ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

POLYMER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CONCISE THIRD EDITION

B I C E N T E N N I A L

B I C E N T E N N I A L

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

POLYMER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CONCISE THIRD EDITION

i l C E N T E N N I A L

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Encyclopedia of polymer science and technology, concise/[edited by] Herman F. Mark. p. cm.

"This compact desk reference contains all of the subjects covered in the 12 main volumes of t he . . . 3rd edition of the Encyclopedia of polymer science and technology and the Consice encyclopedia of polymer science and engineering."

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-470-04610-4 (cloth) ISBN-10: 0-470-04610-4 (cloth) I. Plastics-Encyclopedias. 2. Polymers-Encyclopedias. 3. Polymerization-Encyclopedias. I. Mark, H. F. (Herman Francis), 1895-1992. II. Title: Encyclopedia of polymer science and technology, concise.

TP1110.E48 2007 668.903-dc22

2006040638

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PREFACE

This compact desk reference contains all of the subjects covered in the 12 volumes of the world-renowned 3rd Edi-tion of'the Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology. The articles have been condensed by professional science writers, reviewed for accuracy by the original authors or their colleagues, and updated where necessary. This dis-tillation, skillfully prepared to retain the key data, ta-bles, and factual matter of the original, is a complete and self-contained encyclopedia. It is designed to serve as a ready-reference guide for students, scientists, engineers, and technologists seeking answers to questions on any as-pect of polymer science and engineering.

This one million word version, like the ten million word larger work, provides both SI and common units, carefully selected key references for each article, and hundreds of tables, charts, figures, and graphs. Coverage includes every important sector, such as: polymeric materials, natural and synthetic; polymer properties, i.e. molecular, chemical, physical, electrical, mechanical, thermal and biological properties, morphology, compatibility, and stability; synthesis and reactions; characterization and analytical methods; physical processes; engineering; polymer processing; product fabrication; test methods; uses in adhesives, coatings, films, fibers, elastomers,

plastics composites, and occurrence in natural materials; historical perspective; and economics.

Although specific reference to the articles in the origi-nal work is not always made, it should be understood that further details, specific bibliographic citations, and much wider coverage of any subject may be obtained by referring to the 12-volume edition.

The editors have also carefully preserved the tradition of citing related articles in the text (see and see also ci-tations), as well as secondary entries or cross references which cite the synonym or entry term where a subject can be located. An Index of key terms provides further access to the contents where desired.

The complete edition of the Encyclopedia has been called a "landmark publication" and a "milestone in poly-mer science." This concise version presents the essence of this monumental work in a useful daily tool compa-rable to a handbook or dictionary from which the com-prehensive, authoritative, and lucidly written data be-come instantly available. Every effort has been made by the editors to provide a work that is unsurpassed in quality and accuracy. We hope we have succeeded and that this work will serve your reference needs for years to come.

CONTRIBUTORS

Alaa S. Abd-El-Aziz, The University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Mani-toba, Canada, Metal-containing polymers

Volker Abetz, Universität Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany, Block copolymers, Ternary triblock

W. Wade Adams, Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials Research Society, Boston, Massachusetts, Rigid-rod polymers

H. Ade, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, X-ray microscopy

Rigoberto C. Advincula, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, Polymer brushes

S. Al-Malaika, Aston University, Birmingham, England, U.K., Stabilization

R. D. Allen, IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, California, Lithographic resists

Michael W. Allsopp, Independent PVC Technology Consultant, Heswall, Wirral, England, Vinyl chloride polymers

R. Amin-Sanayei, Atofina Chemicals Inc., King of Prussia, Pennsyl-vania, Vinylidene fluoride polymers

Eric J. Amis, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Combinatorial methods for polymer sci-ence

James H. Andrews, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, Nonlinear optical properties

Steve Andrzejewski, Equistar Chemicals, A Lyondell Company, Houston, Texas, Rotational molding

Anthony Anton, E. I. du Font de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilm-ington, Delaware, Polyamides, Fibers

Bruce A. Armitage, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Penn-sylvania, Polynucleotides

V. Arrighi, School ofEngineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot- Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, Miscibility

R. Auzely, Centre de Recherches sur les Macromolecules Vegetales, Affiliated with Joseph Fourier University. Grenoble (France), Greno-ble Cedex 9, France, Polysaccharides

NeilAyres, Department of Polymer Science, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, Water-soluble polymers

Darlene M. Back, The Dow Chemical Company, Piscataway, New Jersey, Ethylene oxide polymers

Bennett R. Baird, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Polyamides, Fibers

Richard W. Baker, Membrane Technology & Research, Inc., Menlo Park, California, Membrane technology

Edward Balizer, U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center, West Bethesda, Maryland, Acoustic properties

George Barany, The University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Polypeptide synthesis, Solid-phase method

Christopher Barner-Kowollik, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, Copolymerization

Edward G. Bartick, Counterterrrorism and Forensic Science Re-search Unit, FBI Academy, Quantico, Virginia, Forensic analysis

D. C. Bassett, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom, Morphology

Catia Bastioli, Novamont SpA, Novara, Piedmont, Italy, Starch Subhadeep Basu, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mas-

sachusetts, Molecular recognition in dendrimers W. F. Beach, Alpha Metals, Bridgewater, New Jersey, Xylylene poly-

mers Sam Belcher, Consultant, Moscow, Ohio, Blow molding V. A. Beloshenko, Donetsk Physics and Technology Institute of the

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Donetsk, Ukraine, Solid-state extrusion

L. S. Benee, Pfizer Ltd, Kent, United Kingdom, Smart materials, Microgels

Elizabeth Benham, Chevron Phillips Chemical Company, Kingwood, Texas, Ethylene polymers, HDPE

Noelie R. Bertoniere, Southern Regional Research Center, USDA, Cellulose

D. E. Beyer, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Vinylidene chloride polymers

Y. E. Beygelzimer, Donetsk Physics and Technology Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Donetsk, Ukraine, Solid-state extrusion

Jozef Bicerano, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Glass transition

N. C. Billingham, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom, Degradation

Kurt Binder, Institut für Physik, Johannes Gutenberg Universität, Mainz, Germany, Phase transformation

Wolfgang H. Binder, Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Technical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria, Melamine— formaldehyde resins

Frank D. Blum, University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Missouri, Silane coupling agents

B. Blümich, Institut für Technische Chemie und Makromolekulare Chemie, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule, Worringer-weg, Aachen, Germany, Nuclear magnetic resonance

John E. Boliek, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Fibers, Elastomeric

Uwe Borchert, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany, Poly-mer vesicles

Sara C. Bourke, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Injection molding

John W. Bozzelli, Midland, Michigan, Injection molding Mark Bradley, University of Southampton, Southampton, United

Kingdom, Polymer-supported reagents Wim Bras, Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO)

Dubble & European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble Cedex, France, Synchrotron radiation

David Briggs, University of Nottingham, University Park, Notting-ham, United Kingdom, Styrene-butadiene copolymers

B. J . Briscoe, Imperial College, London, UK, Surface mechanical damage and wear of polymers

Witold Brostow, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, Mechanical performance of plastics

R. Malcolm Brown, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, Cellulose

Yefim Brun, Waters Corporation, Milford, Massachusetts, Chro-matography, HPLC

Daniel J. Brunelle, GE Global Research, Schenectady, New York, Polycarbonates

Andreas J. Brunner, Center for Nondestructive Testing, EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, Dübendorf, Switzerland, Nondestructive testing

Robert G. Bryant, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, Polyimides

Fredric L. Buchholz, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Superabsorbent polymers

Matthew Butts, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

Ying Cai, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, Photopolymerization, Free radical

F. J. Balta Calleja, Institute de Estructura de la Materia, CSIC, Madrid, Spain, Hardness

Frank A. Cangelosi, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, UV stabilizers

Adam S. Cantor, 3M Healthcare Markets, St. Paul, Minnesota, Pressure-sensitive adhesives

Gary J. Capone, Solutia, Inc., Decatur, Alabama, Acrylic fibers G. Carotenuto, Institute of Composite and Biomedical Materi-

als, National Research Council, Piazzale Tecchio, Napoli, Italy, Nanocomposites, Metal-filled

James Cella, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

John C. Chadwick, Dutch Polymer Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands, Ziegler-natta catalysts

Henri Chanzy, CNRS-CERMAV, Grenoble, France, Cellulose Roger Chapman, Warwick Innovation Limited, Leicester, United

Kingdom, Nonwoven fabrics, Staple fibers

VII

viii CONTRIBUTORS

Richard P. Chartoff, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, Ther-mal analysis of polymers

Mahesh Chaubal, Drugdel.com, Columbia, Maryland, Controlled release technology

K. K. Chawla, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, Composite foams

Si-Xue Cheng, Department of Chemistry Wuhan University, Singapore, Liquid Crystalline polymers, Main-chain

Stephen Z. D. Cheng, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Semicrystalline polymers

Chorng-Shyan Chern, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, Microemulsion polymerization

T. T. Peter Cheung, Phillips Petroleum Company, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, Cyclopentadiene and dicyclopentadiene

Y. Wilson Cheung, Polyolefins R&D, The Dow Chemical Company, Freeport, Texas, Ethylene copolymers

B. Z. Chowdhry, University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom, Smart materials, Microgels

John R. Christoe, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

C. C. Chu, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Sutures Hoe H. Chuah, Shell Chemical Company, Houston, Texas,

Poly(trimethylene terephthalate) Tai-Shung Chung, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular En-

gineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Liquid crys-talline polymers, Main-chain

Edward D. Cohen, Technical Consultant, Fountain Hills, Arizona, Coating methods, Survey

Martin P. Cohen, The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, Akron, Ohio, Rubber chemicals

Anthony R. Cooper, Lockheed Martin Space Systems, Los Altos, California, Micromechanical properties

Michelle L. Coote, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, Copolymerization

Cajetan F. Cordeiro, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown, Pennsylvania, Vinyl acetate polymers

