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Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868

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Energy management in Lucknow city

Hina Zia�, V. Devadas

Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian Institute of Technology-Roorkee, District Haridwar, Uttarakhand State 247 667, India

Received 15 May 2006; accepted 13 April 2007

Available online 7 June 2007

Abstract

In this paper, an attempt is made to prepare an energy management model for Lucknow city along with policy recommendations for

optimal energy utilization and management. At the outset, the authors have reviewed the related literature on energy management in the

urban system. The entire collected literature is divided into the following sections, such as, energy resource assessment, energy

consumption, energy and economy, energy and environment, energy and transportation, forecasting the energy demand and supply,

alternate energy sources and technologies, energy conservation and demand-side management and energy management measures in

India, and are reviewed thoroughly and presented. Subsequently, an attempt is made to establish the importance of energy in urban

development by using Systems concept. Lucknow city has been chosen for investigation in this study. A detailed methodology is

developed for organizing the survey at the grassroots level to evolve feasible strategies for optimal energy management in the study area.

An attempt is further made to assess the available energy resource in the city, and the energy consumption by source wise in the city and

estimating the energy gap in the year 2011. The paper concludes with preparation of a detailed energy management model for Lucknow

city to reduce the expected energy gap for the year 2011. The recommendations are made for supply augmentation, demand-side

management and policy measures to be taken by the government authorities.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Energy conservation; Demand side management; Systems concept

1. Introduction

Man’s history is a living testimony to his growth from amere medium-sized mammal to his present position as theearth’s dominant species by harnessing and manipulatingenergy at each and every stage of his evolution. Hisincreasing dependence on energy is an unrealized truth. Itis one of basic necessities of life; required both as a meansof production and to enhance the quality of life. In fact, acountry’s Gross Domestic Product is a direct reflection ofthe central role of energy as an input.

There is an increasing realization of the deep impact ofenergy on the economy and environment. It has beenobserved that even international relations among variouseconomies (developed and developing) are being governedby energy factor. The formation of various groups havingsimilar energy consumption and economic development

e front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

pol.2007.04.018

ing author. Tel.: +919412021124.

ess: hinazia@rediffmail.com (H. Zia).

highlights this further. Energy statistics across theglobe reveal a startling variation across differentregions. A wide disparity is observed with regard toenergy consumption and economic development. In fact,the richest 20 per cent of the world’s population use55 per cent of the total final energy, the remaining(80 per cent) of the global population using only the rest45 per cent of final energy. Even across a nation, thereare varied energy consumption pattern in various zones.The economically prosperous states of Gujarat, Punjab,Maharashtra, etc., show a high-energy consumptionpattern. The per capita electricity consumption stoodhighest in Punjab (861 kWh), followed by Gujarat(724 kWh) and Maharashtra (594 kWh) against theNational average of 360 kWh (Statistical Abstract, 2001).The poor regions of Northeast, on the other hand, have avery low consumption of energy ranging between 75 and185 kWh, much lower than the National average. Evenacross various cities there are marked differences in theenergy consumption rate. Cities like Mumbai and Delhi,

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684848

which lie towards the upper side of economic ladder, arefound to be great consumers of energy.

A high correlation between energy consumption andeconomic development, coupled with wide disparitiesacross different regions, countries and cities, is found toexist. This gives a strong impetus to have an in depth studyof the existing trends, consumption pattern, and variousenergy linkages in an urban system. The Authors havereviewed various literature—published and unpublished, inthe given context to have a better understanding of thevarious issues, concerns, development trends and energylinkages in an urban system. It is observed that the gapbetween energy demand and supply is constantly rising inIndian cities; there is a dearth of efforts to manage theenergy in an integrated manner at local level and requiresimmediate attention to the need for urban energy manage-ment at city level.

An attempt has been made in this paper to study theenergy-consumption pattern and available energy resourcesin a metropolitan city of North India—Lucknow city.Data has been collected from secondary and primarysources. Primary survey has been done to estimate theconsumption pattern of various forms of energy in thedomestic sector. The expected energy gap has beenestimated for the year 2011 A.D. in the study area. Basedon these estimations, plausible policy recommendationshave been made to fulfill this estimated energy gap andsetting of an energy management model is proposed at thecity level for optimal management of energy. For a betterunderstanding of the above issues, the paper is subdividedas follows.

2. Literature review

Literature review—one of the important aspects of aresearch study gives the necessary latest informationpertaining to the various related issues, concerns and thelatest developments at global level taken to solve the givenproblem(s) in different contexts. A number of publications,books, journals, technical papers, seminar proceedings,newsletter, unpublished project reports, Ph.D thesis, M.E.dissertation, etc., have been studied to understand theenergy sector in urban context. The study has been dealtwith under two sections as follows.

2.1. Section A: energy linkages

This deals with various energy–economy–environment,transportation linkages, latest technological advancementsin the field of energy, forecasting methods, energyconservation measures and its significance. The discussioncan be aggregated under various sub-heads.

2.1.1. Energy consumption

Man’s dependence on commercial/non-commercial en-ergy is increasing day by day with increasing urbanizationand population growth. World primary energy consump-

tion increased by 2.7 per cent in 2005, against a stronggrowth of 4.4 per cent in 2004. Growth slowed from 2004in every region and for every fuel. The strongest increase inenergy consumption was again observed in the Asia Pacificregion, which rose by 5.8 per cent, while North Americaonce more recorded the weakest growth, at 0.3 per centwhereas China accounted for more than half of globalenergy consumption growth (BP, 2006).The International Energy Outlook 2006 (IEO2006)

projects strong growth for worldwide energy demand from2003 to 2030. It projects that the total world consumptionof marketed energy will expand from 421 quadrillionBritish thermal units (Btu) in 2003 to 563 quadrillion Btu in2015 and then to 722 quadrillion Btu in 2030, or a 71 percent increase over the 2003–2030 period.The latest trend of consumption of all forms of

commercial primary energy in the Asia–Pacific regionand aggregate world trends indicate that regional primaryenergy consumption has been increasing at an averageannual rate of 5.2 per cent over the last two decades; theworld average growth rates were only 2.9 and 2.6 per centduring the same period. Despite this impressive growth inthe developing economies, the per capita consumption isstill very low as compared to the developed economies. Thetotal primary energy consumption fuel wise in variousregions of the world like, North America, South andCentral America, Europe and Eurasia, Middle East,Africa, Asia–Pacific, and Total World up to 2002 ispresented in Table 1.In India, industrial sector consumes about half of the

