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Ene
rgy
Cha
pter
11
Tra
ditio
nal F
uels
Use
d by
Hum
ans
•W
ood
•C
oal
•P
etro
leum
Oil
in th
e M
iddl
e E
ast
•It
is m
ore
abun
dant
and
che
aper
to
prod
uce
than
in th
e U
.S.
•In
the
1960
s th
e pr
ice
of c
rude
oil
was
$3
per
barr
el•
In 1
973
Syr
ia a
nd E
gypt
atta
cked
Isra
el•
The
Ara
b O
il E
mba
rgo
proh
ibite
d th
e tr
ade
and
sale
of o
il to
cou
ntrie
s su
ppor
ting
Isra
el (
incl
udin
g th
e U
.S.)
Ene
rgy
Cris
is in
the
1980
s
•W
hen
the
Iran
/Iraq
War
sta
rted
(19
79–
1980
), c
rude
oil
prod
uctio
n dr
oppe
d,
incr
easi
ng th
e co
st o
f cru
de o
il to
$35
per
ba
rrel
•T
he U
.S. s
uppo
rted
Iraq
, whi
ch p
osse
ssed
th
e se
cond
larg
est o
il pr
eser
ve in
the
wor
ld w
here
oil
can
be p
rodu
ced
for
less
th
an $
1.50
per
bar
rel
Mid
dle
Eas
t in
the
1990
s
•W
hen
Sad
dam
Hus
sein
atta
cked
Kuw
ait,
U.S
. tro
ops
wer
e de
ploy
ed to
the
Gul
f War
of
199
1•
In 2
005,
the
pric
e of
cru
de o
il w
as $
46 p
er
barr
el•
The
se in
cide
nts
have
incr
ease
d th
e im
port
ance
of f
indi
ng a
ltern
ativ
e so
urce
s of
ene
rgy
othe
r th
an fo
ssil
fuel
s
Fos
sil F
uels
•B
esid
es p
etro
leum
, oth
er ty
pes
of fo
ssil
fuel
s in
clud
e na
tura
l gas
and
coa
l•
All
are
com
bust
ible
and
orig
inat
ed fr
om
anci
ent p
lant
and
ani
mal
life
•F
ossi
l fue
ls a
re “
nonr
enew
able
”
The
Nee
d fo
r A
ltern
ativ
e F
uels
•In
the
1970
s th
ere
wer
e lo
ng li
nes
for
gaso
line
and
ther
mos
tats
wer
e se
t low
er to
con
serv
e fu
el•
Whe
n pr
ices
dro
pped
in th
e 19
70s,
the
Car
ter
adm
inis
trat
ion
prov
ided
fun
ding
for
alte
rnat
ive
ener
gy s
ourc
es•
Tod
ay p
asse
nger
car
s ne
ed to
be
ener
gy
effic
ient
•F
inan
cial
ince
ntiv
es a
re a
vaila
ble
for
vehi
cles
us
ing
alte
rnat
ive
ener
gy s
ourc
es
The
Nee
d fo
r E
lect
ricity
•If
the
pres
ent r
ate
of p
opul
atio
n gr
owth
(a
nd e
lect
ricity
con
sum
ptio
n) c
ontin
ues,
it
will
incr
ease
by
54%
ove
r th
e ne
xt 2
0 ye
ars
•E
lect
ricity
is g
ener
ated
thro
ugh
use
of a
“p
rimar
y fu
el s
ourc
e” s
uch
as c
oal,
oil,
natu
ral g
as, a
nd u
rani
um•
Unf
ortu
nate
ly fo
ssil
fuel
s do
not
co
mpl
etel
y bu
rn, l
eavi
ng b
ehin
d po
llutio
n
Coa
l
•C
oal i
s fo
und
unde
rgro
und
and
mus
t be
min
ed•
The
U.S
. is
the
wor
ld’s
sec
ond
larg
est c
oal
expo
rter
•T
he la
rges