Katrina Cornish, United States Department of Agriculture, Agri-cultural Research Service, Western Regional Research Center, Albany, California, Rubber, Guayule

J. M. G. Cowie, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, Miscibility

Alfred J. Crosby, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Combinatorial methods for polymer sci-ence

Bill M. Culbertson, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, Dental applications

Mark D. Dadmun, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, Nanocomposites, Polymer-clay

Larry R. Dalton, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, Electrooptical applications

Alberto D'Amore, The Second University of Naples—SUN, Aversa, Italy, Composite materials

Leonard H. Davis, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, UV stabilizers

Thomas P. Davis, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, Copolymerization

John V. Dawkins, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom, Chromatography, Size exclusion

P. T. DeLassus, University of Texas-Pan American, Valparaiso, Chile, Vinylidene chloride polymers

D. E. Demco, Institut für Technische Chemie und Makromolekulare Chemie, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule, Worringer-weg, Aachen, Germany, Nuclear magnetic resonance

Mehmet Demirors, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Styrene-butadiene copolymers

Morton Denn, The Levich Institute City College of the City University of New York, New York, Processing, Modeling

Stacy A. Denney, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Fibers, Elastomeric

Ron J. Denning, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

Joseph M. DeSimone, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Critical phase polymerizations

Martin Dexter, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Tarrytown, New York, Antioxidants

Pradeep K. Dhal, GelTex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., A Gen-zyme General Business, Waltham, Massachusetts, Polymeric drugs

Ali Dhinojwala, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Adsorption Sushil N. Dhoot, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, Bar-

rier polymers Phillip T. Dodge, Equistar Chemicals, A Lyondell Company,

Houston, Texas, Rotational molding Abraham J. Domb, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,

Jerusalem, Israel, Biodegradable polymers, Medical applications Joseph Dooley, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan,

Coextrusion Elliot P. Douglas, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Coat-

ing methods, Powder TECHNOLOGY E. Drent, Shell International Chemicals B.V., Amsterdam, Nether-

lands, Polyketones Richard M. D'Sidocky, The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company,

Akron, Ohio, Rubber chemicals Etienne Duguet, Institut de Chimie de la Matiere Condensee de Bor-

deaux, CNRS & Universite des Sciences et Technologies de Bordeaux, Pessac, France, Intercalation polymerization

Manfred Dunky, Dynea Austria GmbH, Krems an der Donau, Aus-tria, Melamine-formaldehyde resins

Kenneth L. Dunlap, Bayer Corporation, New Martinsville, West Virginia, Phosgene

Anthony J. East, Consultant, Madison, New Jersey, Polyesters, Thermoplastic

Sina Ebnesajjad, DuPont Fluoro Products, Wilmington, Delaware, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

Ronald K. Eby, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Rigid-rod poly-mers

Tirtsa Ehrenfroind, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel, Biodegradable polymers, Medical applications

G. W. Ehrenstein, University of Erlangen -Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany, Fractography

B. E. Eichinger, Accelrys, Inc., San Diego, California, Molecular modeling

M. Jamal El-Hibri, BP Amoco Polymers, Inc., Alpharetta, Georgia, Polysulfones

Royce Ennis, Consultant, Silsbee, Texas, Ethylene polymers, Chlorosulfonated

Paquita E. Erazo-Majewicz, Hercules Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Cellulose ethers

David J. Evans, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

Aviva Ezra, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel, Biodegradable polymers, Medical applications

Raymond S. Farinato, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, Acrylamide polymers

Jeffry J. Fedderly, U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center, West Bethesda, Maryland, Acoustic properties

A. Flores, Institute de Estructura de la Materia, CSIC, Madrid, Spain, Hardness

Stephan Förster, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany, Polymer vesicles

Ivan Fortelny, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Polymer blends

Frank Fowler, SUNY, Stony Brook, New York, Diacetylene and tri-acetylene polymers

Benny D. Freeman, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, Barrier polymers

Alfred D. French, Southern Regional Research Center, USDA, Cellulose

Barbara J. Furches, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Test methods

S. K. Gaggar, GE Plastics, Technology Center, Washington, West Virginia, Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene polymers

I. Yu. Galaev, Lund University, Lund, Sweden, Biotechnology appli-cations

Nicola Galaffu, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom, Polymer-supported reagents

Vassilios Galiatsatos, Equistar Chemicals, L.P., Cincinnati, Ohio, Optical properties

J. Gallini, E. I. du Pont de Nemours, & Company, Inc., Richmond, Virginia, Polyamides, Aromatic

CONTRIBUTORS ix

Erik Grann Gammelgaard, FiberVisions, Varde, Denmark, Olefin fibers

Subhash V. Gangal, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Perfluormated polymers, Polytetrafluoro-ethylene

Fabio Garbassi, EniChem SpA Research Center, Novara, Italy, En-gineering thermoplastics, Overview

Jerry D. Gargulak, LignoTech USA, Inc., Rothchild, Wisconsin, Lignin

Ehud Gazit, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel, Packaging, Flexible A. N. Gent, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Adhesion D. S. Gibbs, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan,

Vinylidene chloride polymers Gregory Gillette, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New

York, Silicones Gary M. Gladysz, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos,

New Mexico, Composite foams Wolfgang Glasser, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univer-

sity, Cellulose Veronica Glattauer, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies,

Parkville, Victoria, Australia, Collagen Furman E. Glenn, DuPont Dow Elastomers L.L.C., Louisville,

Kentucky, Chloroprene polymers Jeffrey Gotro, Ablestik Laboratories, Rancho Dominguez, Califor-

nia, Thermosets Michael C. Grady, DuPont Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,

Latex technology Vera-Maria Graubner, Technische Universität München, Garch-

ing, Germany, Telechelic polymers Charles A. Gray, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Car-

bon black Derek Gray, Pulp and Paper Research Centre, McGill University,

Canada, Cellulose Robert L. Gray, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, UV

stabilizers Andreas Greiner, Universität Marburg, Germany, Light-emitting

diodes Werner Grootaert, Dyneon, 3M Company, Oakdale, Minneosta,

Fluorocarbon elastomers Martin J. Guest, Polyolefins R&D, The Dow Chemical Company,

Freeport, Texas, Ethylene copolymers Dirk M. Guldi, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana,

Nanocomposites, Layer-by-layer assembly Edgar B. Gutoff, Consulting Chemical Engineer, Brookline, Mas-

sachusetts, Coating methods, Survey Charles M. Guttman, NIST Polymers Division, Gaithersburg,

Maryland, Mass spectrometry Kimberly A. Guzan, Youngstown State University, Youngstown,

Ohio, Nonlinear optical properties Erwin Hack, Center for Nondestructive Testing, EMPA, Swiss Fed-

eral Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, Dübendorf, Switzerland, Nondestructive testing

N. Hadjichristidis, University of Athens, Athens, Greece, Graft copolymers

G. R. Hamed, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Adhesion I. W. Hamley, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom, Barrier

polymers Tom P. Hanschen, 3M Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, Films,

Orientation J. S. Harrison, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia,

Piezoelectric polymers Bradley R. Hart, University of California, Irvine, California, Molec-

ularly imprinted polymersHill Kazuyuki Hattori, Kitami Institute of Technology, Japan, Cellulose Patricia A. Heiden, Michigan Technological University, Houghton,

Michigan, Wood composites Scott Heitzman, Sun Chemical Corporation, Cincinnati, Ohio,

Colorants Carin A. Heifer, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Conforma-

tion and conguration H. Henning Winter, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mas-

sachusetts, Gel point Steven Henning, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Akron,

Ohio, Butadiene polymers Hideyuki Higashimura, Sumitomo Chemical Company Ltd.,

Tsukuba, Japan, Oxidative polymerization

David J. T. Hill, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queens-land, Australia, Radiation chemistry of polymers

W. D. Hinsberg, IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, California, Lithographic resists

Andreas Hirsch, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Henkestraße, Erlangen, Germany, Nanocomposites, Layer-by-layer assembly

Drahomira Hlavatä, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Polymer blends

David Hoagland, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Polyelectrolytes

Jamie K. Hobbs, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom, Crystallization kinetics

Geoffrey Holden, Holden Polymer Consulting, Inc., Prescott, Arizona, Elastomers, Thermoplastic

S. Randall Holmes-Farley, GelTex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., A Gen-zyme General Business, Waltham, Massachusetts, Polymeric drugs

Zdenek Horak, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Polymer blends

B. A. Howell, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Michigan, Vinylidene chloride polymers

Shaw Ling Hsu, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Vibrational spectroscopy

Sun-Yi Huang, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, Acry-lamide polymers

Samuel M. Hudson, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Chitin and chitosan

Anders Hult, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, Hy-perbranched polymers

J. S. Humphrey, Atofina Chemicals Inc., King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, Vinylidene fluoride polymers

Mickey G. Huson, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

H. Iatrou, University of Athens, Athens, Greece, Graft copolymers Daniel D. Imeokparia, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland,

Michigan, Cellular materials P. C. Innis, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia,

Intelligent polymer systems Jennifer Irvin, Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Divi-

sion (NAWCWD), China Lake, California, Electrically active polymers

Michael Jaffe, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey, Liq-uid crystalline polymers, Main-chain

Dennis J. Jakiela, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, UV stabilizers

Marc L. Janssens, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, Flammability

Jacek Jarzynski, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, Acoustic properties

David W. Jenkins, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Chitin and chitosan

Julie L. P. Jessop, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, Photopoly-merization, Free radical

Hao Jiang, Anteon Company, Dayton, Ohio, Rigid-rod polymers Charles A. Jones, HI, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,

Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Critical phase polymerizations Leslie N. Jones, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount,

Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF) Peter Kamarchik, Jr., Schoff Associates, Allison Park, Pennsylva-

nia, Rheological measurements Mantana Kanchanasopa, The Pennsylvania State University,