total final commercial energy, followed by transport sector.The energy intensity in all the sectors is very high ascompared to the developed economies (3iNetwork, 2006).Energy consumption pattern in the residential sector varieswidely not only among the rural and urban areas, but alsoacross various income classes. The heterogeneity of thesocial fabric and disparity in lifestyles result in a wide rangein the standards of living and ways of satisfying energyrequirements (TEDDY, 2004–2005).The consumption of electrical energy in India has grown

from 446,584MU in 1998–1999 to 559,264 MU in2003–2004 but the per capita electricity consumption isamong the lowest in the world (3iNetwork, 2006). The gapbetween electrical energy demand and supply was 7.3 percent in 2004/2005, with peak power shortage being as highas 11.7 per cent (TEDDY, 2004–2005). Table 2 presents thegap between energy demand and domestic production ofcoal, oil and natural gas.Myriad factors like economic output and structure,

technological progress, personal income, energy prices,lifestyles, and energy and environmental policies driveenergy consumption. The links among the factors arecomplex, and any changes in these are dependent on thetype of energy service, stage of economic development,existing infrastructure, political system, availability ofenergy resources, climate and geographic conditions, andculture (Freeman and Jamet, 1998).

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Table 1

Primary energy consumption by fuel (million tones oil equivalent)

Sl. no. Region/country Year Oil Natural gas Coal Nuclear energy Hydro-electricity Total

1 North America 2004 1134.6 707.7 603.7 210.4 143.5 2799.9

2005 1132.6 697.1 613.9 209.2 148.6 2801.3

2 South and Central

America

2004 217.9 105.9 20.4 4.4 132.6 481.2

2005 223.3 111.7 21.1 3.7 141.7 501.4

3 Europe and

Eurasia

2004 957.6 991.1 536.7 287.9 187.3 2960.6

2005 963.3 1009.7 537.5 286.3 187.2 2984.0

4 Middle east 2004 260.7 218.1 9.1 — 3.8 491.7

2005 271.3 225.9 9.0 — 3.9 510.2

5 Africa 2004 124.2 61.8 102.9 3.4 19.4 311.7

2005 129.3 64.1 100.3 2.9 19.9 316.5

6 Asia–Pacific 2004 1103.6 340.6 1526.2 119.0 156.5 3245.9

2005 1116.9 366.2 1648.1 125.0 167.4 3423.7

7 Total world 2004 3798.6 2425.2 2798.9 625.1 643.2 10291.0

2005 3836.8 247.7 2929.8 627.2 668.7 10537.1

8 India 2004 120.2 29.5 203.7 3.8 19.0 376.1

2005 115.7 33.3 212.9 4.0 21.7 387.3

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2006.

Table 2

Energy demand-supply gap: 2006–2007 and 2046–2047

Fuel 2006–7 2046–7

Demand Imports Import dependence

(per cent)

Demand Imports Import dependence

(per cent)

Oil (MT) 129 94 73 702 622 88

Coal (MT) 453 54 12 1553 953 61

Natural gas (MMSCMD) 180 81 45 550 513 93

Note: MT: metric tonnes; MMSCMD: metric million standard cubic metres per day.

Source: Pachauri and Batra (2001). DISHA (Directions, Innovations, and Strategies for Harnessing Action) for Sustainable Development, TERI, New

Delhi.

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4849

2.1.2. Energy resource assessment

Energy is at present, derived largely from fossil fuels.Major sources of conventional energy at present are crudeoil, natural gas and coal. Table 3 gives the energy reservesituation in the world as well as in the Asian and Pacificregion as of at the end of 2005.

India being one of the fastest growing economiesin the world has a fast growing energy demand fuelledby an increasing rate of industrialization and urbanization.India’s energy demand is one of the fastest growingin the world, at a projected rate of 4.6 per cent through2010. Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing70 per cent of the total primary energy production.Indian coal production stood at 6.9 per cent of the totalworld coal production in the year 2005. The countryis the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the

world. The total coal production in 2004 was 191.0mtoeand increased to 199.6mtoe in 2005, an increase of4.8 per cent. Indian coal, however, has generally lowcalorific value and high ash content (BP Statistical Review,2006).India is a net importer of crude oil and petroleum

products, giving rise to energy security concerns andvulnerability to external price and supply fluctuations.Crude production stood at 36.2MT in 2005. Consumptionof natural gas has risen from 32.7 billion m3 in 2004 to 36.6billion m3 in 2005, an increase of 12.2 per cent (BPStatistical Review, 2006). Oil demand has grown at the rateof 10 per cent per year, and electricity at an average rate of8.8 per cent since 1950. The Fossil fuel reserve andproduction in the country at the end of year 2005 ispresented in Table 4.

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Table 3

Energy reserve in the world, at the end of 2005

Sl. no. Region Oil Natural gas Coal

Amt. (1000

million tones)

R/P ratio Amt. (trillion

cubic feet)

R/P ratio Amt. (in

million tonnes)

R/P ratio

1 North America 7.8 11.9 263.3 9.9 254432 231

2 South and Central

America

14.8 40.7 247.8 51.8 19893 269

3 Europe and Eurasia 19.2 22.0 2259.4 60.3 287095 241

4 Middle East 101.2 81.0 2546.0 a 1710 a

5 Africa 15.2 31.8 508.1 88.3 50755 200

6 Asia–Pacific 5.4 13.8 523.7 41.2 296889 92

7 Total world 163.6 40.6 6348.1 65.1 909064 155

Proved reserves—generally taken to be those quantities that geological and engineering information indicates with reasonable certainty can be recovered in

the future from known reservoirs under existing economic and operating conditions.Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio—If the reserves remaining at the end

of any year are divided by the production in that year, the result is the length of time that those remaining reserves would last if production were to

continue at that level.

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2006.aOver 100 years.

Table 4

Fossil fuel reserve and production in the country at the end of 2005

Sl. no. Coal Oil Gas

1 Proved reserves 92,445 million tones 0.8 thousand million tones 1.1 trillion m3

2 Production/generation 199.6 million tones oil equivalent 36.2 million tones 30.4 billion m3

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2006.

Table 5

Renewable energy potential and achievements

Sl. no. Source/system Approximate

potential

Status (as on

31.03.2004)

Status (as on

31.03.2005)

1 Biogas plants (million) 12 3.7 3.7

2 Improved Chulha (million) 120 33.9 33.9

3 Solar water-heating systems (million m2 collector area) 140 0.8 1.0

4 Solar photovoltaic systems (MW/km2) 20 151 191

5 Biomass power/cogeneration (MW) 19,500 613 727

6 Biomass gasifiers — 58 62

7 Wind power (MW) 45,000 2483 2980

8 Small hydro power (MW) 15,000 1603 1693

9 Energy recovery from wastes (MW) 1700 41.5 46.5

Source: Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES), Annual Report 2004/2005, Government of India.