t res
erve
s ar
e in
Mon
tana
, Illi
nois
, an
d W
yom
ing;
oth
ers
are
in A
lask
a, T
exas
, N
orth
Dak
ota,
and
Gul
f Coa
st s
tate
s•
The
re is
12
times
as
muc
h en
ergy
in U
.S. c
oal
rese
rves
as
all t
he o
il in
Sau
di A
rabi
a, b
ut it
is
too
cost
ly to
min
e it
all
Coa
l Min
ing
•T
he p
rimar
y m
etho
d of
coa
l min
ing
is
surf
ace
min
ing
(als
o kn
own
as s
trip
m
inin
g)•
Und
ergr
ound
min
es a
re fo
und
east
of t
he
Mis
siss
ippi
, mos
tly th
e A
ppal
achi
an
Mou
ntai
n st
ates
•T
wo
type
s of
und
ergr
ound
min
es:
–S
haft
min
e–
Long
wal
l min
e
Coa
l for
Ene
rgy
•C
oal s
uppl
ies
half
of th
e U
.S.’s
ele
ctric
al p
ower
•T
he r
est i
s us
ed b
y th
e st
eel i
ndus
try
•C
oal i
s co
nsid
ered
a “
dirt
y fu
el”
(fly
ash
, soo
t, su
lfur
oxid
es)
–E
mis
sion
s co
ntro
l tec
hniq
ues:
pre
cipi
tato
rs a
nd
scru
bber
s–
The
coa
l can
als
o be
was
hed
afte
r it
is m
ined
and
be
fore
it is
bur
ned
•C
oal g
asifi
catio
n he
lps
cont
rol t
he p
rodu
ctio
n of
SO
2an
d C
O2
•T
he a
mou
nt o
f ene
rgy
avai
labl
e by
uni
t of w
eigh
t is
expr
esse
d in
Brit
ish
ther
mal
uni
ts (
BT
Us)
per
pou
nd
Pet
role
um
•G
loba
lly, n
early
3 b
illio
n ga
llons
are
use
d ev
ery
day
•P
rior
to th
e 18
00s,
can
dles
, tor
ches
, and
oi
l-bur
ning
lam
ps p
rovi
ded
light
•T
he b
est o
il w
as fr
om th
e rig
ht w
hale
or
sper
m w
hale
•A
ppro
xim
atel
y 15
,000
wha
les
wer
e ki
lled
per
year
so
they
wer
e co
nsid
ered
en
dang
ered
spe
cies
Oth
er S
ourc
es o
f Oil
•In
185
4 B
enja
min
Sill
iman
foun
d cr
ude
oil
coul
d be
ref
ined
and
mad
e in
to k
eros
ene
(als
o kn
own
as c
oal o
il)•
In 1
878
Tho
mas
Edi
son
inve
nted
the
light
bu
lb r
educ
ing
the
need
for
kero
sene
•In
185
9 th
e fir
st o
il w
ell i
n th
e U
.S. w
as
disc
over
ed in
Titu
svill
e, P
enns
ylva
nia
The
Nee
d fo
r M
ore
Oil
•In
the
1950
s th
e de
man
d fo
r co
al le
ssen
ed a
nd
prop
ane
gas
beca
me
popu
lar
•In
the
1970
s, th
e pr
oduc
tion
of d
omes
tic o
il in
th
e U
.S. d
eclin
ed•
By
the
1990
s th
e U
.S. i
mpo
rted
mor
e oi
l tha
n it
prod
uced
•T
oday
the
U.S
. is
the
wor
ld’s
larg
est c
onsu
mer
of
oil
•C
rude
oil
mus
t be
refin
ed b
efor
e it
can
be u
sed
for
fuel
Fue
l Oils
•In
clud
es p
etro
leum
pro
duct
s su
ch a
s ke
rose
ne•
The
y ar
e us
ed fo
r he
atin
g, li
ghtin
g,
engi
nes,
and
as
solv
ents
•T
