Lost Standards by Return of Crassus’ Lost Standards by Arsacid Parthians (20 Arsacid Parthians (20 BCEBCE))

Imperial Cult and Imperial ControlImperial Cult and Imperial Control Military OathMilitary Oath Client State (economy of force)Client State (economy of force)

Cilicia Trachea, Judaea; Cottian Alpine Cilicia Trachea, Judaea; Cottian Alpine tribal leaders; Armenia; Thrace; tribal leaders; Armenia; Thrace; Mauretania (Luttwak)Mauretania (Luttwak)

““Power does not necessarily reside Power does not necessarily reside in politics…If power is taken as an in politics…If power is taken as an

analytical term, it makes it easier to analytical term, it makes it easier to see that there are manifold relations see that there are manifold relations

of power which pervade and of power which pervade and constitute society. Religion just as constitute society. Religion just as much as politics is concerned with much as politics is concerned with power. In other words, there is no power. In other words, there is no

reason to privilege politics over the reason to privilege politics over the imperial cult.”imperial cult.”

Simon Price, Simon Price, Rituals and PowerRituals and Power ((242)242)

““I swear by Jupiter, Earth, Sun, by all I swear by Jupiter, Earth, Sun, by all the gods and goddesses, and by the gods and goddesses, and by

Augustus himself, that I will be loyal Augustus himself, that I will be loyal to Caesar Augustus and to his to Caesar Augustus and to his

children and descendants all my life children and descendants all my life in word, in deed, and in thought, in word, in deed, and in thought, regarding as friends whomsoever regarding as friends whomsoever they regard, and considering as they regard, and considering as

enemies whomsoever they adjudge; enemies whomsoever they adjudge; that in defense of their interests I that in defense of their interests I

will spare neither body, soul, life, nor will spare neither body, soul, life, nor children, but will in every way children, but will in every way

undergo every danger in defense of undergo every danger in defense of their interests.”their interests.”

Paphlagonian Oath of Allegiance to Paphlagonian Oath of Allegiance to Augustus, 3 Augustus, 3 BCEBCE

Luttwak’s Grand StrategyLuttwak’s Grand Strategy

Legion = mobile striking force, Legion = mobile striking force, rather than perimeter defense rather than perimeter defense force (often used to quell force (often used to quell disturbances)disturbances)

Colonies as instruments of Colonies as instruments of strategic controlstrategic control

Client states and client tribes Client states and client tribes ((amici populi Romaniamici populi Romani))

Luttwak’s Territorial Empire

Luttwak’s Hegemonic Empire