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684850

Besides these conventional energy sources, India has anabundance of renewable energy sources, e.g. sun, wind,biomass and hydro power and an estimate of the technicalpotential of the renewable energy by source wise andtechnology wise is presented in Table 5 (Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES) 2004–2005; Wein-berg, 2001).

2.1.3. Energy and economy

The intricate links between energy and the differentsectors of the economy is a well-accepted fact today.

Modern industrialized or developing societies cannotfunction without the use of large quantities of inanimateenergy. The correlation between per capita energy use andreal per capita income throughout the world is striking(TEDDY, 2004–2005). On an aggregate basis, higher useimplies higher income and vise versa. It is only at a much-disaggregated level that significant variation in thisrelationship become apparent.An increase in energy costs results in adverse impact on

the economies of practically all countries, except those ofthe oil exporters, in terms of reduced growth rates and

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output, employment and per capita income. The directeffects of energy crisis results in worsening the balance-of-payments, increase in the external debt burden and fall inreal income. Investment and economic growth fall offfollowing a major energy price increase, because ofuncertainty in the market regarding costs, interest rates,and profits, and the complimentarily between capital andenergy in short run.

The strengthening interest in promoting energy effi-ciency, energy conservation, and demand management, thesearch for new technological advances and replacement offossil-fuel-based energy system by employing alternaterenewable sources, policy measures and the huge invest-ments in this direction by economies worldwide highlightthis quintessential role of energy in the economic growthand development (Callaghan, 1981; Chaturvedi, 1999;Clark, 2001; Dhingra, 1999; Munasinghe and Schramm,1983; TEDDY, 2004–2005).

2.1.4. Energy and environment

Energy has strong socio-economic and environmentallinkages. Most of the environmental problems thatconfront mankind today are connected to the use of energyin one-way or another. There is a discernible humaninfluence on global climate (Eugene, 1975; Gopalakrishna,1996; Shreshta and Malla, 1996; 3iNetwork, 2006).

The human benefits of energy production, supply andconsumption frequently have an environmental downsidethat may in turn affect human health and quality of life.These ill effects related to increased energy use have risenconsiderably with increasing energy demand in recentdecades. Some of the problems accompanying energysupply include soil, water, air, noise pollution, ozonedepletion, greenhouse gas effects, risks of nuclear energyuse, genetic disorders, large-scale destruction of landscapesdue to the extraction of fossil-fuels, maritime pollution,ecological consequences of hydropower projects leading tomassive interference with ecosystems, catastrophic acci-dents like Chernobyl, etc. Energy development andenvironment therefore, need to be integrated and not seenas adversaries to find a way towards sustainable energydevelopment (Eugene, 1975; Mitsch, 1981; Ram, 2000;TEDDY, 2004–2005; CSE, 2006).

2.1.5. Energy and transportation

Two salient features highlighting the modern civilizationare the ever-growing magnets of urbanization and indus-trialization. Urban centers are attractive magnets for thesurrounding areas due to ample employment opportunities,better infrastructure, educational facilities, etc. An efficienttransport network becomes an inevitable necessity and itbecomes one of the biggest challenges to the Authorities ofthe urban systems. Bigger the level of urbanization andeconomy, greater is the challenge. Transport does play asignificant role in the over all development of a nation’seconomy. However, this sector also accounts for substan-tial and growing proportion of air pollution in cities. This

sector is a major consumer of petroleum fuels. Almost halfof the total consumption of petroleum products in India isattributed to the transport sector mostly in the form ofgasoline and high-speed diesel (TERI report, 1992;TEDDY, 2004–2005; 3iNetwork, 2006; CSE, 2006).Transport demand can be classified under three broad

categories depending on the lead distances, namely urbanand suburban transport, regional and national transport,and international transport. The first two categories aremore important with regard to energy consumption andenvironmental impacts. Factors like absence of goodtransport system, failure of railways to meet the increasingfreight and passenger travel demand and increasedmobility has led to increasing pressure on personalizedtransport (which is many times more energy intensivebesides the extra environmental costs). Supply security,congestion and substantial air pollution in urban areascalls for an urgent need to make the transport policysustainable and energy efficient. Various case studies donein the metropolitan cities in India suggest this direrequirement (Bose and Chary, 1993; Bose, 1996b; GOIreport 1980; CSE, 2006).Moving towards more energy intensive path put severe

strains on the balance of payments, especially for a net oilimporting country like India. Some efforts are being madein this regard but only at legal level. The NationalTransport policy is a step in this regard. Implementationefforts are however, yet to be seen (Bose, 1996a; Freemanand Jamet, 1998; Kadiyali, 1978; CSE, 2006).

2.1.6. Energy demand analysis and forecasting

A reasonable knowledge of present and past energyconsumption and future demand are primary requirementsfor energy planning. An accurate energy demand forecastsis primarily required to enable timely, reasonable andreliable availability of energy supplies to ensure properfunctioning of the economy. Errors in demand projectionslead to shortages of energy, which may have seriousrepercussions on economic growth, and development of anation.Demand forecasts can be made either on the basis of

statistical evaluation and projections of past consumptionor on the basis of specific micro studies. Popularmethodologies employed in energy forecasting includetime-series trend analysis, econometric multiple correlationforecasting, macroeconomic and input–output models,survey, etc. The simplest approach for energy demandmodeling is Time-Series trend analysis (Bargur andMandel, 1981). Regression models are also employed forforecasting the consumption of various commodities likeelectricity, coal and petroleum products (Sharma et al.,2000; Rao and Parikh, 1996; Farahbalhsh et al., 1998).Econometric models that correlate the energy demand

with other macro-economic variables are effective formedium-term forecasts, as it relates the demand in physicalterms to some socio-economic determinants (Rao andParikh, 1996; Ramaprasad, 1993). Econometric energy

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demand models are used to aid planners and policy makersin evaluating past experiences, studying the impact offuture policies and forecasting demand for planningpurposes.

A widely used modeling approach is the two-stageoptimization procedure in which the optimal amount ofaggregate energy is first determined followed by choosingthe optimal amount of fuel (Berndt and Wood,1975;Halvorsen, 1977; Elkhafif, 1993). Another forecastingmodel is based on the complete decomposition method,which allows the trend effect, the rebound effect anddematerialization/materialization to be estimated (Sun,2001).