hey
have
alip
hatic
and
aro
mat
ic
hydr
ocar
bons
•T
hey
are
liqui
d at
roo
m te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd
evap
orat
e
Mor
e S
ourc
es o
f Oil
•T
he la
rges
t pro
duce
rs o
f oil
in th
e w
orld
ar
e S
audi
Ara
bia
and
the
form
er S
ovie
t U
nion
•O
ne-t
hird
of t
he w
orld
’s o
il co
mes
from
of
fsho
re w
ells
in th
e N
orth
Sea
, the
P
ersi
an G
ulf,
and
the
Gul
f of M
exic
o•
Way
s to
dec
reas
e oi
l con
sum
ptio
n in
clud
e ta
xatio
n, r
atio
ning
, and
impr
ovin
g en
ergy
ef
ficie
nt e
ngin
es
Non
foss
il F
uels
•N
atur
al g
as–
Pro
vide
s 25
% o
f all
ener
gy in
the
U.S
.–
The
larg
est p
rodu
cer
is th
e fo
rmer
Sov
iet
Uni
on–
Mor
e ex
pens
ive
than
fuel
oils
or
elec
tric
ity–
The
larg
est s
ourc
es a
re in
Ala
ska,
Lou
isia
na,
New
Mex
ico,
Okl
ahom
a, a
nd T
exas
•U
rani
um–
A r
adio
activ
e so
urce
that
has
a h
alf l
ife–
Use
d to
for
nucl
ear
pow
er
Pro
blem
s w
ith F
ossi
l Fue
ls
•C
oal a
nd u
rani
um o
pera
tions
–A
band
oned
or
orph
an m
ines
•P
etro
leum
pro
duct
ion
–P
ollu
tion
of la
nd, w
ater
way
s, o
cean
s, a
nd th
e at
mos
pher
e–
Aba
ndon
ed o
il fie
lds,
oil
stor
age
faci
litie
s, a
nd
tran
spor
tatio
n ac
cide
nts
•B
oth
have
neg
ativ
e en
viro
nmen
tal i
mpa
ct
Oil
Spi
lls
•T
he tr
ansp
orta
tion
of o
il is
the
prim
ary
caus
e of
oil
spill
s•
Oil
tank
ers
are
the
larg
est s
hips
bui
lt•
Oil
spill
s at
sea
des
troy
mar
ine
life
and
wat
er q
ualit
y•
The
oil
float
ing
on th
e su
rfac
e is
fla
mm
able
Pro
blem
s w
ith P
ower
Pla
nts
•M
ost a
re b
uilt
alon
g riv
ers,
str
eam
s, o
r la
kes
–T
he h
eate
d w
ater
kill
s aq
uatic
life
•N
ucle
ar p
ower
pla
nts
prov
ide
20%
of U
.S.
elec
tric
ity•
The
pos
sibi
lity
of r
adia
tion
expo
sure
is lo
w, b
ut a
m
ajor
con
side
ratio
n•
The
dis
posa
l of s
pent
nuc
lear
fuel
rod
s is
ne
cess
ary,
but
unp
opul
ar a
mon
g lo
cal r
esid
ents
Reg
ulat
ion
of N
ucle
ar P
ower
Pla
nts
•E
ach
nucl
ear
pow
er p
lant
was
bui
lt w
ith a
40-
year
lice
nse
to o
pera
te•
The
Nuc
lear
Reg
ulat
ory
Com
mis
sion
(N
RC
) im
plem
ents
rad
iatio
n ex
posu
re s
tand
ards
•T
hey
cond
uct r
egul
ar in
spec
tions
to b
e su
re
each
pow
er p
lant
is in
com
plia
nce
with
re
gula
tions
for
faci
litie
s, tr
aini
ng, a
nd p
roce
dure
s•
Whe
n th
ey a
re n
ot in
com
plia
nce,
they
suf
fer
pena
lties
Ren
ewab