University Park, Pennsylvania, Crystallinity determination David L. Kaplan, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, Silk Alamgir Karim, National Institute of Standards and Technol-

ogy, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Combinatorial methods for polymer science

Gabor Kaszas, Rubber Division, Bayer Inc., Sarnia, Ontario, Canada, Carbocationic polymerization

Hans-Henning Kausch, ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, Fracture

Thomas R. Keenan, Knox Gelatine, Inc., Sioux City, Iowa, Gelatin Steffen Kelch, Deutsches Wollforschungsinstitut, Aachen,

Germany, Shape-memory polymers Maartje F. Kemmere, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eind-

hoven, the Netherlands, Ultrasound-induced radical polymerization

x CONTRIBUTORS

Rachid Kerboua, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

Ronald E. Kerby, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, Den-tal applications

Michael Kerns, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Akron, Ohio, Butadiene polymers

Jos T. F. Keurentjes, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eind-hoven, the Netherlands, Ultrasound-induced radical polymerization

K. Khait, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, Recycling, Plastics

Rajesh Khare, Accelrys, Inc., San Diego, California, Molecular mod-eling

Kristi L. Kiick, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, Genetic methods of polymer synthesis

Joon-Seop Kim, Chosun University, Kwangju, Republic of Korea, Ionomers

Roswell E. King, III, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Tarrytown, New York, Antioxidants

William Klingensmith, Akron Rubber Consulting, Akron, Ohio, Rubber compounding

Harm-Anton Klok, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lau-sanne, Switzerland, Polypeptide synthesis, Ring-opening polymer-ization of α-amino acid ΛΓ-carboxyanhydrides

Bert Klumperman, Eindhoven University, Eindhoven, The Nether-lands, Living radical polymerization

Nancy Kneib-Cordonier, The University of Minnesota, Minneapo-lis, Minnesota, Polypeptide synthesis, Solid-phase method

Shiro Kobayashi, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, Enzymatic poly-merization

Jeffrey T. Koberstein, Columbia University, New York, New York, Surface properties

Jan Kolarik, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Polymer blends

Peter W. Kopf, TIAX, LLC, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Phenolic resins

William J. Koros, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, TRansport properties

Nicholas A. Kotov, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Nanocomposites, Layer-by-layer assembly

Michal Y. Krasko, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel, Biodegradable polymers, Medical applications

Martijn W. A. Kuijpers, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eind-hoven, the Netherlands, Ultrasound-induced radical polymerization

D. M. Kulich, GE Plastics, Technology Center, Washington, West Virginia, Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene polymers

Anna Kultys, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland, Sulfur-containing polymers

Neeraj Kumar, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Is-rael, Biodegradable polymers, Medical applications

Neeraj Kumar, University ofTennessee Health Science Center, Mem-phis, Tennessee, Controlled release technology

Jay Friedrich Kanzler, Bausch and Lomb Inc., Rochester, New York, Hydrogels

Stuart A. Kushon, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Polynucleotides

Yakov Kutsovsky, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon black

Peter R. Lamb, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Vic-toria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

Stuart E. Lebo, Jr., LignoTech USA, Inc., Rothchild, Wisconsin, Lignin

Christine M. Lee, Unilever Research US, Edgewater, New Jersey, Langmuir-blodgett films

Gilbert Lee, U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center, West Bethesda, Maryland, Acoustic properties

Jean-Marc Lefebvre, Universite des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France, Nanocomposites, Polymer-clay

Reko Leino, AboAkademi University, Abo, Finland, Single-Site cat-alysts

John Leman, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

Andreas Lendlein, Deutsches Wollforschungsinstitut, Aachen, Ger-many, Shape-memory polymers

Alan J. Lesser, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Fatigue

Larry Lewis, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

Christopher Y. Li, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Acoustic properties

Richard Lieberman, Basell R&D Center, Elkton, Maryland, Propy-lene polymers

David W. Lipp, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, Acry-lamide polymers

Robert B. Login, Sybron Chemicals Inc., ΛΓ-vinylamide polymers D. J. Lohse, ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company,

Annandale, New Jersey, Graft copolymers Detlef Lötzsch, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Poly-

merforschung, Berlin-Adlershof, Germany, Thermochromic polymers

Andrew B. Lowe, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Uni-versity of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, Water-soluble polymers

V. Lowry, GE Plastics, Technology Center, Washington, West Virginia, Acrylonitrile—butadiene-styrene polymers

Daoqiang Lu, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, Conductive polymer composites

Shijian Luo, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, Con-ductive polymer composites

Richard E. Lyon, W. J. Hughes Technical Center, Federal Aviation Administration, Atlantic City Airport, New Jersey, Flammability

Peter X. Ma, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Tissue engineering

W. A. MacDonald, DuPont Teijin Films UK Limited, Wilton, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom, Polyester films

William C. Madden, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, TRansport properties

Duane Mahan, Equistar Chemicals, A Lyondell Company, Houston, Texas, Rotational molding

Khaled Mahmud, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon black

Ravi Kumar N. V. Majeti, University of Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany, Controlled release technology

Thomas G. Majewicz, Hercules Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Cellu-lose ethers

Michael Malanga, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Syndiotactic polystyrene

Arif A. Mamedov, Nomadics, Inc., Stillwater, Oklahoma, Nanocom-posites, Layer-by-layer assembly

W. Harry Mandeville, GelTex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., A Gen-zyme General Business, Waltham, Massachusetts, Polymeric drugs

Ian Manners, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Injection molding

Norma Maraschin, Equistar Chemicals, LP, Cincinnati, Ohio, Ethylene polymers, LDPE

J. E. Mark, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, Elasticity, Rubber-like

Maurice J. Marks, The Dow Chemical Company, Freeport, Texas, Epoxy resins

F. L. Marten, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown, Pennsylvania, Vinyl alcohol polymers

James C. Massen, JCM Consulting, Mooresville, North Carolina, Acrylic fibers

Toshio Masuda, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, Acetylenic poly-mers, Substituted

Kozo Matsumoto, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, Polycarbosilanes B. Mattiasson, Lund University, Lund, Sweden, Biotechnology ap-

plications Wayne L. Mattice, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Confor-

mation and conguration Laurent M. Matuana, Michigan State University, East Lansing,

Michigan, Wood composites Krzysztof Matyjaszewski, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania, Copolymerization Jimmy W. Mays, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,

Tennessee, Ionic liquids, Polymerization in K. Mazeau, Centre de Recherches sur les Macromolecules Vegetales,

Affiliated with Joseph Fourier University. Grenoble (France), Greno-ble Cedex 9, France, Polysaccharides

Edward McBride, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Ethylene-acrylic elastomers

CONTRIBUTORS xi

Charles L. McCormick, Department of Polymer Science, Univer-sity of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, Water-soluble polymers

Max McDaniel, Chevron Phillips Chemical Company, Kingwood, Texas, Ethylene polymers, HDPE

Gregory B. McKenna, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, Yield and crazing in polymers

Donal McNally, Ticona, Summit, New Jersey, Ethylene-norbornene copolymers

Timothy J. McNally, LignoTech USA, Inc., Rothchild, Wisconsin, Lignin

Elizabeth Meehan, Polymer Laboratories Limited, Shropshire, United Kingdom, Chromatography, Size exclusion

Kevin P. Menard, University of North Texas Materials Science De-partment, Denton, Texas, Dynamic mechanical analysis

Carson Meredith, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, Combinatorial methods for polymer science

Keith A. Mesch, Rohm and Haas Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, Heat stabilizers

Goerg H. Michler, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Merseburg, Germany, Micromechanical properties

Keith R. Millington, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

Roger J. Mortimer, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough Uni-versity, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom, Nanocom-posites, Metal-filled

S. E. Moulton, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia, Intelligent polymer systems

Eldridge M. Mount, III, EMMOUNT Technologies, Fairport, New York, Films, Manufacture

W. P. Mul, Shell International Chemicals B.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands, Polyketones

Daniel G. Mullen, The University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Polypeptide synthesis, Solid-phase method

Marcus Müller, Institut für Physik, Johannes Gutenberg Univer-sität, Mainz, Germany, Phase transformation

Terry N. Myers, Atofina Chemicals, Inc., King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, Initiators, Free-radical

Bruce Nauman, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, Flash devolatilization

E. Bruce Nauman, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, Bulk and solution polymerizations reactors

Hildeberto Nava, Reichhold Chemicals, Inc., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, Polyesters, Unsaturated

Thomas X. Neenan, GelTex Pharmaceuticals, Inc., A Genzyme Gen-eral Business, Waltham, Massachusetts, Polymeric drugs

Jürg Neuenschwander, Center for Nondestructive Testing, EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, Dübendorf, Switzerland, Nondestructive testing

James A, Newell, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, Carbon fibers

Thomas H. Newman, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Syndiotactic polystyrene

L. Nicolais, Institute of Composite and Biomedical Materials, Na-tional Research Council, Piazzale Tecchio, Napoli, Italy, Nanocom-posites, Metal-filled

Aizhen Niu, Nankai University, Tianjin, China, Laser light scatter-ing

Ryoji Nomura, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, Acetylenic poly-mers, Substituted

Jacobus W. M. Noordermeer, DSM Elastomers, R&D, Geleen, the Netherlands, Ethylene-propylene elastomers

Oskar Nuyken, Technische Universität München, Garching, Germany, Telechelic polymers

B. E. Obi, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Vinyli-dene chloride polymers

Paul A. O'Connell, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, Yield and crazing in polymers

Fumio Ohama, Unitika Corporation Ltd., Japan, Polyarylates Kunio Oka, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan, Polysilanes Yoshitsugu Oono, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Sta-

tistical thermodynamics Z. Ounaies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond,

Virginia, Piezoelectric polymers Michael J. Owen, Dow Corning Corporation, Midland, Michigan,

Release agents

Daniel W. Pack, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, Gene-delivery polymers