New forecasting techniques like genetic algorithm andartificial neural networks are also being increasingly usedespecially for short-term forecasting for the demand ofelectricity (Piras, Germond, Buchenel, Imhof and Jaccard,1996; Chaturvedi et al., 1995), apart from the various linearmodels (Yang et al., 1996; Ramanathan et al., 1997).

2.1.7. Alternate energy sources and technologies

A renewed interest is being paid to alternate energysources and technologies across the globe with increasingpressure on the conventional sources of energy. Non-conventional/renewable energy technologies have a role toplay in socio-economic development (Allapat and Dikshit,1999a, b; Oliver et al., 2001; Timilsina et al., 2001). It isnecessary to use Renewable energy technologies for tworeasons:

�

Inability of conventional systems to meet the growingenergy demands in an equitable and sustainable manner;and � Large-scale adverse impacts of conventional energy

production and consumption on the physical andhuman environment.

India is the only country in the world with anindependent ministry, Ministry of Non-conventional En-ergy Sources (MNES) established in 1992, for the promo-tion of renewable energy technologies.

The key issues facing renewable energy technologiesdepend on their level of technological maturity and thekind of market they face (Agarwal and Agarwal, 1999;Gupta, 1999). Key issues in the sector are found to berelated to high initial cost of Renewable energy technol-ogies, pricing of conventional energy, lack of indigenousR&D demonstration, lack of public awareness, lack ofrequisite infrastructure, etc. (Bakhtavatsalam, 1998; Chi-ma, 1998).

2.1.8. Energy conservation and demand-side management

(DSM)

Energy conservation in its most general sense is definedas the deliberate reduction in the use of energy below somelevel that would prevail otherwise. Usually, such reductionrequires some tradeoffs in terms of comfort, convenience,

or the use of additional capital or labor (Kumar, 1992;Munasinghe and Schramm, 1983; 3iNetwork, 2006).There are two aspects of conservation; one in which less

energy is used with no sacrifice on the part of the individualquestions of economy and technology. The second aspectof energy conservation involves some sacrifice on the partof the user. There is however, a limit beyond whichconservation measures may become too costly in terms offoregoing other resources or useful outputs, therebycausing more harms than good (TERI report, 1997).Energy conservation is the demand of the time and a

means to save the man’s ‘‘fuel-powered’’ ecosystem.Improvement in energy efficiency brings ‘‘win–win’’ solu-tion, in that they bring environmental and economicbenefits at the same time. It weakens the link betweenenergy demand and economic growth, and delays the needfor new capacity (Dhingra, 1999; Flaming, 2000; Maniwlaand Prasad, 1996).DSM is a broad term used often in place of energy

efficiency and vise versa. It covers all means of influencingthe magnitudes and patterns of energy consumption. Twotypes of tools namely, hard and soft are used for DSM. Thehard policy tools like physical controls, technical methodsand directed investments are more effective in the shortrun. The soft policy tools include pricing, financialincentives, education and propaganda and have a greaterimpact in the long run. Both the techniques need to becarefully coordinated (Munasinghe and Schramm, 1983;TERI report, 1997; 3iNetwork, 2006).

2.2. Section B: energy management in India

This section deals with a broader outlook of the energymanagement measures taken in the country, their criticalappraisal and the legislative framework of energy sector.

2.2.1. Energy management measures in India

India ranked fifth in the world in terms of energyconsumption, accounting for 3.7 per cent of total worldprimary energy consumption in 2005 (BP, 2006). The totalprimary energy consumption grew at the rate of 2.98 percent from 2004 to 2005. Import dependence for oil, coaland natural gas are estimated to be 73, 12 and 45 per cent,respectively in the year 2006–2007 and likely to grow to 88,61 and 93 per cent, respectively in the year 2046–2047(Pachauri and Batra, 2001). Inspite of the increasing energydemand and import dependence, the nation’s energyintensity is very high. It is 3.7 times of Japan, 1.5 timesof the USA and 1.4 times of an average Asian country(GOC, 2005). India’s key energy policy goal in the nextdecade therefore, calls to improve energy management.Success in this effort will buy time for expanding sources ofsupply, a task that requires both deft diplomacy and amore user-friendly business environment in India.

2.2.1.1. Management of electricity. Electricity as a subjectis in the concurrent list of constitution of India. It means

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that both the Union and the State Governments canformulate policies and laws on the subject but theresponsibility of implementation rests with the States.Distribution of electricity in particular comes in thedomain of the States. India’s’ strategy for improvingenergy management focuses chiefly on the State electricityboards that supply power around the country. Theelectricity sector is by law entrusted chiefly to India’s StateElectricity Boards (SEBs). Of the 27 SEBs, 18 have beenfound to fail in the comprehensive financial viability test.The India government figures show SEB transmission anddistribution losses at 23 per cent in 2000, but expertssuspect losses are underreported (Prayas, 2003).

The reforms in power sector started in 1991 with openingof generation to private participation, as it was thoughteasy to implement. However, the private sector was muchmore expensive than SEBs own power. Slowly the policymakers realized that the problem lies with States and thatwithout comprehensive reforms in Transmission andDistribution reforms in power sector would remain adistant dream. With this realization came the passing ofElectricity Act, 2003. The Electricity Act, 2003 seeks tobring about qualitative transformation of the electricitysector through a new paradigm shift. It distances theGovernment from regulations and replaces the ElectricityAct, 1910, the Electricity Supply Act, 1948 and theElectricity Regulatory Commissions Act, 1998. It providesfor an enabling framework for accelerated and moreefficient development of the power sector. It calls forunbundling of SEBs; preparation of National Electricitypolicy by the Central Government once in 5 years inconsultation with Central Electricity Authority and StateGovernments; availability-based tariff, curtailment ofsubsidies in electricity applications in agriculture anddomestic sectors and differential pricing (3iNetwork,2006). It also provides a highly liberal framework forgeneration. Grid inter-connections for captive generatorsare also facilitated as per Section 30 of the Act. The Actmandates non-discriminatory open access in transmission.The Electricity Act, 2003 also provides for mechanisms like‘‘Coordination Forum’’ and ‘‘Advisory Committees’’ tofacilitate consultative process.

2.2.1.2. National electricity policy. The National Electri-city policy was introduced in the year 2005, as per Section 3of the Electricity Act, 2003. The policy has set specificobjectives for the country such as, power demand to befully met by 2012, per capita availability of power to rise toover 1000 units by 2012 and the commercial viability andfinancial turnaround of the SEBs. The policy aims toinclude development of a national grid and private–publiccooperation in Transmission and Distribution, open accessto distribution for bulk consumers, emphasis on renovationand modernization, financial support for reforming utili-ties, increased use of technology and increased researchand development efforts and energy-efficiency measures.