le E
nerg
y S
ourc
es
•W
ood
•W
aste
inci
nera
tion
•H
ydro
pow
er•
Geo
ther
mal
ene
rgy
•S
olar
pow
er•
Win
d po
wer
Woo
d
•F
rom
fore
sts,
priv
ate
land
, urb
an tr
ee
rem
oval
, and
land
scap
ing
•C
an b
e re
new
ed b
y pl
antin
g tr
ees
•H
ard
woo
d (w
alnu
t, oa
k, e
lm)
burn
long
er
than
sof
t woo
ds (
pine
, ced
ar)
•W
ood
shou
ld b
e “c
ured
” (d
ried)
bef
ore
burn
ing
•It
is in
effic
ient
bec
ause
it ta
kes
10–3
0 ye
ars
to r
epla
ce o
ne tr
ee
Was
te In
cine
ratio
n•
The
bur
ning
of s
olid
was
te r
educ
es th
e vo
lum
e by
90%
•T
wo
way
s of
bur
ning
sol
id w
aste
:–
Mas
s bu
rn•
Was
te is
dro
pped
into
a s
tora
ge p
it, th
en
rem
oved
and
bur
ned
–R
efus
e-de
rived
fuel
•T
he w
aste
is s
tore
d, s
hred
ded,
and
“flu
ffed”
an
d w
ater
is a
dded
bef
ore
it is
bur
ned
•It
can
be s
tore
d in
the
form
of p
elle
ts•
The
re is
stil
l noi
se a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith th
e pr
oces
s,
ashe
s, a
nd e
mis
sion
s (p
artic
ulat
e m
atte
r an
d di
oxin
)
Hyd
ropo
wer
•G
ener
ated
by
larg
e qu
antit
ies
of w
ater
from
a
rese
rvoi
r th
at tu
rn la
rge
turb
ines
and
gen
erat
e el
ectr
icity
•T
he w
orld
’s la
rges
t sou
rce
of r
enew
able
ene
rgy
•It
is c
onsi
dere
d a
“cle
an s
ourc
e” (n
o w
aste
or
air
pollu
tion)
•T
he U
.S. i
s se
cond
in th
e w
orld
, beh
ind
Can
ada,
in
hydr
opow
er p
rodu
ctio
n•
The
re a
re s
ome
alon
g N
iaga
ra F
alls
, the
Col
orad
o R
iver
, and
the
Col
umbi
a R
iver
•E
nviro
nmen
talis
ts d
o no
t lik
e th
em b
ecau
se la
nd is
flo
oded
, veg
etat
ion
is r
uine
d, a
nd w
ater
is d
iver
ted
away
from
farm
s, r
anch
es, s
trea
ms,
wat
erfa
lls, a
nd
wild
life
Geo
ther
mal
Ene
rgy
•H
eat i
s fo
und
natu
rally
in r
ock
form
atio
ns li
ke h
ot
sprin
gs, g
eyse
rs, a
nd fu
mar
oles
(ho
les
in o
r ne
ar v
olca
noes
whe
re v
apor
esc
apes
)•
The
ste
am is
dire
cted
to tu
rbin
es th
at g
ener
ate
elec
tric
ity•
Mos
t of t
he U
.S. s
ites
are
wes
t of t
he M
issi
ssip
pi
Riv
er•
Geo
ther
mal
pla
nts
are
expe
nsiv
e•
Som
etim
es a
rsen
ic o
r bo
ron
are
foun
d in
ge
othe
rmal
was
te
Sol
ar P
ower
•E
nerg
y fr
om th
e su
n ca
n be
col
lect
ed fr
om
pass
ive
or a
ctiv
e sy
stem
s–
Pas
sive
sys
tem
s ab
sorb
hea
t thr
ough
w
indo
ws
–A
ctiv
e sy
stem
s us
e so
lar
colle
ctor
s, p
umps
, an
d va
lves
•S
olar
col
lect
ors
are
clea
