Empirical Explor JSSR

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Running head: SPIRITUAL MATURITY AND OBJECT RELATIONS

An Empirical Exploration of Psychoanalysis and Religion: Spiritual

Maturity and Object Relations Development

Todd W. Hall

Community Mental Health Service

Raymond W. Bliss Army Community Hospital

Beth Fletcher Brokaw

Keith J. Edwards

Patricia L. Pike

Rosemead School of Psychology

Biola University

Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, (1998),37:2


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The Relationship Between

2Abstract

The present study builds on the emerging body of empirical literature examining religion from a

contemporary psychoanalytic perspective that is particularly informed by object relations theory. Such

a perspective leads to the hypothesis of a positive relationship between spiritual maturity, defined

relationally, and level of object relations development. In other words, it is proposed that the

developmental maturity of one's faith and relationship with God is associated with the developmental

maturity of one's relationships with others. Spiritual maturity was measured by the Spiritual Assessment

Inventory and the Religious Status Inventory. Level of object relations development was measured by

the Bell Object Relations Inventory. Results revealed 19 out of 20 significant correlations in the

predicted direction between both measures of spiritual maturity and the measure of level of object

relations development. Research and clinical implications are discussed.


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3An Empirical Exploration of Psychoanalysis and Religion: Spiritual

Maturity and Object Relations Development

The theoretical study of religion from a psychoanalytic perspective has a long history beginning

most notably with Freud (1907/1959, 1913/1955, 1927/1961, 1939/1964) and continuing with such

prominent theorists as Jung (1952), Fairbairn (1952), Guntrip (1949, 1956, 1969), and Winnicott

(1953, 1966, 1971). However, only relatively recently has a growing body of empiricalliterature on

the psychoanalytic study of religion emerged.

The Empirical Psychoanalytic Study of Religion

This emerging body of research was launched by Rizzuto (1979) in her landmark study of God

representations. In her book, The Birth of the Living God (1979), Rizzuto uses object relations theory

as a framework in examining "the possible origins of the individual's private representation of God"

(1979:3). She proposed that an individual's God representation is an amalgamation of the

representations of his or her primary introjects. Furthermore, the God representation, according to

Rizzuto, is continually transformed and reshaped throughout development as new experiences are

brought into the internal representational matrix. She used case studies to investigate her theory of the

God representation.

Rizzuto's theoretical and empirical contributions to the psychoanalytic study of the God

representation sparked a number of empirical studies of various aspects of God representation. Her

hypotheses have been generally corroborated by the studies of Birky and Ball (1988), Brokaw and

Edwards (1994), Knapp (1993), McDargh (1983), Spear (1994), and Wootton (1991), all of which

found a positive relationship between individuals' God representations and their level of object relations

development. In addition, the empirical literature on the psychoanalytic study of religion was

theoretically expanded by Hall and Brokaw (1995) who examined the association between level of

object relations development and spiritual maturity.


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4These studies represent a growing interest in empirically investigating religion from a

psychoanalytic perspective. Moreover, Rizzuto's pioneering work has led to a particular emphasis on

object relations theory in this literature. The present study was an attempt to continue in this tradition by

empirically investigating religion from a psychoanalytic object relations perspective.

Object Relations and Spiritual Maturity

An approach to the study of religion that corresponds well to an object relations perspective is a

focus on spiritual maturity. Spiritual maturity has been defined in various ways by different theorists and

researchers. For example, Butman (1990) noted that individuals' spiritual "fruit" expressed by directly

observable behaviors must be measured in order for the construct of spiritual maturity to be useful to

clinicians and researchers. Ellison (1983, 1991) focused on satisfaction with relationship with God and

life in his theory of spiritual well-being. Basset et al. (1981) described spiritual maturity in terms of belief

and behavior components. Malony (1985) defined religious maturity using Pruyser's (1976) eight

dimensions that emphasize predominantly belief and behavior components with some attention to

experiential aspects of religious functioning. In the present paper, however, spiritual maturity is defined

from an object relations perspective, emphasizing the quality of person's relationship with God. Such a

model of spiritual maturity provides a unique perspective that corresponds well with a contemporary

psychoanalytic point of view.

While little empirical work has been done in this particular area, several theoretical articles

articulate the basis for the relationship between religious/spiritual maturity and object relations maturity.