2.2.1.3. Rural electrification policy. Rural electrificationpolicy was introduced in the year 2006 as per Sections 4and 5 of the Electricity Act, 2003. The Policy aims at:

�

Provision of access to electricity to all rural householdsby year 2009. � Quality and reliable power supply at reasonable rates. � Minimum lifeline consumption of 1 unit per household

per day as a merit good by year 2012.

2.2.1.4. Energy management services in India. As per theIndian Ministry of Power estimates, there is an averagenational energy loss at 21 per cent and peak powershortage at more than 12 per cent. Such high figures oughtto make India a hotbed of energy management services(EMS) market. However, in spite of the reforms era since1991, the EMS market has been anything but impressive(Kumar, 2001).International Energy Services Company (INTESCO) of

USA has been the first to enter the EMS market in India,along with other players like Thermax-Energy performanceServices, DCM-Shriram, Saha Sprigue, etc. Industryassociations like the Confederation of Indian Industries(CII) and Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce andIndustry (FICCI) have their own energy management cellsthat double up as ESCOs, albeit with a limited mandate ofadvising the member organizations on energy management.The market is, thus, split between independent serviceproviders, industry association affiliated consultants andenergy management divisions of large industrial organiza-tions, each addressing their own niche segments. Suchfragmentation has impeded the development of energystandards and discouraged smaller end-users from out-sourcing energy management.

2.2.1.5. Energy Conservation Act, 2001. Energy Conser-vation Act, 2001 seeks to maximize the energy efficiency inthe country through a systematic approach. The importantobjectives of the Energy Conservation Act are:

�

Establishment of Bureau of Energy EfficiencyUnder the provisions of the Act, Bureau of EnergyEfficiency (BEE) has been established by mergingerstwhile Energy Management Centre of Ministry ofPower. The Bureau is responsible for implementation ofpolicy programmes, co-ordination and implementationof energy conservation activities. The functions of BEEare that of a regulatory body, market development,information management and other enabling functions. � Prescribe energy consumption norms and direct any

consumer to furnish energy-related information.

� Energy consumption standards and labeling for equip-

ment and appliances and dissemination of informationon the benefits to the consumers.

� Designated consumers (like energy intensive industries,

railways, Port Trust, transport sectors, power stations,

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commercial establishments, etc.) to meet specific energyconsumption norms.

� Certification of energy managers and accreditation of

energy auditing firms.

� Prescribe energy conservation building codes and

enforcing compliance to: building codes, mandatorynorms, mandatory energy audit regime, and energyefficiency measure implementation.

� Levy penalties (Company as well as individuals in

Company).

� Adjudication and appellate procedures. � Training in techniques for efficient use of energy and its

conservation.

�

• Water supply

• Housing

• Roads

• Solid waste management

• Sewerage, drainage and

sanitation

• Energy

- Electricity

- Petroleum products

like Petrol, diesel,

LPG, kerosene, etc.

- Natural gas

- Charcoal, Coal

- Biomass fuels

Physical

Social

Economic

EcologyEnvironme

nt

Infrastructure

Institution

Fig. 1. Urban system with energy interactions.

Awareness and dissemination, pilot project demonstra-tion and innovative financing.

2.2.2. Energy management at city level

Having studied the various energy reforms and variousenergy management measures at National and State levelprescribed through various Acts and policies in theaforementioned section, an attempt has been furthermade to study energy management at city level. Most ofIndian cities do not even have the basic details ofprojections and estimates of their energy requirementsfor various forms of energy. There is no strategicenergy management plan to deal with probable shortagesand for demand-supply management of various formsof energy (Kalra and Shekhar, 2006). No efforts haveyet been adopted for a holistic and integrated managementof energy at city level in India. The measures so far takenare found to be piecemeal and taken for various sub-systems of the urban system separately. Some noticeablemeasures are taken by agencies like Alliance to SaveEnergy, Conserve, etc. There is however, dearth of effortsat an integrated level to optimally manage energy invarious sectors.

3. Systems concept

Systems approach, (Ackoff, 1971; Batty, 1974; Berta-lanffy, 1968; Chadwick, 1971; Checkland, 1981; Coyle,1977; Forrester, 1961, 1969; Mohapatra, 1994; Sterman,2000; Ogata, 2004; Wolstenholme, 1990) establishes thestrong relationship between different subsystems in a givensystem, and all the subsystems function as an integralwhole in a system. In this, system concept is used tounderstand the functions of the urban system with all itssubsystems. The urban system has the following subsys-tems, such as, Physical, Social, Economic, Ecology,Environment, Infrastructure and Institution, and all thesesubsystems function together. All these subsystems areinterlinked and interdependent on each other and form anintegral whole. If one of the sub-systems defunct or takelead role (advanced functions) during the system function,its effects can be seen in the entire system, over a period oftime.

Further, an attempt is, hereby, made to understand thesignificance of the energy as a part of the urban systemusing the systems concept and its theoretical conceptuali-zation is presented in Fig. 1. Energy is undoubtedly theprecursor for the functioning, growth and development ofany system. It comes under the sub-system Infrastructureand has strong linkages with all the subsystems as discussedin the subsequent section.All the sub-systems of the urban system are directly or

indirectly dependent on energy for their functions. Acontinuous supply of uninterrupted energy is a must for thesmooth functioning of the system. Different types of energyare used at different levels to satisfy the energy require-ment. The types of energy use changes with the usage,technology adoption at the end user level, tariff rate ofenergy, etc. Electricity, petroleum products, natural gas,coal, and biomass fuels are the main energy sources used inour country. Electricity is the prime necessity for themachines to function. There can be no industrial develop-ment in case of its shortage or absence. Even domesticsector and commercial sectors are heavily dependent on it.In case of transportation of goods and passengers, theabsence of electricity can create chaos in the whole urbansystem. Petroleum products like, diesel, petroleum,

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4855

kerosene and LPG are quintessential necessities for thetransportation system (public and private), domestic sectorand to some extent the commercial sector. There is anincreasing use of natural gas in public transport system andindustrial sector. Similarly, the power plants and otherindustries are heavily dependent on a regular supply ofcoal. The vast section of rural areas and a small section ofurban system living at subsistence level are dependent onbiomass-based fuels. It is thus, clear that all the sectors ofan urban system are heavily dependent on a regularuninterrupted supply of energy in its various forms. Anyshortage in its supply therefore, results in loss of economy,disruption of transport system which is the lifeline of anyurban system; the other infrastructure services also getdisrupted like, water supply, sewerage, drainage, treatmentof wastes, etc., the social sector and institutional sector alsogets affected. Low energy consumption, though, not acause of poverty, the lack of available energy services,however, correlates closely with many poverty indicators.A major section of people living below poverty rely onbiomass fuels and traditional technologies for cooking andheating. This section often pays a higher price per unit ofenergy services than do the rich. They also spend more timeobtaining these energy services and rely on resource-scarceand polluting ways of converting energy for services likecooking, drinking water, heating and lighting, all of whichhave associated health impacts.