r or
tran
sluc
ent w
ith a
da
rk s
urfa
ce th
at s
oaks
up
heat
–S
olar
pan
els
last
a lo
ng ti
me
•T
he h
eat i
s tr
ansf
erre
d to
a “
wor
king
flui
d” a
nd
tran
sfer
red
by v
ents
and
pip
es to
a s
tora
ge
faci
lity
•T
his
is u
sual
ly d
one
on-s
ite
Sol
ar T
herm
al E
nerg
y S
yste
m
•T
his
syst
em c
olle
cts
sola
r en
ergy
at a
ce
ntra
l loc
atio
n to
be
used
by
seve
ral
cust
omer
s•
The
sun
light
is in
tens
ified
to h
eat w
ater
an
d cr
eate
ste
am to
pow
er a
n el
ectr
ic
gene
rato
r•
At t
his
time
sola
r po
wer
cos
ts th
ree
times
m
ore
than
foss
il fu
el e
nerg
y
Pho
tovo
ltaic
Cel
ls
•P
hoto
volta
ic (
PV
) ce
ll so
lar
ener
gy s
yste
ms
conv
ert s
unlig
ht in
to e
lect
ricity
•T
he P
V c
ells
last
up
to 2
0 ye
ars
•T
hey
stor
e po
wer
whi
le th
e su
n is
shi
ning
•S
mal
l PV
cel
ls a
re u
sed
in c
alcu
lato
rs o
r w
atch
es•
Larg
er P
V c
ells
are
use
d fo
r ho
useh
old,
re
crea
tiona
l, or
bus
ines
s us
e•
The
ene
rgy
is s
tore
s in
eith
er D
C (
dire
ct c
urre
nt)
or A
C (
alte
rnat
ing
curr
ent)
Win
d P
ower
•It
is a
form
of s
olar
ene
rgy
beca
use
win
d is
cr
eate
d w
hen
ther
e is
une
ven
heat
ing
in th
e at
mos
pher
e by
the
sun
•E
arly
win
d m
achi
nes
wer
e ca
lled
win
dmill
s•
Win
d tu
rbin
es ta
ke u
p co
nsid
erab
le s
pace
•T
hey
mus
t be
plac
ed o
n op
en p
lain
s, h
illto
ps, o
r m
ount
ain
terr
ain
•T
hey
are
good
bec
ause
they
can
gen
erat
e po
wer
at n
ight
as
wel
l as
dayt
ime
•T
he m
ain
prob
lem
is th
e w
ind
does
not
alw
ays
blow
New
Fue
l Sou
rces
•B
ioen
ergy
•La
ndfil
l gas
rec
over
y
Bio
ener
gy•
The
use
of b
iom
ass
mat
eria
ls (
woo
d, p
lant
and
an
imal
was
te, s
eaw
eed,
alg
ae, s
olid
was
te, g
arba
ge)
•T
he b
y-pr
oduc
ts c
an b
e us
ed fo
r fe
rtili
zer
and
chem
ical
s•
Tw
o ty
pes
of b
iom
ass
conv
ersi
on–
The
rmoc
hem
ical
(w
ood
and
agric
ultu
ral w
aste
)–
Bio
chem
ical
(en
zym
es, f
ungi
, or
mic
roor
gani
sms
to
conv
ert m
anur
e, p
aper
, and
alg
ae to
fuel
)•
Thi
s is
use
d w
hen
met
hane
gas
is c
onve
rted
fr
om s
ewag
e tr
eatm
ent f
acili
ties
•A
noth
er p
roce
ss u
ses
ferm
enta
tion
to d
ecom
pose
su
gar
cane
, gra
ins,
pot
atoe
s, a
nd o
ther
sta
rchy
cro
ps
to m
ake
ethy
l alc
ohol
(et
hano
l) an
d ca
rbon
dio
xide
Land
fill G
as R
ecov
ery
•A
s ga
rbag
e de
com
pose
s m
etha
ne is
pr
oduc
ed•
Met
hane
is fl