Skip Palenik, Microtrace, Elgin, Illinois, Forensic analysis Robert J. Palmer, Du Pont de Nemours International S.A., Geneva,

Switzerland, Polyamides, Plastics Richard A. Pethrick, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland,

United Kingdom, Characterization of polymers Francis P. Petrocelli, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown,

Pennsylvania, Vinyl acetate polymers Ha. Q. Pham, The Dow Chemical Company, Freeport, Texas, Epoxy

resins David G. Phillips, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount,

Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF) Anthony P. Pierlot, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology,

Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF) Peter P. Pintauro, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland,

Ohio, Polyphosphazenes S. Pispas, University of Athens, Athens, Greece, Graft copolymers M. Pitsikalis, University of Athens, Athens, Greece, Graft copolymers Riccardo Po, EniChem SpA Research Center, Novara, Italy, Engi-

neering thermoplastics, Overview Thomas J. Podlas, Hercules Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Cellulose

ethers J. C. Poler, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, North Carolina,

Atomic force microscopy Malcolm Polk, Georgia Institute of Technology, Decatur, Georgia,

High performance fibers Stefan Polowinski, Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland,

Template polymerization Maurizio Prato, Universitä di Trieste, Piazzale Europa, Trieste,

Italy, Nanocomposites, Layer-by-layer assembly Duane Priddy, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan,

Styrene polymers R. Bruce Prime, IBM (retired) I Prime Thermosets.com, San Jose,

California, Thermosets Judit E. Puskas, The University of Western Ontario, London,

Ontario, Canada, Carbocationic polymerization Marek Pyda, Chemical Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National

Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Syndiotactic polystyrene Marek Pyda, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, Syndio-

tactic polystyrene J. P. Queslel, Manufacture Michelin, CERL - GPA, Clermont Fer-

rand CedexFrance, Elasticity, Rubber-like Roderic P. Quirk, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Anionic

polymerization Jürgen P. Rabe, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany, Den-

dronized polymers Michael Rachita, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Akron,

Ohio, Butadiene polymers Suresh Rajaraman, GE Silicones, Waterford, New York, Silicones Andrzej Rajca, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, Mag-

netic polymers Bruce A. Ramsay, Polyferm Canada, Ontario, Canada, Poly(3-

hydroxyalkanoates) Juliana A. Ramsay, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada,

Poly(3-hydroxyalkanoates) John A M. Ramshaw, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies,

Parkville, Victoria, Australia, Collagen Ashwin Rao, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Adsorption F. Raue, University of Erlangen - Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany,

Fractography Chris Rauwendaal, Rauwendaal Extrusion Engineering, Inc., Los

Altos Hills, California, Extrusion Glen Reese, Kosa, Charlotte, North Carolina, Polyesters, Fibers Stephanie Rey, Institut de Chimie de la Matiere Condensee de Bor-

deaux, CNRS & Universite des Sciences et Technologies de Bordeaux, Pessac, France, Intercalation polymerization

Steve R. Reznek, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Car-bon black

Douglas S. Richart, D.S. Richart Associates, Reading, Pennsylva-nia, Coating methods, Powder TECHNOLOGY

M. Rinaudo, Centre de Recherches sur les Macromolecules Vigatales, Affiliated with Joseph Fourier University. Grenoble (France), Greno-ble Cedex 9, France, Polysaccharides

John A Rippon, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

xii CONTRIBUTORS

Helmut Ritter, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany, Cyclodextrin

Josepha Maria Merida Robles, Institut de Chimie de la Matiere Condensee de Bordeaux, CNRS & Universite des Sciences et Tech-nologies de Bordeaux, Pessac, France, Intercalation polymerization

Brendan Rodgers, ExxonMobil Chemical Company, Baytown, Texas, Rubber compounding

Vincent M. Rotello, Department of Chemistry, University of Mas-sachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Molecular self-assembly

Slawomir Rubinsztajn, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

James Runt, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, Crystallinity determination

Ian M. Russell, CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology, Belmount, Victoria, Australia, Vinyl fluoride polymers (PVF)

S. L. Sakellarides, BP Corporation, Naperville, Illinois, Polyethylene naphthalate) (PEN)

Britto S. Sandanaraj, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Molecular recognition in dendrimers

A. Sezai Sarac, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, Electropolymerization

Florian Schattenmann, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

D. A. Schiraldi, Case Western Reserve University, Spartanburg, South Carolina, Atomic force microscopy

A. Dieter Schlüter, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany, Den-dronized polymers

William W. Schloman, Jr., Department of Chemistry, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, Rubber, Guayule

Robert L. Schmitt, The Dow Chemical Company, Piscataway, New Jersey, Ethylene oxide polymers

Clifford K. Schoff, Schoff Associates, Allison Park, Pennsylvania, Rheological measurements

Holger Schönherr, University of Twente, Enschede, the Nether-lands, Scanning force microscopy

Laurier L. Schramm, Saskatchewan Research Council, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, Chromatography, Size exclusion

John L. Schultz, Wilmington, Delaware, Structural representation of polymers

William H. Scouten, University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, Chro-matography, Affinity

Alec B. Scranton, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, Photopoly-merization, Cationic

Norma D. Searle, Chemical Consultant, Deerfield Beach, Florida, Weathering

Arno Seeboth, Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Polymer-forschung, Berlin-Adlershof, Germany, Thermochromic polymers

Robert W. Seymour, Eastman Chemical Company, Kingsport, Tennesse, Cyclohexanedimethanol polyesters

Timothy D. Shaffer, ExxonMobil, Baytown, Texas, Butyl rubber Kenneth J. Shea, University of California, Irvine, California,

Molecularly imprinted polymers Michael C. Shelton, Eastman Chemical Company, Kingsport,

Tennessee, Cellulose esters, Inorganic Yutaka Shirahama, Unitika America Corporation, Georgetown,

Kentucky, Polyarylates Antonin Sikora, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy

of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Polymer blends

Sindee L. Simon, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, Aging, Physical

D. M. Simpson, Exxon Mobil Chemical Company, Baytown, Texas, Ethylene polymers, LLDPE

Ram Prakash Singh, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India, Drag reduction; Mechanical performance of plastics

S. K. Sinha, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Surface mechanical damage and wear of polymers

Vishal Sipani, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, Photopolymer-ization, Cationic

Anil K. Sircar, University of Dayton (retired), Dayton, Ohio, Ther-mal analysis of polymers

Robert V. Slone, Rohm and Haas Company, Spring House, Pennsylvania, Acrylic ester polymers

A. A. Smaardijk, Shell International Chemicals B.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands, Polyketones

Archie P. Smith, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Combinatorial methods for polymer sci-ence

Thomas W. Smith, Eastman Chemical Company, Kingsport, Tennesse, Cyclohexanedimethanol polyesters

Ronald S. Smorada, Versacore Industrial Corporation, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, Nonwoven fabrics, Spunbonded

M. J. Snowden, University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom, Smart materials, Microgels

Joao B. P. Soares, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, Fractionation

L. H. Sperling, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, Inter-penetrating polymer networks

Judith Stein, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

R. Stepien, GE Plastics, Technology Center, Washington, West Virginia, Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene polymers

E. S. Stevens, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, En-vironmentally degradable plastics

Constantine Stewart, Basell R&D Center, Elkton, Maryland, Propylene polymers

Mark E. Stewart, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom, Uni-versity of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom, Barrier polymers

William G. Stobby, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Cellular materials

Joseph A. Stretanski, Cytec Industries, Stamford, Connecticut, UV stabilizers

Kyung W. Suh, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Cellular materials

Nam P. Suh, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Cambridge, Massachusetts, Microcellular plastics

Graham Swift, BP Chemicals, Naperville, Illinois, Acrylic (and methacrylic) acid polymers

Graham Swift, GS Polymer Consultants, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Biodegradable polymers and plastics in landfill sites

Monir Tabatabai, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany, Cyclodextrin

Daniel R. Talham, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Langmuir-blodgett films

Klaus Tauer, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Golm, Germany, Heterophase polymerization

Yves Termonia, E. I. du Pont de Nemours, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Modeling of polymer processing and properties

S. Thayumanavan, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Molecular recognition in dendrimers

Raymond J. Thibault, Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Molecular self-assembly

Curt Thies, Thies Technology, Inc., Henderson, Nevada, Methacrylic ester polymers

Richard W. Thomas, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Tarrytown, New York, Antioxidants

James L. Throne, Sherwood Technologies, Inc., Dunedin, Florida, Thermoforming

D. B. Todd, Polymer Processing Institute, Newark, New Jersey, Plas-tics processing

Addy H. Tsou, ExxonMobil, Baytown, Texas, Butyl rubber Harvey Tung, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan,

Coextrusion Albin F. Turbak, Falcon Consultants, Inc., New York and University

of Georgia, Sandy Springs, Georgia, High performance fibers S. Richard Turner, Eastman Chemical Company, Kingsport,

Tennesse, Cyclohexanedimethanol polyesters Henri Ulrich, Consultant, Guilford, Connecticut, Isocyanate-

derived polymers Hiroshi Uyama, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, Enzymatic poly-

merization Paul R. Van Tassel, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan,

Biomolecules at interfaces Philipp Vana, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany, Copoly-

merization G. A. Vaughan, Exxon Mobil Chemical Company, Baytown, Texas,

Ethylene polymers, LLDPE Giovanni Vianello, European Vinyls Corporation (IT) (retired),

Vinyl chloride polymers David Vietti, Rohm and Haas Company, Woodstock, Illinois,

Polysulfides

CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Tyrone L. Vigo, (Deceased) U.S. Department of Agriculture, New York, High performance fibers

Walter H. Waddell, ExxonMobil Chemical Co., Baytown, Texas, Fillers

Bruce Wade, Solutia, Inc., Springfield, Massachusetts, Vinyl acetal polymers

Brian L. Wadey, BASF Corporation, Mount Olive, New Jersey, Plasticizers

H. D. Wagner, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel, Pack-aging, Flexible

Phillip J. Wakelyn, The National Cotton Council of America, Washington, District of Columbia, Cotton