Thus, all the systems either stop to function altogether orthey function with a lot of disturbances. The whole urbansystem thus revolves and rotates around a regular supply ofenergy in the desired quantity and quality for its survival aswell as growth and development. Energy is the pivot of anurban system. Its importance has become more pro-nounced in today’s world when our urban systems areincreasingly becoming techno-savvy and energy intensive.

4. Energy management in Lucknow city

With this knowledge, the Authors in the next sectionshave attempted to study the energy consumption, demandpattern for a typical metropolitan Indian city as a casestudy, using primary and secondary sources of data,estimating the shortages in the year 2011 A.D. and givingrecommendations and policy guidelines to be adopted forthe energy management in the study area.

4.1. Study area profile

Lucknow city, the capital of Uttar Pradesh State is theurban system taken for this investigation. The city lies inthe center of the Indo-Gangetic plains on the banks of theriver Gomti between 26.531N latitude and 80.561E long-itude and has sub-tropical monsoon type climate. Thelocation of the study area is presented in Fig. 2.

Lucknow Urban Agglomeration has an area of337.5 km2, out of which the area under the MunicipalCorporation limits is 310.1 km2 while the rest 27.4 km2

comes under the Cantonment. The total population of thecity grew from 1.619 million in 1991 to 2.207 million in2001. The city, being a capital city, is an administrativecenter commanding and influencing a vast region. It is animportant educational and commercial center with negli-gible industries.

4.2. Methodology

Random sampling technique has been adopted to carryout the required primary survey in the study area. The areacoming under the jurisdiction of Municipal Corporationhas been considered for investigation. For the purpose ofhaving good development administration, the municipalarea is divided into six administrative zones and 110 wards.The Investigators have studied carefully the zonal admin-istrative boundaries and the ward boundaries to have equalrepresentation in the survey among different socio-economic groups. Further, four zones are selected purpo-sely since the other two zones are almost identical toselected zones and is presented in Fig. 3. These all selectedzones have good number of wards, of which 20 wards arechosen by employing random sampling technique, whichrepresent all selected four zones. Further, 100 householdswere chosen from all the selected wards by employingrandom sampling techniques to conduct the survey and themethod employed for selecting the households is presentedin Fig. 4.The surveyed houses have been classified intovarious income groups with annual income less than Rs.60,000, Rs. 60,000–1,20,000, Rs. 1,20,000–2,00,000 andgreater than Rs 2,00,000 per annum. An attempt has beenmade to achieve an exact representation of various groupsas they actually exist.

4.3. Assessment of available energy resources

The primary requirement for preparation of an optimalenergy management plan of a city is to rightly assess theavailability of energy resources in the existing system. Thisincludes the conventional supply of energy in the existingsystem as well as the potential sources (explored andunexplored) which can be used to augment the energysupply. Based on the existing supply, estimates can bemade about the gap between energy demand and supply inthe future.Energy use at the local level is classified into fuel wood,

charcoal, coal, petroleum products, and electricity. Thesetypes of energy are transported and distributed by variousagencies (Central government agencies, State governmentagencies, private contractors, etc.) for using the same indomestic, commercial, industrial and transport sectors.Owing to the great difficulties in getting data for bio-fuels(firewood, chips, charcoal, etc., for which market is highlyunorganized) and kerosene consumption, they have notbeen considered for assessment in the given investigation.The following section deals with assessment of current andpotential energy sources for Lucknow city:

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 2. Location of study area: Lucknow.

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684856

(1)

Electricity: The authority responsible for supplyingelectricity to the city is Uttar Pradesh State ElectricityBoard (UPSEB). The city receives its supply formthe Singrauli thermal power plant of the northern grid.The requirement of electricity in the city is not veryhigh as the city lacks industrial base. The year wiseelectricity consumption in the city is presented inTable 6.The table clearly illustrates that domestic sector is thebiggest consumer of electricity in the city, followed bythe commercial sector. The low electricity consumptionin industrial sector is a clear representative of the non-

industrial nature of the city. It is also observed thatthere was a tremendous increase of 101 per cent inelectricity consumption from 1995–1996 to 1998–1999.The increase in consumption in the later years is lesserand gradual. The total electricity consumption for theyear 2000–2001 stood at 1520MU.

(2)

Petrol and diesel: The city is supplied with petrol anddiesel by four oil companies viz., Indian Oil Corpora-tion, Bharat Petroleum, Hindustan Petroleum, andIndo-Burma Petroleum. At present, the city is supplied71,755KL (kiloliter) or 53,809 kgoe (kilogram oilequivalent) of petrol and 136,831KL of diesel from

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 3. Zones selected for household survey in Lucknow city.

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4857

the various oil companies to the petrol pumps, which issufficient for the present requirement of the city.The annual supply of petrol and diesel by differentoil companies in the year 2000–2001 is presented inTable 7. The demand for petrol and diesel has beenfound to be increasing at the rate of 6 and 10 per centper annum, respectively. The table clearly illustratesthat of the total supply, the maximum contribution isby Indian Oil Corporation followed by Bharat Petro-leum Corporation.

(3)

Liquid petroleum gas (LPG): The city is supplied LPGby two oil companies viz., Indane and BharatPetroleum. The present requirement for LPG in thecity is fully satisfied. At present, there are 35 gasagencies spread all over the city. The city was supplied96,821MT (year 2001) of LPG by the two companies tothe gas agencies.

(4)

Solid waste (generation and collection): The per capita/day waste generation in the city is estimated at 650 gand daily waste generation rate of the city is estimatedto be 1500MT, of which about 900–1050 tons of wasteis claimed to be collected by the Municipal Corpora-tion, which includes domestic, trade, market, institu-tional and construction waste.

4.4. Assessment of energy consumption pattern

A typical Indian urban system is a heterogeneous mix ofvarying energy consumption pattern amongst varioussections of society and in different sectors. Greater is thesize of urban center; greater is its energy requirement. Evenamong the urban centers of same size and population, greatvariations are found with regard to energy consumption. A

ARTICLE IN PRESS

(12) (19) (16)

(3)

(20)

Municipal Corporation Area Cantonment Area

Zones

(6)

Wards

(110)

Selected

Wards

(20)

Selected

Households

(100)

Lucknow Agglomeration

(17) (15) (23)

(6) (6) (5)

(28) (27) (25)

Fig. 4. Flowchart showing the selected households of random sample survey.