amm
able
and
can
be
used
for
fuel
like
nat
ural
gas
Fue
ls fo
r A
utom
obile
s
•O
il –T
he p
rimar
y pr
oduc
t is
gaso
line
(a b
y-pr
oduc
t of
ker
osen
e di
still
atio
n)–
Gas
olin
e bu
rnin
g en
gine
s be
cam
e co
mm
on
afte
r W
W I
–G
asol
ine
cons
umpt
ion
incr
ease
d si
gnifi
cant
ly
afte
r W
W II
•E
lect
ricity
•H
ydro
gen
cells
Pro
blem
s w
ith G
asol
ine
Eng
ines
•M
ost g
asol
ine
engi
nes
are
not e
ffici
ent,
usin
g on
ly 3
5–55
% o
f the
fuel
pas
sing
th
roug
h•
In th
e 19
80s,
fuel
inje
ctor
s w
ere
deve
lope
d to
con
trol
the
air/
fuel
mix
and
im
prov
e fu
el e
ffici
ency
Com
pone
nts
of G
asol
ine
•T
he fo
rmul
atio
n of
gas
olin
e is
impo
rtan
t to
fuel
ef
ficie
ncy
and
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
•G
asol
ine
engi
nes
“kno
ck”
unle
ss th
ere
are
high
er o
ctan
e le
vels
•T
he o
ctan
e le
vel t
ells
how
muc
h th
e fu
el c
an b
e co
mpr
esse
d be
fore
it ig
nite
s•
The
hig
her
the
octa
ne le
vel i
n fu
el, t
he s
low
er
the
fuel
is b
urne
d•
Thi
s m
eans
bet
ter
fuel
eco
nom
y an
d cl
eane
r em
issi
ons
Lead
ed G
asol
ine
•D
urin
g W
W II
it w
as d
isco
vere
d th
at
addi
ng te
trae
thyl
lead
to g
asol
ine
(kno
wn
as e
thyl
, or
lead
ed g
asol
ine)
sig
nific
antly
im
prov
ed th
e oc
tane
rat
ing
•T
he le
ad p
ollu
ted
the
atm
osph
ere
from
au
tom
obile
em
issi
ons,
pos
ing
heal
th
prob
lem
s•
Lead
was
pha
sed
out o
f gas
olin
e pr
oduc
tion
sinc
e th
e 19
70s
Oth
er G
asol
ine
Add
itive
s
•M
ethy
l ter
tiary
but
yl e
ther
(M
TB
E)
has
been
us
ed s
ince
197
9•
It is
a s
uspe
cted
car
cino
gen,
but
use
d in
are
as
with
hig
h le
vels
of u
nhea
lthy
air
pollu
tion
•E
than
ol is
a p
opul
ar fu
el a
dditi
ve b
ut m
ore
expe
nsiv
e th
an M
TB
E•
Ref
orm
ulat
ed g
asol
ine
(RF
G)
is b
lend
ed w
ith
oxyg
en c
ompo
unds
to b
urn
clea
ner
and
redu
ce
air
pollu
tant
s an
d sm
og
The
Nee
d fo
r F
uel E
ffici
ent M
achi
nes
•T
he s
uppl
y an
d pr
ice
of o
il dr
ives
the
need
for
vehi
cles
that
get
mor
e m
iles
per
gallo
n (m
pg)
–T
here
wer
e sm
alle
r ve
hicl
es w
ith le
ss
hors
epow
er a
nd a
ccel
erat
ion
•A
utom
obile
effi
cien
cy s
tand
ards
hav
e be
en in
pl
ace
–In
197
8 th
e m
inim
um fo
r pa
ssen
ger
cars
w
as18
mpg
for
pass
enge
r ca
rs it
was
in
crea
sed
to 2
2.2
by th
e ye
ar 2
007
–F
or li
ght t
ruck
s an
d S
UV
s in
200
2 it
was
20.