G. G. Wallace, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia, Intelligent polymer systems

G. M. Wallraff, IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, California, Lithographic resists

Meng-Jiao Wang, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon blacks

Eric Paul Wasserman, Dow Chemical Company, Piscataway, New Jersey, Antifoaming agents

Robert N. Webb, ExxonMobil, Baytown, Texas, Butyl rubber William D. Weber, Arch Chemicals, East Providence, Rhode Island,

Electronic packaging Christoph Weder, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland,

Ohio, Light-emitting diodes Edward D. Weil, Polytechnic University (Ng), Brooklyn, New York,

Flame retardancy Shari A. Weinberg, BP Amoco Polymers, Inc., Alpharetta, Georgia,

Polysulfones Jeffrey Wengrovius, GE Silicones, Waterford, New York, Silicones Jerome A. Werkmeister, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technolo-

gies, Parkville, Victoria, Australia, Collagen R. A. Wessling, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan,

Vinylidene chloride polymers Andrew K. Whittaker, The University of Queensland, Brisbane,

Queensland, Australia, Radiation chemistry of polymers Denyce Wicht, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York,

Silicones Zeno W. Wicks Jr., Cytec Industries, Stanford, Connecticut, Alkyd

resins Zeno W. Wicks Jr., Consultant, Louisville, Kentucky, Coatings; Ure-

thane coatings James Wicksted, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,

Oklahoma, Nanocomposites, Layer-by-layer assembly David M. Wiles, Plastichem Consulting, Victoria, British Columbia,

Canada, Biodegradable polymers and plastics in landfill sites Richard Wilkins, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne,

United Kingdom, Controlled release formulation, Agricultural Edward S. Wilks, E. I. Du Pont de Nemours, Hockessin, Delaware,

Structural representation of polymers Graham Williams, University of Wales, Swansea, United Kingdom,

Dielectric relaxation J. G. Williams, Imperial College of Science, Technology and

Medicine, London, U.K., Fracture

Laurence L. Williams, Cytec Industries, Stanford, Connecticut, Alkyd resins

C. P. Wong, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, Con-ductive polymer composites

Janet S. S. Wong, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, Scratch behavior of polymers

Christina Darkangelo Wood, GE Global Research Center, Niskayuna, New York, Silicones

Calvin Woodings, Calvin Woodings Consulting Ltd., Warwickshire, United Kingdom, Cellulose fibers, Regenerated

John Woods, Loctite Corporation, Rocky Hill, Connecticut, Polycyanoacrylates

Jeffrey J. Wooster, The Dow Chemical Company, Freeport, Texas, Packaging, Flexible

Allan T. Worm, Dyneon, 3M Company, Oakdale, Minneosta, Fluoro-carbon elastomers

Chi Wu, University of Science and Technology of China, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, He fei, Anhui, China, Laser light scattering

Michael M. Wu, BP Chemicals, Naperville, Illinois, Acrylic (and methacrylic) acid polymers

Yun-Tai Wu, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, Ethylene—acrylic elastomers

Bernhard Wunderlich, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Ten-nessee and Chemical Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Lab-oratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Thermodynamic properties of poly-mers

Carl J. Wust, FiberVisions, Covington, Georgia, Olefin fibers Ryszard Wycisk, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio,

Polyphosphazenes M. Xanthos, Polymer Processing Institute, Newark, New Jersey,

Plastics processing Yusuf Yagci, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Turkey,

Telechelic polymers Gary, Yeager, General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York,

Polyethers, Aromatic Albert F. Yee, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Impact

resistance E. M. Yorkgitis, 3M Company, Mendota Heights, Minnesota, Adhe-

sive compounds Raymond A. Young, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin,

Vegetable fibers Peter Zarras, Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Divi-

sion (NAWCWD), China Lake, California, Electrically active polymers

Mauro Zarrelli, Italian Aerospace Research Center, Capua, Italy, Composite materials

Rudolf Zentel, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany, Ferroelectric liquid crystalline elastomers

Hongwei Zhang, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, Ionic liquids, Polymerization in

Zhong Zhao, Guilford Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Baltimore, Maryland, Polyanhydrides

Karen Zrebiec, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, Photorefraction

CONVERSION FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND UNIT SYMBOLS

SI Units (Adopted 1960)

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI), is implemented throughout the world. This measurement system is a modernized version of the MKSA (meter, kilogram, second, ampere) system, and its details are published and controlled by an international treaty organization (The International Bureau of Weights and Measures) (1).

SI units are divided into three classes:

BASE UNITS

length mass time electric current thermodynamic temperature* amount of substance luminous intensity

meter* (m) kilogram (kg) second (s) ampere (A) kelvin (K) mole (mol) candela (cd)

SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS

plane angle solid angle

radian (rad) steradian (sr)

DERIVED UNITS AND OTHER ACCEPTABLE UNITS

These units are formed by combining base units, supplementary units, and other derived units (2-4). Those derived units having special names and symbols are marked with an asterisk in the list below.

'The spellings "metre" and "litre" are preferred by ASTM; however, "-er" is used in the Encyclopedia. 'Wide use is made of Celsius temperature (i) defined by

t = T-T0

where T is the thermodynamic temperature, expressed in kelvin, and To = 273.15 K by definition. A temperature interval may be expressed in degrees Celsius as well as in kelvin.

XV

xvi FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS

Quantity

* absorbed dose acceleration * activity (of a radionuclide) area

concentration (of amount of substance) current density density, mass density dipole moment (quantity) *dose equivalent * electric capacitance * electric charge, quantity of electricity

electric charge density * electric conductance electric field strength electric flux density *electric potential, potential difference,

electromotive force * electric resistance * energy, work, quantity of heat

energy density "force

* frequency

heat capacity, entropy heat capacity (specific), specific entropy

heat-transfer coefficient * illuminance "inductance linear density luminance * luminous flux magnetic field strength "magnetic flux "magnetic flux density molar energy molar entropy, molar heat capacity moment of force, torque momentum permeability permittivity "power, heat flow rate, radiant flux

Unit

gray meter per second squared becquerel square kilometer square hectometer square meter mole per cubic meter ampere per square meter kilogram per cubic meter coulomb meter sievert farad coulomb coulomb per cubic meter Siemens volt per meter coulomb per square meter volt

ohm megajoule kilojoule joule electronvoltt kilowatt-hourt joule per cubic meter kilonewton newton megahertz hertz joule per kelvin joule per kilogram kelvin watt per square meter kelvin lux henry kilogram per meter candela per square meter lumen ampere per meter weber tesla joule per mole joule per mole kelvin newton meter kilogram meter per second henry per meter farad per meter kilowatt watt

Symbol

Gy m/s2

Bq km2

hm2

m2

mol/m3

A/m2

kg/m3

C m Sv F C C/m3

S V/m C/m2

V

Ω MJ kJ J eVt kW-ht J/m3

kN N MHz Hz J/K J/(kg-K)

W/(m2-K) lx H kg/m cd/m2

lm A/m Wb T J/mol J/(mol-K) N-m kg-m/s H/m F/m kW W

Acceptable equivalent

J/kg

1/s

ha (hectare)

g/L; mg/cm3

J/kg C/V A-s

A/V

W/A

V/A

N-m

kg-m/s2

1/s

lm/m2

Wb/A

cd-sr

V-s Wb/m2

J/s

tThis non-SI unit is recognized by the CIPM as having to be retained because of practical importance or use in specialized fields (1).

FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS XVII

Quantity Unit

watt per square meter megapascal kilopascal pascal decibel joule per kilogram cubic meter per kilogram newton per meter watt per meter kelvin meter per second kilometer per hour pascal second millipascal second square meter per second square millimeter per second cubic meter cubic diameter cubic centimeter 1 per meter 1 per centimeter

Symbol

W/m2

MPa kPa Pa dB J/kg m3/kg N/m W/(m-K) m/s km/h Pas mPa-s m2/s mm2/s m3

dm3

cm3

m-1

cm-1

Acceptable equivalent

N/m2

L (liter) (5) mL

power density, heat flux density, irradiance *pressure, stress

sound level specific energy specific volume surface tension thermal conductivity velocity

viscosity, dynamic

viscosity, kinematic

volume

wave number

In addition, there are 16 prefixes used to indicate order of magnitude, as follows

Multiplication factor

1018

1015

1012

109

106

103

102

10 lo-1

io-2

io-3

io-6

io-9

io-12

IO"15

io-18

Prefix

exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deka deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto

Symb

E P T G M k h° daa

d° c" m μ n P f a

Note

"Although hecto, deka, deci, and centi are SI prefixes, their use should be avoided except for SI unit-multiples for area and volume and nontechnical use of centimeter, as for body and clothing measurement.