Table 6

Electricity consumption (MU) pattern in Lucknow city

Sl.

no.

Sector 1995–1996 1998–1999 1999–2000 2000–2001

1 Commercial 110 179 198 235

2 Domestic 326 685 802 899

3 Small/medium

industries

33 46 66 49

4 Large and heavy

industries

56 117 128 113

5 Public tubewells 45 106 66 101

6 Street light 17 40 29 41

7 Jal Sansthan 15 60 60 63

8 State tubewells and

pump canals

13 15 15 15

9 World Bank tubewell 5 4 4 4

Total 620 1252 1368 1520

Percentage increase in

electricity consumption

— 101.0 9.3 11.1

Source: Lucknow Electricity Supply Authority (LESA), Lucknow.

Table 7

Annual supply of petrol (2000–2001)

Sl.

no.

Oil company Petrol supply

(KL)

% Diesel

supply (KL)

%

1 Indian Oil

Corporation

(IOC)

23,958 33.4 62,213 45.5

2 Bharat Petroleum

Corporation

(BPC)

20,340 28.3 24,962 18.2

3 Hindustan

Petroleum

corporation

(HPC)

16,010 22.3 25,931 19.0

4 Indo-Burma

Petroleum (IBP)

11,447 16.0 23,725 17.3

Total 71,755 100.0 136,831 100.0

Source: Sales data, Divisional Office, Indian Oil, Lucknow.

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684858

number of factors are responsible for this, such as, urbanform, type of transport system and management,modern technology penetration and adoption, priceof fuels, economic base, economic status of people,lifestyle, awareness regarding energy–environment lin-kages, etc. Domestic and transport sectors are consideredto be two great energy consumers and have beenconsidered to study the energy consumption pattern inthis investigation.

4.4.1. Domestic sector

The energy consumption pattern and the sources ofenergy are varying and it is directly related to income,living standard and various other factors, which helped inarriving at plausible recommendations in the later part ofthe study.

�

Number of households and population distribution:In the present study, 100 households have beensurveyed from different parts of the city. The surveyedschedules are classified into four groups on the basisof their income, and the results are presented inTable 8.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 10a

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4859

�

Tab

Nu

(inc

Sl.

no.

1

2

3

4

Sou

Tab

Nu

(inc

Sl.

no

1

2

3

4

Sou

Availability of appliances in the sample survey in Lucknow in the year

2001 (income in Rs/year)

Appliances Income Total

o60,000

60,000–1.2

lacs

1.2–2

lacs

42

lacs

No. of fridge 1 30 32 45 108

Per HH 0.05 1.11 1.19 1.80

No of immersion rod 11 14 10 0 35

Per HH 0.52 0.51 0.37 0

Vehicular distribution: Lucknow, though a capital statelacks a good public transportation system. The people,therefore, prefer to use personal vehicles. The distribu-tion of vehicles in different income groups of the samplehousehold is presented in Table 9. It shows a highpercentage of two-wheelers. The ownership of vehiclesshows an increasing trend along with increase in income.The higher income groups prefer four-wheelers for goingto work place and nearby towns, whereas for marketthey prefer using two-wheelers. The lower income grouppeople are more dependent on two-wheelers and publictransportation.

No. of A.C 0 2 6 24 32

� Per HH 0.00 0.07 0.22 0.96

No. of geyser 0 4 24 28 56

Per HH 0 0.15 0.89 1.12

No of computer 0 8 12 20 40

Per HH 0.00 0.29 0.44 0.80

No. of stereo 13 27 32 32 102

Per HH 0.62 1.00 1.19 1.20

No. of T.V 18 28 36 45 127

Per HH 0.86 1.04 1.33 1.80

No of mixer 1 20 30 29 80

Per HH 0.04 0.74 1.11 1.16

No. of oven 0 7 16 18 41

Number of appliances: Application of appliances is oneof the important factors, which vary in accordance withtheir income. Higher-income group people tend to usemore sophisticated appliances. More number of appli-ances means higher consumption of energy. Theavailability of different types of appliances has beencarefully studied (Table 10a and b). The availability of12 types of commonly used appliances have been studiedviz., fridge, immersion rod, air conditioner, mixer,computer, audio system, television, geyser, oven, LPGstove, washing machine, and generator. The number ofappliances availability is more as one moves up theincome ladder.

� Per HH 0.00 0.26 0.59 0.72

No. of cooler 18 55 64 32 169

Consumption pattern of electricity: Electricity is one ofthe most widely used commercial energy in the urbansystem. It is available in refined form, and hence it is

le 8

mber of households in the sample survey in Lucknow in the year 2001

ome in Rs/year)

Income Total no. of

households

Percentage Population %age Household

size

o 60,000 21 21.0 127 27.5 6.05

60,000–1.2

lacs

27 27.0 102 22.0 3.78

1.2–2 lacs 27 27.0 115 24.4 4.25

4 2 lacs 25 25.0 118 25.6 4.72

Total 100 100.0 462 100.0

rce: Field survey conducted by the Investigators in Lucknow in 2001.

le 9

mber of vehicles in the sample survey in Lucknow in the year 2001

ome in Rs/year)

Income Total no.of

HHs

No. of

cars

Per

HH

No of 2-

wheelers

Per

HH

o 60,000 21 0 0 4 0.19

60,000–1.2

lacs

27 0 0 28 1.04

1.2–2 lacs 27 18 0.67 37 1.37

42 lacs 25 29 1.16 43 1.72

Total 100 47 112

rce: Field survey conducted by the Investigators in Lucknow in 2001.

Per HH 0.86 2.04 2.37 1.28

No. of washing

machine

0 17 26 25 68

Per HH 0.00 0.63 0.96 1.00

No of LPG stove 20 27 28 27 102

Per HH 0.95 1.00 1.04 1.08

No. of generator 0 0 6 12 18

Per HH 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.48

Source: Field survey conducted by the Investigators in Lucknow in 2001.

Table 10b

Average time of usage of electric appliances in the sample survey in

Lucknow in the year 2001

Sl. no. Appliances Average usage per day (hours)

1 Lights 8.54

2 Fans 14.95

3 Heaters 2.58

4 Coolers 4.70

Source: Field survey conducted by the Investigators in Lucknow in 2001.

very easy to use, as compared to other energy resources.More electrical energy-based appliances are being usedwith technology improvement. Consumption pattern ofelectricity at household level has been studied carefullyand presented in Table 11. The table illustrates that theper capita electricity consumption is increasing along

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Ta

Co

yea

Sl.

no.