7 m
pg
Str
ateg
ies
to R
educ
e th
e D
eman
d fo
r G
asol
ine
•W
ays
to r
educ
e co
nsum
er u
se–
Red
ucin
g sp
eed
limits
–G
asol
ine
taxe
s–
Ince
ntiv
es fo
r ca
rpoo
ls–
Alte
rnat
ive
fuel
s–
Alte
rnat
ive
fuel
veh
icle
s
Gas
olin
e T
axes
•A
way
to
enco
urag
e dr
iver
s to
buy
less
ga
solin
e•
Red
uces
the
aver
age
cons
umpt
ion
by
10%
Car
pool
s
•A
gro
up o
f ind
ivid
uals
with
the
sam
e de
stin
atio
n w
ho ta
ke tu
rns
driv
ing
to w
ork
•S
ave
mon
ey o
n ga
s, to
ll fe
es, a
nd p
arki
ng
spac
e•
Alte
rnat
ives
to c
arpo
olin
g:–
Pub
lic tr
ansp
orta
tion
(sub
way
, tra
in, b
us)
–B
icyc
les
–W
alki
ng
Alte
rnat
ive
Fue
ls
•A
lcoh
ol•
Pro
pane
•N
atur
al g
as•
Bat
terie
s•
Hyd
roge
n ce
lls•
Wat
er•
Com
pres
sed
air
•R
enew
able
ene
rgy
sour
ces
Alc
ohol
Fue
ls•
Eth
anol
–M
ade
from
ferm
ente
d co
rn (
biom
ass)
•G
asoh
ol–
A b
lend
of 1
0% e
than
ol a
nd 9
0% u
nlea
ded
gaso
line
–A
gric
ultu
ral s
tate
s pr
omot
e its
use
but
it is
lim
ited
in a
vaila
bilit
y an
d co
stly
•M
etha
nol
–In
crea
ses
form
alde
hyde
em
issi
ons
whi
le r
educ
ing
ozon
e fo
rmat
ion
–H
arm
ful t
o th
e sk
in–
Mor
e is
nee
ded
than
gas
olin
e to
pro
pel a
n en
gine
Nat
ural
Gas
•C
lean
er th
an c
oal o
r oi
l to
burn
•C
onsi
sts
of m
etha
ne, b
ut in
clud
es
prop
ane,
but
ane,
and
pen
tane
•R
educ
es h
ydro
carb
ons
and
CO
em
issi
ons,
but
incr
ease
s N
O2
Hyd
roge
n•
Use
d by
NA
SA
sin
ce th
e ea
rly A
pollo
spa
ce m
issi
ons.
U
sed
to p
ower
hom
es, b
uild
ings
, and
aut
omob
iles
•T
he “
fuel
of t
he fu
ture
” be
caus
e it
is a
bund
ant,
clea
n,
and
inex
pens
ive
•C
an b
e st
ored
as
a fu
el c
ell o
f alm
ost a
ny s
ize
•A
hyd
roge
n fu
el c
ell u
ses
45–5
8% o
f the
fuel
to m
ake
the
vehi
cle
mov
e (t
wic
e as
effi
cien
t as
gaso
line)
•Lo
w h
eat,
no c
ombu
stio
n, c
arbo
n-fr
ee, n
o po
llutio
n•
Pro
blem
s:
–E
asie
r to
mak
e fr
om fo
ssil
fuel
s th
an fr
om w
ater
or
biom
ass
–H
igh
cost
–La
ck o
f ref
uelin
g st
atio
ns
Alte
rnat
ive
Fue
l Veh
icle
s (A
FV
s)•
Ele
ctric
car
s–
Ava
ilabl
e si
nce
the
1830
s–
The
des
ign
was
impr
oved
upo
n in
the
1970
s–
Nee
ded
to b
e re
char
ged
ever
y 70
–100
mile
s–
No
air
cond
ition
ing
•H
ybrid
car
s–
Ava
ilabl
e si
nce
1999
–C
ombi
ne g
asol
ine
engi
ne w
ith a
bat
tery
-po
wer
ed e
lect
ric m
otor
–T
he b
atte
ry p
acks
are
hea
vy, c
onta
in le
ad,
have
hig
h vo
ltage
, and
cos
t $1,
000
to $
2,00
0 m
ore
–T
he c
ars
can
cost
$3,
500
to $
6,00
0 m
ore
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