Shackelford (1978) and Pingleton (1984) both conducted theoretical studies of dependency/relational

maturity and concluded that mature dependence or interdependence from an object relations

perspective characterizes maturity from both a psychological and a biblical perspective. Benner (1988)

proposed that psychological and spiritual functioning are inextricably related because people relate to

God through the same psychological mechanisms that mediate relationships with other people. If

spiritual and psychological functioning, understood from an object relations perspective, are intricately


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5related as suggested above, a positive relationship between level of object relations development and

spiritual maturity would be theoretically expected.

The present study adds to the empirical literature examining an object-relational concept of God

representation by employing a related object-relational concept of spiritual maturity. Thus, the focus is

shifted from a static internal representation of God to the dynamic quality of one's actual relationship

with God. In so doing, this study builds on the work of Hall and Brokaw (1995) who initiated the study

of spiritual maturity and object relations development. Their study had several weaknesses, however,

including a low subject number (N = 20) and some of the measures used. The measure of level of

object relations development was unidimensional, and one measure of spiritual maturity in particular

(Spiritual Well-Being Scale) was not theoretically appropriate as it focuses on well-being rather than

maturity, and is not informed by an object relations perspective. The present study used a larger

subject number, a multidimensional measure of object relations maturity (Bell Object Relations

Inventory) and one measure of spiritual maturity that is specifically informed by object relations theory

(Spiritual Assessment Inventory).

Hypotheses

The specific hypotheses of the present study are as follows:

1. Spiritual maturity, as measured by three of the Religious Status Inventory subscales, is

positively associated with level of object relations development as measured by the four Bell Object

Relations Inventory subscales (a negative correlation indicates a positive relationship due to the scoring

of the BORI).

2. Both the quality of relationship and awareness aspects of spiritual maturity, as measured by

the SAI Quality and Awareness subscales, correlate significantly (in the negative direction) with the

BORI. However, the Quality subscale correlates significantly higher with the BORI than does the

Awareness subscale. This was predicted because the Awareness factor is theoretically assumed to be

less related to psychological maturity than is the Quality factor (see Hall & Edwards, 1996).


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6Method

Participants

The subjects consisted of 26 subjects from a spiritual direction training program, 39

undergraduate psychology students, and 11 outpatient clients. Thus, the total subject group consisted of

76 subjects. Of the 76 subjects, 49 (64.5%) were female and 25 (32.9%) were male. The subjects

ranged in age from 18 to 70 with a mean age of 33. In terms of ethnicity, 56 (73.7%) subjects

indicated they were Caucasian, nine (11.8%) Asian/Pacific Islander, four (5.3%) "other," three (4%)

Latino/Mexican American, one (1.3%) Puerto Rican, one (1.3%) other Hispanic, one (1.3%) African

American, and one (1.3%) American Indian or Alaska Native. Regarding marital status, 58 (76.3%)

subjects were single, 11 (14.5%) married, two (2.6%) separated, three (4%) divorced, and two (2.6%)

remarried. In terms of education, one (1.3%) subject had a high school degree, 55 (72.4%) ranged

from some college to a college degree, 19 (25%) ranged from some graduate work to a master's

degree, and one (1.3%) person had a doctorate.

Instruments

One measure of level of object relations development was used and two measures of spiritual

maturity were used in the present study. The instruments and subscales are described below.

BORI. The BORI is a 45-item true/false self-report scale. It contains four object relations

subscales: Alienation (ALN), Insecure Attachment (IA), Egocentricity (EGC), and Social Incompetence

(SI). The coefficient alphas for the four subscales were .90 (ALN), .82 (IA), .78 (EGC), and .79 (SI)

which demonstrate good internal consistency (Bell, Billington & Becker, 1986). Validity was

developed using theoretical substantive, structural, and external methods. Bell et al. (1986) conducted

and replicated a factor analysis which corroborated the multidimensional nature of the underlying

empirical structure of the subscales. Several studies have demonstrated discriminant, concurrent and

predictive validity using various psychiatric and nonpsychiatric samples (Bell, 1991).