For a complete description of SI and its use the reader is referred to reference (4). A representative list of conversion factors from non-SI to SI units is presented herewith. Factors are given

to four significant figures. Exact relationships are followed by a dagger. A more complete list is given in the latest editions of ASTM and ANSI (documents 4,6).

xviii FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS

Conversion Factors to SI Units

To convert from

acre angstrom area astronomical unit atmosphere, standard bar barn barrel (42 U.S. liquid gallons) Bohr magneton (μβ) Btu (International Table) Btu (mean) Btu (thermochemical) bushel calorie (International Table) calorie (mean) calorie (thermochemical) centipoise centistokes cfm (cubic foot per minute) cubic inch cubic foot cubic yard curie debye degree (angle) denier (international)

dram (apothecaries') dram (avoirdupois) dram (U.S. fluid) dyne dyne/cm electronvolt erg fathom fluid ounce (U.S.) foot footcandle furlong gal gallon (U.S. dry) gallon (U.S. liquid) gallon per minute (gpm)

gauss gilbert gill (U.S.) grade grain

To

square meter (m2) meter (m) square meter (m2) meter (m) pascal (Pa) pascal (Pa) square meter (m2) cubic meter (m3) J/T joule (J) joule (J) joule (J) cubic meter (m3) joule (J) joule (J) joule (J) pascal second (Pas) square millimeter per second (mm2/s) cubic meter per second (m3/s) cubic meter (m3) cubic meter (m3) cubic meter (m3) becquerel (Bq) coulomb meter (C-m) radian (rad) kilogram per meter (kg/m) tex* kilogram (kg) kilogram (kg) cubic meter (m3) newton (N) newton per meter (N/m) joule (J) joule (J) meter (m) cubic meter (m3) meter (m) lux (lx) meter (m) meter per second squared (m/s2) cubic meter (m3) cubic meter (m3) cubic meter per second (m3/s) cubic meter per hour (m3/h) tesla (T) ampere (A) cubic meter (m3) radian kilogram (kg)

Multiply by

4.047 x 103

1.0 x 10"10t 1.0 x 102t 1.496 x 1011

1.013 x 105

1.0 x 105t 1.0 x 10-28t 0.1590 9.274 x 10-2 4

1.055 x 103

1.056 x 103

1.054 x 103

3.524 x 10"2

4.187 4.190 4.184* 1.0 x 10-3t l.Ot 4.72 x 10~4

1.639 x 10~5

2.832 x 10-2

0.7646 3.70 x 1010t 3.336 x 10"30

1.745 x 10-2

1.111 x l 0 ~ 7

0.1111 3.888 x 10"3

1.772 x 10"3

3.697 x 10"6

1.0 x 10~5t 1.0 x 10"3t 1.602 x 10"19

1.0 x 10"7t 1.829 2.957 x 10"5

0.3048t 10.76 2.012 x 10"2

1.0 x 10"2t 4.405 x 10-3

3.785 x 10"3

6.309 x 10"5

0.2271 1.0 x 10~4

0.7958 1.183 x 10"4

1.571 x 10"2

6.480 x 10-5

tExact. 'See footnote on p. VII.

FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS xix

To convert from

gram force per denier hectare horsepower (550 ft-lbf/s) horsepower (boiler) horsepower (electric) hundredweight (long) hundredweight (short) inch inch of mercury (32°F) inch of water (39.2°F) kilogram-force kilowatt hour kip knot (international) lambert league (British nautical) league (statute) light year liter (for fluids only) maxwell micron mil mile (statute) mile (U.S. nautical) mile per hour millibar millimeter of mercury (0°C) minute (angular) myriagram myriameter oersted ounce (avoirdupois) ounce (troy) ounce (U.S. fluid) ounce-force peck (U.S.) pennyweight pint (U.S. dry) pint (U.S. liquid) poise (absolute viscosity) pound (avoirdupois) pound (troy) poundal pound-force pound force per square inch (psi) quart (U.S. dry) quart (U.S. liquid) quintal rad rod roentgen second (angle)

To

newton per tex (N/tex) square meter (m2) watt (W) watt (W) watt (W) kilogram (kg) kilogram (kg) meter (m) pascal (Pa) pascal (Pa) newton (N) megajoule (MJ) newton (N) meter per second (m/S) candela per square meter (cd/m3) meter (m) meter (m) meter (m) cubic meter (m3) weber (Wb) meter (m) meter (m) meter (m) meter (m) meter per second (m/s) pascal (Pa) pascal (Pa) radian kilogram (kg) kilometer (km) ampere per meter (A/m) kilogram (kg) kilogram (kg) cubic meter (m3) newton (N) cubic meter (m3) kilogram (kg) cubic meter (m3) cubic meter (m3) pascal second (Pas) kilogram (kg) kilogram (kg) newton (N) newton (N) pascal (Pa) cubic meter (m3) cubic meter (m3) kilogram (kg) gray (Gy) meter (m) coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) radian (rad)

Multiply by

8.826 x 10"2

1.0 x 104t 7.457 x 102

9.810 x 103

7.46 x 102t 50.80 45.36 2.54 x 10"2t 3.386 x 103

2.491 x 102

9.807 3.6t 4.448 x 103

0.5144 3.183 x 103

5.559 x 103

4.828 x 103

9.461 x 1015

1.0 x 10"3t 1.0 x 10"8t 1.0 x 10"6t 2.54 x 10~5t 1.609 x 103

1.852 x 103t 0.4470 1.0 x 102

1.333 x 102+ 2.909 x 10"4

10 10 79.58 2.835 x 10-2

3.110 x l O - 2

2.957 x 10-5

0.2780 8.810 x lO"3

1.555 x 10-3

5.506 x 10"4

4.732 x 10"4

o.iot 0.4536 0.3732 0.1383 4.448 6.895 x 103

1.101 x 10-3

9.464 x 10"4

1.0 x 10"2t 1.0 x 10~2t 5.029 2.58 x lO"4

4.848 x 10~6t

tExact.

xx FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS

To convert from To Multiply by

section square meter (m2) 2.590 x 106

slug kilogram (kg) 14.59 spherical candle power lumen (lm) 12.57 square inch square meter (m2) 6.452 x 10~4

square foot square meter (m2) 9.290 x 10-2

square mile square meter (m2) 2.590 x 106

square yard square meter (m2) 0.8361 stere cubic meter (m3) 1.0* stokes (kinematic viscosity) (m2/s) square meter per second 1.0 x 10~4* tex kilogram per meter (kg/m) 1.0 x 10_6t

ton (long, 2240 pounds) kilogram (kg) 1.016 x 103

ton (metric) (tonne) kilogram (kg) 1.0 x 103* ton (short, 2000 pounds) kilogram (kg) 9.072 x 102

torr pascal (Pa) 1.333 x 102

unit pole weber (Wb) 1.257 x 10~7

yard meter (m) 0.9144*

tExact.

Abbreviations and Unit Symbols

Following is a list of common abbreviations and unit symbols used in the Encyclopedia. In general they agree with those listed in American National Standard Abbreviations for Use on Drawings and in Text (ANSI Yl.l) (6) and American National Standard Letter Symbols for Units in Science and Technology (ANSI Y10) (6). Also included is a list of acronyms for a number of private and government organizations as well as common industrial solvents, polymers, and other chemicals.

Rules for Writing Unit Symbols (4):

1. Unit symbols are printed in upright letters (roman) regardless of the type style used in the surrounding text.

2. Unit symbols are unaltered in the plural. 3. Unit symbols are not followed by a period except when used at the end of a sentence. 4. Letter unit symbols are generally printed lower-case (for example, cd for candela) unless the unit name

has been derived from a proper name, in which case the first letter of the symbol is capitalized (W, Pa). Prefixes and unit symbols retain their prescribed form regardless of the surrounding typography.

5. In the complete expression for a quantity, a space should be left between the numerical value and the unit symbol. For example, write 2.37 lm, not 2.371m, and 35 mm, not 35mm. When the quantity is used in an adjectival sense, a hyphen is often used, for example, 35-mm film. Exception: No space is left between the numerical value and the symbols of degree, minute, and second of plane angle, degree Celsius, and the percent sign.

6. No space is used between the prefix and unit symbol (for example, kg). 7. Symbols, not abbreviations, should be used for units. For example, use "A," not "amp," for ampere. 8. When multiplying unit symbols, use a raised dot:

N-m for newton meter

In the case of W · h, the dot may be omitted, thus:

Wh

An exception to this practice is made for computer printouts, automatic typewriter work, etc, where the raised dot is not possible, and a dot on the line may be used.

9. When dividing unit symbols, use one of the following forms:

/ - 1 m

m/s or m-s or — s

FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS xxi

In no case should more than one slash be used in the same expression unless parentheses are inserted to avoid ambiguity. For example, write:

J/(mol-K) or J-mor^K"1 or (J/mol)/K

but not

J/mol/K

10. Do not mix symbols and unit names in the same expression. Write:

joules per kilogram or J/kg or Jkg~

but not joules/kilogram nor joules/kg nor joules-kg-1

ABBREVIATIONS AND UNITS

A A A a AATCC

ABS abs ac a-c ac-acac ACGIH

ACS AGA Ah AIChE AIME

AIP AISI ale Alk alk amt amu ANSI AO AOAC AOCS APHA API aq Ar ar-as-ASHRAE

ASM ASME

ASTM

at no. at wt

ampere anion (eg, HA) mass number atto (prefix for 10"18) American Association of Textile Chemists and

Colorists acrylonitrile—butadiene-styrene absolute alternating current, n. alternating current, adj. alicyclic acetylacetonate American Conference of Governmental

Industrial Hygienists American Chemical Society American Gas Association ampere hour American Institute of Chemical Engineers American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical,

and Petroleum Engineers American Institute of Physics American Iron and Steel Institute alcohol(ic) alkyl alkaline (not alkali) amount atomic mass unit American National Standards Institute atomic orbital Association of Official Analytical Chemists American Oil Chemists' Society American Public Health Association American Petroleum Institute aqueous aryl aromatic asymmetric(al) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,

and Air Conditioning Engineers American Society for Metals American Society of Mechanical

Engineers American Society for Testing and

Materials atomic number atomic weight

av(g) AWS b

bbl bec BCT Be BET

bid Boc BOD bp Bq C °C

c-c c ca cd

CFR cgs CI cis-

cl cm cmil empd CNS CoA COD coml cp cph CPSC cryst cub D D-d d d d-

average American Welding Society bonding orbital barrel body-centered cubic body-centered tetragonal Baume Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (adsorption

equation) twice daily i-butyloxycarbonyl biochemical (biological) oxygen demand boiling point becquerel coulomb degree Celsius denoting attachment to carbon centi (prefix for 10~2) critical circa (approximately) candela; current density; circular

dichroism Code of Federal Regulations centimeter-gram-second Color Index isomer in which substituted groups are on

same side of double bond between C atoms carload centimeter circular mil compound central nervous system coenzyme A chemical oxygen demand commercial(ly) chemically pure close-packed hexagonal Consumer Product Safety Commission crystalline cubic debye denoting configurational relationship differential operator day; deci (prefix for 10"x) density dextro-, dextrorotatory