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7The first subscale, ALN, contains items with the highest loadings and represents the broadest

dimension of object relations (Bell et al., 1986). The items reflect a lack of basic trust in relationships

and difficulty attaining and maintaining intimacy (Bell et al., 1986). An example of an ALN item is "It is

hard for me to get close to anyone." The second BORI subscale, IA, taps painful interpersonal

relationships. High scorers tend to be very sensitive to rejection and are easily hurt by others (Bell,

1991). An example of an IA item is "I feel I have to please everyone or else they may reject me." The

third BORI subscale, EGC, reflects three general attitudes toward relationships: (a) others' motivations

are mistrusted, (b) others exist only in relation to oneself, and (c) other people exist in order to be

manipulated for one's own self-centered aims (Bell et al., 1986). High scorers tend to be self-

protective, exploitive, intrusive, coercive and demanding. A sample ECG item is "Manipulating others is

the best way to get what I want." The SI subscale suggests shyness, nervousness, and uncertainty in

interactions with members of the opposite sex (Bell et al., 1986). High scorers tend to experience

relationships, particularly those with the opposite sex, as bewildering and unpredictable. Remaining SI

items reflect inability to make friends, social insecurity, absence of close relationships, and unsatisfactory

sexual adjustment. An example of an SI item is "I often feel nervous when I am around members of the

opposite sex." A high score on the BORI indicates a more pathological level of object relations.

Spiritual Assessment Inventory. The Spiritual Assessment Inventory (SAI; first version reported

in Hall & Edwards, 1996) is a 21-item self-report inventory designed to assess spiritual maturity from a

perspective that integrates object relations theory, and awareness of and communication with God. The

SAI consists of two subscales, the Quality of Relationship subscale and the Awareness subscale. Items

are answered on a five-point Likert scale ranging from "not true of me" to "true of me."

The Quality of Relationship subscale is designed to assess, from an object relations perspective,

the developmental quality of an individual's relationship with God. It consists of eight items that assess a

relationship with God that is characterized by borderline and narcissistic levels of development. These

items reflect the tendency to react to disappointment with God in extreme ways. For example,


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8endorsement of these items indicates reactions such as hating oneself and God, feeling completely

abandoned/rejected by God and not wanting to continue a relationship with God. High scores on this

subscale indicate a higher developmental quality of relationship with God and lower level of pathology.

An example of a Quality item is "When I express my pain to God, I fear He will not accept me."

The Awareness subscale contains 13 items that are designed to assess the level of an

individual's awareness of God's responsiveness, guidance, and presence in his or her life. High scorers

on this subscale are very attuned to God's responses to their prayers, to what God is teaching them

through other relationships, and to God's promptings and presence in a variety of forms. An example of

an Awareness item is "I am frequently aware of God prompting me to do something."

Hall and Edwards (1996) conducted a factor analysis which corroborated a two-factor solution

consisting of Awareness and Quality of relationship items, respectively. Good internal reliability has also

been demonstrated by coefficient alphas of .86 for the Awareness subscale, and .81 for the Quality

subscale.

Religious Status Inventory. The Religious Status Inventory (RSIn; Hadlock, 1988; Massey,

1988) is a paper and pencil measure based on the Religious Status Interview by Malony (1988).The

RSIn contains 160 items designed to examine how people think about their Christian faith and how their

lives interact with their faith. The authors state in the instructions that "items will reflect what you

believe, feel, and do, in connection with your faith" (Hadlock, 1988; Massey, 1988). All items are

answered on a Likert scale ranging from 1, "not true of me" to 5, "true of me."

The RSIn contains seven factors according to Jackson's (1992) factor analysis. However, the

present study utilized only three of the seven subscales: Worship and Commitment, Involvement in

Organized Religion, and Fellowship. These subscales were chosen for two reasons. First, they appear

to be assessing more relational constructs than the remaining four subscales. Second, these three

subscales correlated most highly with the general factor of religious maturity (.79, .61, and .57,


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9respectively) in Jacksons (1992) factor-variable correlations, and thus appear to be the most

psychometrically sound subscales.

The Worship and Commitment subscale measures one's desire to worship God in various ways

(Jackson, 1992). Items that exemplify this are, "I feel a desire to worship God throughout the week,"

"Receiving God's forgiveness inspires me to worship and praise God," and "I try to serve God through

my work." Involvement in Organized Religion reflects the degree of an individual's active participation in

religious organizations, which is exemplified by items such as "I am very active in church activities." The

third factor, Fellowship, characterizes one's relationships with others. An example is, "I continue to wish

the best for someone who has hurt me." High scores on all three subscales indicate higher levels of

religious maturity.

Hall (1993) found test-retest coefficients for these three factors to be .95, .93, and .81,

respectively, which indicate good temporal stability. As an index of internal consistency, Jackson

conducted coefficient alphas and found them to be .96, .82, and .75, respectively. In addition, Hall and

Brokaw (1995) found the three factors being used in this study to be significantly and positively

correlated with the Spiritual Well-Being Scale factors.

Procedures

Volunteer subjects were recruited from: (a) a spiritual direction training program in Southern

California, (b) the counseling center of a private religiously-oriented university, and (c) undergraduate

psychology students from a private religiously-oriented university.

For the spiritual direction subjects, packets of questionnaires were distributed at three different

meetings. Subjects from the spiritual direction group were instructed to fill out the questionnaire packet

at home and return it by mail within two weeks. For the counseling center subjects, a letter explaining

the study was included in the intake procedures. Undergraduate subjects in psychology classes were

given the opportunity to sign up for the study for extra credit. Subjects from psychology classes and the

counseling center were contacted to set up an appointment with a research assistant to fill out the


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10questionnaire packet. The spiritual direction subjects were compensated monetarily as well as entered

in a drawing for monetary prizes.

The questionnaire packets contained two copies of a written consent form, one for the

researcher and one for the subject's records. The packets also included a demographic information

sheet, the Bell Object Relations Inventory, the Spiritual Assessment Inventory, the Religious Status

Inventory, and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Several other measures were included

in the packets for use in other studies. The order of the measures in the packets was counterbalanced

to control for possible order effects in filling out the questionnaires.

Results

The present study used a correlational statistical design. The measure of level of object relations

development was correlated with both measures of spiritual maturity.

Hypothesis 1: RSIn and Object Relations

Hypothesis one stated that spiritual maturity, as measured by the three RSIn subscales, will

correlate positively with level of object relations development as measured by the four BORI subscales.

As can be seen in Table 1, all 12 correlations for this hypothesis were found to be significant in the

predicted direction. These results provide strong support for an underlying relationship between

spiritual maturity and level of object relations development.

________________________

Insert Table 1 about here

________________________

Hypothesis 2: SAI and Object Relations

Hypothesis two stated that both the quality of relationship and awareness aspects of spiritual

maturity, as measured by the SAI Quality and Awareness subscales, will correlate significantly (in the

negative direction) with the BORI. However, the Quality subscale correlates significantly higher than

the Awareness subscale. As can be seen in Table 2, the Awareness subscale showed significant


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11correlations with three of the BORI subscales, whereas the Quality subscale correlated significantly with

all four of the BORI subscales. These findings once again provide substantial support for the

conceptual link between spiritual maturity and level of object relations development.

As can be seen in Table 3, t-scores for the differences between the Quality-BORI and

Awareness-BORI correlations were significant for Alienation, Insecure Attachment, and Social

Incompetence. In other words, the Quality subscale, as predicted, correlated significantly higher with

these three BORI subscales than the Awareness subscale did. These results provide support for the

theoretical distinction between the quality and awareness aspects of spiritual maturity as measured by

the SAI.

________________________


________________________

________________________


________________________

Social desirability, as measured by the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS;

Crowne & Marlowe, 1960), was correlated with all the subscales to determine if social desirability is

related to subscale scores. Table 4 displays these correlations. None of the correlations were

significant and they were all quite small, with six of the nine being .10 or below, and the highest

correlation being .19. This indicates that the pattern of relationships between spiritual maturity and level

of object relations development is not likely to be an artifact of a social desirability response set.

________________________



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12________________________

Discussion

The present study was an attempt to empirically investigate religion from a contemporary

psychoanalytic perspective. Previous research has focused on internal representations of God and

demonstrated a relationship between God representation and level of object relations development

(e.g., Brokaw & Edwards, 1994). The present study attempted to extend these findings by establishing

that the nature of one's relationship with God, or one's spiritual maturity, is related to level of object

relations development. To date, few studies (e.g., Hall & Brokaw, 1995) have addressed this issue.