XXII FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS

da dB de d-c dec detd detn Di dia dil DIN dl-; DL-DMA DMF DMG DMSO DOD DOE DOT DP dp DPH dstl(d) dta (E)-€

e ECU ed. ED EDTA emf emu en eng EPA epr eq. esca

esp esr est(d) estn esu exp ext(d) F F f FAO

fee FDA FEA FHSA fob

fp FPC FRB frz G G

deka (prefix for 10"1) decibel direct current, n. direct current, adj. decompose determined determination didymium, a mixture of all lanthanons diameter dilute Deutsche Industrie Normen racemic dimethylacetamide dimethylformamide dimethyl glyoxime dimethyl sulfoxide Department of Defense Department of Energy Department of Transportation degree of polymerization dew point diamond pyramid hardness distill(ed) differential thermal analysis entgegen;opposed dielectric constant (unitless number) electron electrochemical unit edited, edition, editor effective dose ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid electromotive force electromagnetic unit ethylene diamine engineering Environmental Protection Agency electron paramagnetic resonance equation electron spectroscopy for chemical

analysis especially electron-spin resonance estimate(d) estimation electrostatic unit experiment, experimental extract(ed) farad (capacitance) faraday (96,487 C) femto (prefix for 10~15) Food and Agriculture Organization

(United Nations) face-centered cubic Food and Drug Administration Federal Energy Administration Federal Hazardous Substances Act free on board freezing point Federal Power Commission Federal Reserve Board freezing giga (prefix for 109) gravitational constant =

g (g) 8 gc gem-glc g-mol wt;

gmw GNP gpc GRAS grd Gy H h ha HB Hb hep hex HK hplc HRC HV hyd hyg Hz •'(eg.IV) i-IACS ibp IC ICC ICT ID ip IPS ir IRLG ISO ITS-90 IU IUPAC

IV iv J K k kg L L l-(1) LC50 LCAO lc LCD lcl LD50

LED

Hq

6.67 x 1011 N-m2/kg2

gram gas, only as in H20(g) gravitational acceleration gas chromatography geminal gas-liquid chromatography gram-molecular weight

gross national product gel-permeation chromatography Generally Recognized as Safe ground gray henry hour; hecto (prefix for 102) hectare Brinell hardness number hemoglobin hexagonal close-packed hexagonal Knoop hardness number high performance liquid chromatography Rockwell hardness (C scale) Vickers hardness number hydrated, hydrous hygroscopic hertz iso (eg, isopropyl) inactive (eg, t-methionine) International Annealed Copper Standard initial boiling point integrated circuit Interstate Commerce Commission International Critical Table inside diameter; infective dose intraperitoneal iron pipe size infrared Interagency Regulatory Liaison Group International Organization Standardization International Temperature Scale (NIST) International Unit International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemistry iodine value intravenous joule kelvin kilo (prefix for 103) kilogram denoting configurational relationship liter (for fluids only) (5) levo-, levorotatory liquid, only as in NH3(1) cone lethal to 50% of the animals tested linear combination of atomic orbitale liquid chromatography liquid crystal display less than carload lots dose lethal to 50% of the animals tested light-emitting diode liquid

FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS xxiii

1m In LNG log LOI LPG lx M M Mw

Mn

Mv

m m m-max MCA

MEK meq mfd mfg mfr MIBC MIBK MIC min mL MLD MO mo mol mol wt mp MR ms MSDS mxt ß N N N-n(asn^)

"(asBu"), n-

n n na NAS NASA

nat ndt neg NF NIH NIOSH

NIST

lumen logarithm (natural) liquefied natural gas logarithm (common) limiting oxygen index liquefied petroleum gas lux mega (prefix for 106); metal (as in MA) molar; actual mass weight-average mol wt number-average mol wt viscosity-average mol wt meter; milli (prefix for 10~3) molal meta maximum Chemical Manufacturers' Association

(was Manufacturing Chemists Association)

methyl ethyl ketone milliequivalent manufactured manufacturing manufacturer methyl isobutyl carbinol methyl isobutyl ketone minimum inhibiting concentration minute; minimum milliliter minimum lethal dose molecular orbital month mole molecular weight melting point molar refraction mass spectrometry material safety data sheet mixture micro (prefix for 10~6) newton (force) normal (concentration); neutron number denoting attachment to nitrogen index of refraction (for 20°C and

sodium light) normal (straight-chain

structure) neutron nano (prefix for 109) not available National Academy of Sciences National Aeronautics and Space Administra-

tion natural nondestructive testing negative National Formulary National Institutes of Health National Institute of Occupational Safety and

Health National Insti tute of Standards and

Technology (formerly National Bureau of Standards)

nmr NND no. NOI-(BN) NOS nqr NRC

NRI NSF NTA NTP

NTSB 0-0-

OD OPEC

o-phen OSHA

owf Ω P

P p-P P· Pa PEL

pd pH

phr p-i-n pmr p-n po POP pos pp. ppb ppm ppmv ppmwt PPO ppt(d) pptn Pr (no.) pt PVC pwd

py qv R (R> r rad RCRA rds ref.

nuclear magnetic resonance New and Nonofficial Drugs (AMA) number not otherwise indexed (by name) not otherwise specified nuclear quadruple resonance Nuclear Regulatory Commission;

National Research Council New Ring Index National Science Foundation nitrilotriacetic acid normal temperature and pressure (25° C and

101.3 kPa or 1 atm) National Transportation Safety Board denoting attachment to oxygen ortho outside diameter Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun-

tries o-phenanthridine Occupational Safety and Health

Administration on weight of fiber ohm peta (prefix for 1015) pico (prefix for 10~12) para proton page pascal (pressure) personal exposure limit based on an 8-h expo-

sure potential difference negative logarithm of the effective

hydrogen ion concentration parts per hundred of resin (rubber) positive-intrinsic-negative proton magnetic resonance positive-negative per os (oral) polyoxypropylene positive pages parts per billion (109) parts per million (106) parts per million by volume parts per million by weight poly(phenyl oxide) precipitate(d) precipitation foreign prototype (number) point; part poly(vinyl chloride) powder pyridine quod vide (which see) univalent hydrocarbon radical rectus (clockwise configuration) precision of data radian; radius Resource Conservation and Recovery Act rate-determining step reference

xxiv FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS

rf r-f rh RI rms rpm rps RT RTECS

s(eg, Bus); sec-

S (S)-

s-s-s (s) SAE SAN sat(d) satn SBS sc SCF Sch sem SFs si sol sol soln soly sp s p g r sr std STP

sub SUs syn

radio frequency, n. radio frequency, adj. relative humidity Ring Index root-mean square rotations per minute revolutions per second room temperature Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical

Substances secondary (eg, secondary

butyl) Siemens sinister (counterclockwise configuration) denoting attachment to sulfur symmetric(al) second solid, only as in H2CKS) Society of Automotive Engineers styrene-acrylonitrile saturate(d) saturation styrene-butadiene-styrene subcutaneous self-consistent field; standard cubic feet Schultz number scanning electron microscope(y) Saybolt Furol seconds slightly soluble soluble solution solubility specific; species specific gravity steradian standard standard temperature and pressure (0°C and

101.3 kPa) sublime(s) Saybolt Universal seconds synthetic

Heg, Bu*), t -, tert-

T

t t TAPPI

TCC tex

Tg tga THF tic TLV trans -

TSCA TWA Twad UL USDA

USP uv V var vic-vol vs v sol W Wb Wh WHO

wk

yr (Z)-

tertiary (eg, tertiary butyl)

tera (prefix for 1012); tesla (magnetic flux den-sity)

metric ton (tonne) temperature Technical Association of the Pulp and

Paper Industry Tagliabue closed cup tex (linear density) glass-transition temperature thermogravimetric analysis tetrahydrofuran thin layer chromatography threshold limit value isomer in which substituted groups are on op-

posite sides of double bond between C atoms Toxic Substances Control Act time-weighted average Twaddell Underwriters' Laboratory United States Department

of Agriculture United States Pharmacopeia ultraviolet volt (emf) variable vicinal volume (not volatile) versus very soluble watt weber watt hour World Health Organization

(United Nations) week year zusammen; together; atomic

number

Non-SI (Unacceptable and Obsolete) Units Use

Ä at atm b bart bbl bhp Btu bu cal cfrn Ci cSt c/s cu D den dr dyn

angstrom atmosphere, technical atmosphere, standard barn bar barrel brake horsepower British thermal unit bushel calorie cubic foot per minute curie centistokes cycle per second cubic debye denier dram dyne

nm Pa Pa cm2

Pa m3

W J m3;L J m3/s Bq mm2/s Hz exponential form Cm tex kg N

*Όο not use bar (105 Pa) or millibar (102 Pa) because they are not SI units, and are accepted internationally only in special fields because of existing usage.

FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS xxv

Non-SI (Unacceptable and Obsolete) Units Use

dyn/cm erg eu op fc fl floz ft ft-lbf gf den G Gal gal Gb gpm

gr hp ihp in. in. Hg in. H 2 0 in.-lbf kcal kgf kilo L lb lbf mho mi MM mm Hg ηιμ mph

ß Oe oz ozf

n P ph psi psia psig qt °R rd sb SCF sq thm yd

dyne per centimeter erg entropy unit degree Fahrenheit footcandle footlambert fluid ounce foot foot pound-force gram-force per denier gauss gal gallon gilbert gallon per minute grain horsepower indicated horsepower inch inch of mercury inch of water inch pound-force kilo-calorie kilogram-force for kilogram lambert pound pound-force mho mile million millimeter of mercury millimicron miles per hour micron oersted ounce ounce-force poise poise phot pounds-force per square inch pounds-force per square inch absolute pounds-force per square inch gage quart degree Rankine rad stilb standard cubic foot square therm yard

mN/m J J/K °C;K lx lx m 3 ; L m J N/tex T m/s2

m 3 ; L A (m3/s); (m3/h) kg W W m Pa Pa J J N kg lx kg N S m M Pa nm km/h μιη A/m kg N P a s P a s lx Pa Pa Pa m 3 ; L K Gy lx m3

exponential form J

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l B u r e a u of We igh t s a n d M e a s u r e s , B I P M (Pare de Sa in t -C loud , F r a n c e ) i s descr ibed i n Ref. 4. T h i s b u r e a u o p e r a t e s u n d e r t h e exclus ive superv i s ion of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e for Weigh t s a n d M e a s u r e s (CIPM). Metric Editorial Guide (ANMC-78-1), l a t e s t ed., A m e r i c a n N a t i o n a l Me t r i c Counci l , 900 Mix Avenue , Su i t e 1 H a m d e n CT 0 6 5 1 4 - 5 1 0 6 , 1 9 8 1 . SI Units and Recommendations for the Use of Their Multiples and of Certain Other Units (ISO 1000-1992), A m e r i c a n N a t i o n a l S t a n d a r d s I n s t i t u t e , 25 W 4 3 r d St . , N e w York, 10036, 1992. B a s e d on I E E E / A S T M - S I - 1 0 Standard for Use of the International System of Units (SI): The Modern Metric System (Replaces A S T M E 3 8 0 a n d A N S I / I E E E S t d 268-1992) , A S T M I n t e r n a t i o n a l , Wes t Conshohocken , PA., 2002 . See also w w w . a s t m . o r g Fed. Reg., Dec. 10, 1976 (41 F R 36414) . For A N S I a d d r e s s , see Ref. 3 . See also www.ans i .o rg

A

ACETYLENIC POLYMERS, SUBSTITUTED

Polymerization of acetylene was first achieved by Natta and his co-workers using a Ti-based catalyst. The discovery of the metallic conductivity of doped polyacetylene stimu-lated research into the chemistry of polyacetylene, and now polyacetylene is recognized as one of the most important conjugated polymers.

In 1974 the first successful polymerization of substi-tuted acetylene was achieved when it was found that "Group 6" transition metals are quite active for the poly-merization of phenylacetylene to a polymer with molecular weight over 104. After this finding, there has been much effort to develop highly active catalysts, to tune the poly-mer properties, and also to precisely control the polymer structure. These energetic studies have produced a wide variety of polymers from acetylene derivatives including mono- and disubstituted acetylenes, α,ω-diynes, and 1,3-diacetylenes. The carbon-carbon alternating double bonds in main chains of these polymers provide an opportunity to obtain unique properties such as conductivity, nonlin-ear optical properties, magnetic properties, permeability, photo- and electroluminescent properties, and so on, which are not accessible from the corresponding vinyl polymers.

R1 R2

substituted polyacetylene

R3 R2 R2

-X- R'

poly(o£,(u-diyne) poly(diacetylene)

POLYMERIZATION CATALYSTS

A variety of transition metal catalysts have been found to polymerize substituted acetylenes. Effective catalysts range from Group 3 to Group 10 metals. Activity of cata-lysts greatly depends on monomer structure; therefore, it is quite important to recognize the characteristics of each catalyst.

Group 3 Transition Metals

Examples for the polymerization of substituted acetylenes with "Group 3" transition metals are rather limited. Ziegler-Natta catalysts based on Group 3 transition metals polymerize acetylene and its derivatives. High molecular weight polymers (Mn > 30,000) are available from aliphatic linear alkynes such as 1-hexyne and 1-pentyne. One of the characteristic points of these catalytic systems is the selective formation of cis-cisoidal polymers.

Group 5 Transition Metals

The most probable side reaction in the polymerization of acetylenes is cyclooligomerization that is well promoted by "Group 5" transition metals. The most convenient catalysts

are TaCl5 and NbCle. Both catalysts can polymerize disub-stituted acetylenes such as 3-octyne and 1-phenylpropyne.

Group 6 Transition Metals

This class is most widely employed because of their high ability to polymerize a wide range of substituted acetylenes. Metal halide catalysts, metal carbonyl cata-lysts, metal carbene catalysts, and metal alkylidene cat-alysts comprise the Group 6 transition metals.

Metal Halide Catalysts. M0CI5 and WC16, the most conve-nient "Group 6" transition metal catalysts, give high yields of polymers from various monosubstituted acetylenes, es-pecially from bulkily monosubstituted acetylenes.

Metal Carbonyl Catalysts. Mo or W hexacarbonyl alone cause no polymerization of acetylenes. However, upon uv irradiation in halogenated solvents such as CCI4, various substituted acetylenes readily polymerize with Mo and W hexacarbonyls. Cr(CO)6 as well as other "Group 7" metal carbonyls such as Mn2(CO)io and Re2(CO)io yield no active species under similar conditions.

Metal Carbene Catalysts. The first use of isolated single-component carbene catalysts showed that the Fischer and Casey carbenes polymerize phenylacetylene, tert-butylacetylene, and cyclooctyne in low yields.

Metal Alkylidyne Catalysts. Metal alkylidyne complexes such as (CO)4BrW=CC6H5 and (t-C4H90)3M(^C-n-C3H7

serve as catalysts for the polymerization of substituted acetylenes.

Group 8 Transition Metals

Iron-catalyzed polymerization of substituted acetylenes has a long history. Well-used iron catalysts have a gen-eral formula of Fe(acac)3-R„AlCl3_„, and they are read-ily prepared in situ. Fe(acac)3-(C2H5)3A1 is employed most frequently. This is a heterogeneous catalyst and is able to polymerize sterically unhindered terminal acetylenes such as n-alkyl-, sec-alkyl-, and phenylacetylenes. Although Fe catalysts cannot precisely control the polymerization, they show very high activity and often give very high molecular weight polymers.

Group 9 Transition Metals

A significant contribution to the chemistry of substituted polyacetylenes is based on the finding of excellent activity of Rh catalysts. The most characteristic feature of Rh cat-alysts is their very high activity for the polymerization of phenylacetylenes to give high molecular weight polymers with almost perfect stereoregularity (cis-transoidal). Fur-thermore, the excellent ability of Rh catalysts to tolerate

1

ACETYLENIC POLYMERS, SUBSTITUTED

Table 1. Rh Catalysts for the Polymerization of Substituted Acetylenes

Catalyst Catalyst

RhCl3-LiBH4

[(cod)RhCl]2

[(nbd)RhCl]2

(cod)Rh+B(C6H5)4 " -HSi(C2H5)3

(nbd)Rh+(dbn)2PF6 " (nbd)Rh(dbn)Cl

(cod)Rh+s

Kcod)Rh(SC6F5)]2

(cod)Rh(S03C6H4-p-CH3)(H20) [(nbd)Rh(acac)]2

(nbd)Rh+[(^6-C6H5)B-(C6H5)3] (nbd)C6H5C=CRh(P(C6H5)3)2

Knbd)RhOCH3]2-P(C6H5)3

[(nbd)RhCl]2-(C6H5)2C=C(C6H5)Li-P(C6H5)3

(nbd)(C6H5)2C=C(C6H5)Rh(P(C6H5)3)2

F e t

1 (cod)Rh< J a o -

J Fee

various functional groups including amino, hydroxyl, azo, radical groups, and so on allows the production of highly functionalized polymers. A variety of Rh catalysts have been developed (Table 1).

Group 10 Transition Metals

Group 10 transition-metal catalysts including Ni and Pd are generally not adequate for the polymerization of acetylenes because these catalysts tend to lead to the cyclooligomerization rather than the polymeriza-tion. Exceptional examples have been found by us-ing Ni(NCS)2P(C6H5)3 and [Pd(C=CR)2(P(C6H5)3)2] (R = Si(CH3)3, CH2OH, CH2N(CH3)2).

Ionic Catalysts

Preparation of polyacetylenes having satisfactory molecu-lar weights is impossible by ionic processes.

PRECISION POLYMERIZATION

Remarkable progress has been made in the development of excellent catalysts for living and stereospecific acety-lene polymerizations. The jr-conjugated polymers prepared by the sequential polymerization are strictly limited to polyacetylenes, except for only a few examples. Thus, synthesis of tailor-made conjugated macromolecules such as end-functionalized polymers, block copolymers, star-shaped polymers is possible only in the case of substituted acetylenes.

General

Diverse transition metals from Group 3 to Group 10 elements initiate the polymerization of substituted

acetylenes. Catalysts that achieve living polymerization, however, are quite limited, which contrasts to a wide vari-ety of living polymerization catalysts for vinyl monomers. The catalysts are classified into the following groups: (1) metal halide catalysts, (2) metal carbenes, and (3) Rh complexes. The structure of monomers undergoing living polymerization significantly depends on the type of cata-lyst. Thus, appropriate catalysts must be selected in order to synthesize well-defined polymers from the individual monomer.

Living Polymerization by Metal Halide Catalysts

Metal halide-based living polymerization catalysts possess a general formula of MOnClm-cocatalyst-ROH (M = Mo or W, n = 0 or 1, m = 5 or 4). The most striking feature of these catalysts is the ease in preparation. One can readily gener-ate these catalysts in situ just by mixing these three compo-nents. The living polymerization of substituted acetylenes has been achieved by using a Mo-based multicomponent catalyst.

Replacement of toluene with anisole as polymerization solvent remarkably improves the living nature, leading to both an increase in initiation efficiency and a decrease in polydispersity.

Living Polymerization by Single-Component Carbene Complexes

Much effort has been made to develop well-defined car-bene complexes for the living polymerization of substituted acetylenes as well as cyclic olefins. Soluble oligoacetylenes, (C2H2)„ (n = 3-9), are obtained by the reaction of acetylene with in the presence of quinuclidine. The living chain ends of these oligoacetylenes quantitatively react with pivalde-hyde to give oligomers having ieri-butyl groups a t both