Theoretical Implications

The 19 out of 20 significant correlations relating spiritual maturity to level of object relations

development provides strong support for the conceptual link between spiritual maturity and

psychological maturity, both defined relationally. This corresponds well to an object relations

perspective on religion which theoretically assumes that one's level of object relations development is

highly associated with the nature and quality of one's relationship with God (see Jones, 1991).

The present results support this theoretical assumption, suggesting that persons with less mature

object relations development tend to have a more pathological relationship with God. The quality of

one's present object relationships (theoretically presumed to stem from early interpersonal relationships

and concomitant introjects) is re-created in relationship with God, and/or one's relationship with God

influences the matrix of internalized relationships. For example, individuals who tend to experience

others as critical and emotionally withdraw to protect themselves are more likely to experience God as

critical and emotionally withdraw from Him when this experience occurs. Likewise, when positive and

negative relationship experiences occur with God, these may influence one's internal object relations and

relationships with other people.


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13It is particularly noteworthy that the Quality SAI subscale correlated significantly higher with

three of the BORI subscales (Alienation, Insecure Attachment and Social Incompetence) than the

Awareness SAI subscale did. This supports the hypothesis that the awareness dimension is less

associated with quality of relationship with others, although it is likely moderately associated, and is one

aspect of spiritual maturity.

These findings suggest that, in general, the quality of one's relationship with God is more highly

related to quality of relationship with others than it is to one's awareness of God's promptings, presence,

and responses. This makes theoretical sense in indicating that some people who have disturbed

relationships with others and God can, to some extent, still be "spiritually mature" in the sense of having

a capacity to be aware of God's moving in their lives. The reverse of this may also be true according to

these findings: people with healthy, intimate relationships with others and God, may not have a very

well-developed ability to be aware of God. The ability to be aware of God, then, is not as highly

related (although it is moderately related) to psychological maturity (three significant correlations with the

BORI, -.22, -.23, -.23), and must be more fully developed through spiritual disciplines (Hall &

Edwards, 1996).

Clinical Implications

In addition to theoretical and research clarifications, the results of the present study suggest a

number of clinical implications, particularly for religiously-oriented clients. There is a growing interest in

considering religious dimensions in clinical practice. One evidence of this is the recent publication by the

American Psychological Association of Religion and the Clinical Practice of Psychology, a

comprehensive book on the integration of religion within clinical practice (Shafranske, 1996).

The present findings point to the importance of taking clients religious histories in the initial

assessment period. Rizzuto (1993) has also discussed the clinical importance and helpfulness of taking

a religious history. Indeed, Rizzuto (1993:18) pointed out that the type of God and religious belief a

person has, is a precious document of the individuals psychic vicissitudes during development."


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14Knowledge about a clients spiritual functioning may provide some insight into their image of God and

level of object relations development. This may in turn provide useful information in other clinically

relevant areas, such as dynamics involved in clients relationships with other important people.

Likewise, understanding clients images of God and level of object relations development may provide

the clinician with a picture of their spiritual lives and struggles. This may be especially helpful with clients

who desire to deal with spiritual concerns.

Given the relationship between psychological and spiritual maturity, spiritual directors would do

well to consider how they may promote psychological change as well as spiritual change. Thus, as

Miller (1991) has argued, it is important for spiritual directors to attend to an individual's processes of

psychological defense and development insofar as they relate to the directee's spirituality. Likewise,

therapists should be aware that the psychotherapy process will likely impact a client's spiritual life.

Thus, therapists would do well to attend to clients' spirituality to the degree that it relates to the

psychotherapy context.

Furthermore, the relationship between spiritual maturity and relational maturity has implications

for pastors and religious leaders. The results of this study suggest that the quality of one's relationship

with God is highly related to, and may be significantly influenced by one's relational maturity. In light of

this, pastors and religious leaders should expect that parishioners with disturbed relationships with other

people are likely going to have a more pathological relationship with God. In fact, the present study

suggests that similar relational dynamics will occur in both domains which may help pastors and religious

leaders in understanding and promoting spiritual growth in their parishioners.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The methodological limitations as well as the results of the present study suggest areas of future

research in this field. One limitation of the present study relates to the use of self-report measures.

Although self-report measures are commonly used in the psychology of religion research, they do raise

some concerns in interpreting the data. The fact that the data represent people's perceptions of


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15themselves raises several alternative explanations for the pattern of correlations observed in the present

study. There are three primary explanations: a) spiritual maturity and level of object relations

development correlate simply because of a social desirability response set; b) participants do not

discriminate between different aspects of their lives; in other words, people who report doing well in

relationships tend to have the perception of doing well in other areas of their lives; and c) the hypothesis

proposed in this study; namely, that, based on an object relations perspective, one would theoretically

expect an underlying relationship between spiritual maturity and object relations maturity.

The first explanation does not seem likely given that MCSDS did not correlate significantly with

any of the measures used. The second explanation is based on the assumption that the average person

cannot discriminate between different areas of their lives. While this may be true of a small subset of the

population (i.e., certain personality-disordered individuals and individuals who exhibit a profound lack of

insight into their own behavior), there does not seem to be a valid basis for assuming this be true of the

general population. It makes more sense to assume that most people can and do make discriminations

between different areas of their lives and do not perceive that they are doing well in one area (e.g.,

spiritual life) simply because they are doing well in another area (e.g., interpersonal relationships).

Furthermore, the third explanation, the hypothesis of the present study, provides a coherent way to

understand the data and, given the number of significant correlations, appears to be the most plausible

interpretation of the observed pattern of correlations.

Further conceptual refinement of object relations instruments would be helpful in defining more

precisely the nature of the relationships of spiritual maturity to level of object relations development and

God image. A new measure, the Attachment and Object Relations Inventory (AORI; Buelow, McClain

& McIntosh, 1996) appears to have potential to contribute to this area in that it is psychometrically

sound, multidimensional, and incorporates both object relations theory and attachment theory. If the

BORI is used, it would be helpful to determine the developmental level assessed by each of the four


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16BORI subscales as this would provide more precise information on participants' level of developmental

maturity.

The population used in the present study was predominantly female and single. It would be

helpful to replicate this study using a population with a greater percentage of males and married

subjects, and to determine if there are any gender differences in these variables. It would also be

interesting to investigate spiritual and psychological maturity with larger numbers of other ethnic groups

to determine if there are differences between ethnic groups. Finally, studies need to begin examining the

influence of spiritual interventions on psychological functioning and vice versa to gain a better

understanding of the mutual influence of these two domains.

The present study contributes to the small, but growing body of empirical data investigating

religion from a psychoanalytic object relations perspective. Numerous significant correlations strongly

support the relationship between spiritual maturity and level of object relations development. This

corroborates the conceptual link between these variables suggesting that psychological and spiritual

functioning are, ultimately, intricately intertwined. While the present study leaves numerous questions

unanswered, it is hoped that it will encourage researchers to consider psychological and spiritual

maturity from a relational perspective. This study also suggests that psychologists and

pastors/theologians have much to contribute to each other as they all ultimately work toward the

common goal of human maturity.


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23Table 1

Correlations Between the RSIn Measure of Spiritual Maturity and Level of Object RelationsDevelopment

Level of O.R.

(BORI) Subscales ALN EGC IA SI

RSIn

Worship &

Commitment -.48*** -.33** -.48*** -.26**

Involvement in

Organized Religion -.46*** -.35*** -.45*** -.20*

Fellowship -.45*** -.26** -.40*** -.29**

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.


24/26


24Table 2

Correlations Between the SAI Measure of Spiritual Maturity and Level of Object RelationsDevelopment

Level of O.R.


SAI

Awareness -.22* -.23* -.23* -.12

Quality -.36*** -.28** -.31** -.29**

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.


25/26


25Table 3

Differences Between Quality-BORI Correlations and Awareness-BORI Correlations

Level of O.R.


T-Value 3.10* 1.22 1.86* 5.58*

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.


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26Table 4

Correlations between the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and All Other Measures

Marlowe-Crowne MCSDS

SAI

Awareness -.06

Quality -.06

RSIn

Worship &

Commitment -.11

Involvement in

Organized Religion -.10

Fellowship .05

BORI

Alienation .05

Egocentricity -.11

Insecure Attachment .19

Social Incompetence .03

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

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