1

2

3

4

Sou

Ta

Co

Sl.

1

2

3

4

Sou

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684860

with the increase in income, highlighting the strong linkbetween electricity consumption and income.

� Consumption pattern of petrol and diesel: Lucknow city

has radial pattern. The work nodes are centered sopeople have to come from far off places to these centralnodes. Petrol consumption is high in this sector whilediesel use is less as presented in Table 12. The tableindicates the lack of a strong public transport systemand high ownership and usage of personalized vehiclesby the high-income group people in the system.

� Consumption pattern of LPG: LPG is mainly used in

domestic sector. The consumption pattern of LPG in thesample households is shown in the Table 13. The tableillustrates that the LPG consumption increases withincrease in income. Higher income groups use moreLPG, although they have more electronic gadgets likeovens, microwave, etc., but they do not use them often.

4.4.2. Traffic and transportation profile of Lucknow city

Energy and transportation have strong linkages. Adetailed study has therefore, been considered in this study.The salient features of the study pertaining to transporta-tion can be enlisted as follows:

(i)

b

n

r

r

b

n

n

r

Roads� Road network

There are nine regional roads available in the city.The road network is radial in nature. The outer ringis incomplete and broken at many places.

le 1

sum

200

Inc

o60,

lac

1.2

42

To

ce:

le 1

sum

o.

ce:

1

ption pattern of electricity in the sample survey in Lucknow in the

1 (income in Rs/year)

ome Qty. of electricity used

(units/month)

Percentage Per capita consumption

(units/month)

60,000 1155 4.9 9.09

000–1.2

s

5960 25.8 58.43

–2 lacs 7175 30.9 62.39

lacs 8900 38.4 75.42

tal 23,190 100.0

Field survey conducted by the Investigators in Lucknow in 2001.

2

ption pattern of petrol and diesel in the sample survey in Lucknow in the

Income Consumption of

petrol/month

(litres)

Per centage Per ca

consum

(liters/

o 60,000 80 3.3 0.63

60,000–1.2 lacs 560 23.3 5.49

1.2–2 lacs 852 35.5 7.41

42 lacs 908 37.9 7.69

Total 2400 100.0

Field survey conducted by the Investigators in Lucknow in 2001.

Tab

Con

2001

Sl.

no.

1

2

3

4

Sour

� Transport modes and growth of vehiclesJ Main public modes: city bus, tempo, cycle

rickshaw, carts.J Heterogeneity of traffic with as many as 14

modes, from a hand-pulled cart loaded withheavy weight to heavy trucks or buses.

J Predominance of slow moving vehicles nearly 70per cent.

J Private modes—both slow and fast predominantover the public modes.

J Share of public slow mode is higher than thepublic fast mode.

� Traffic scenario/problemsJ Ring road consisting of all major roads viz.

Hardoi, Kanpur, Faizabad, Sitapur, etc. origi-nate from city center or converge to the city fromdifferent directions.

J Overloading on inner ring road consistingof Station Road, Vidhan Sabha Marg, M.G.Marg.

J Incomplete outer ring road causes by-passabletraffic pass through the city.

J Inadequate right-of-way of almost all roads in thecentral area poses a constraint for capacityexpansion.

J Most of the existing road bridges are overloaded.J Main junctions/intersections within the city over-

loaded.J Heterogeneous mix of traffic on major roads.J Absence of pedestrian footpaths, slow moving

yea

pita

pt

mo

le 1

sum

(in

ce:

r 20

ion

nth)

3

pti

com

In

o60

1.

4

To

Fie

01 (income in Rs/year)

Consumption of

diesel/month

(litres)

Percentage Per capita

consumption

(liters/month)

0 0.0 0.00

0 0.0 0.00

64 64.0 0.56

0 0.0 0.00

64 100.0

on pattern of LPG in the sample survey in Lucknow in the year

e in Rs/year)

come No. of LPG

cylinders used/

month

Percentage Per capita

consumption

(kg/month)

60,000 12.65 11.5 1.41

,000–1.2 lacs 29.00 26.0 4.04

2–2 lacs 32.80 29.5 4.05

2 lacs 36.70 33.0 4.42

tal 111.15 100.0

ld survey conducted by the Investigators in Lucknow in 2001.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 14

Estimated emissions of pollutants from vehicles, year 2000–2001

Sl.

no.

Type of

pollutant

Total daily

emissions (t/day)

(%)

Share of loading by different

modes in t/day

Gasoline driven

vehicles (%)

Diesel driven

vehicles (%)

1 CO 38.3 30.8 7.5

(46.4) (58.8) (28.0)

2 HC 23.1 21.6 1.5

(28.0) (41.2) (5.6)

3 NOx 12.5 2.0 10.5

(15.2) (3.8) (39.2)

4 SPM 7.0 1.2 5.8

(8.5) (2.3) (21.6)

5 SOx 1.6 0.1 1.5

(1.9) (1.9) (5.6)

Total 82.5 52.4 26.8

(100.0) (100.0) (100.0)

Source: Estimated by the Investigators based on the number of vehicles

registered with RTO Lucknow for the year 2000–2001.

Table 15

Estimated energy demand by various technologies and modes (2000–2001)

Energy

type

Type of

vehicles

Energy demand by various

technologies and mode (KL)

Percentage of

the total

Gasoline

(petrol)

2-wheeler 31,740.5 15.2

3-wheeler 12,098.0 5.8

Car, jeep

and taxi

27,910.5 13.4

Total 71,755.0 34.4

Diesel Car, jeep

and taxi

77,048.1 36.9

Bus,

minibus

40,921.7 19.6

Others 18,862.0 9.1

Total 136,831.0 65.6

Total 208,586.0 100.0

Source: Estimated by the Investigators based on the number of vehicles

registered with RTO Lucknow for the year 2000–2001.

H. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4861

traffic lanes and other facilities on major arterialand sub-arterial roads.

J Lack of parking facilities.J Lack of proper control and traffic management

measures.J Heavy encroachment on main and secondary

streets.J Obstruction to traffic from electric and telephone

poles on carriageway.J Poor intersection geometrics and inadequate

control system.J Lack of public awareness about traffic regulation

and rules.J Waiting/loading/unloading of passengers by tem-

pos, Tata Sumos and buses create problems onintersections.

J Being a capital city and center stage of politics, alot of rallies and processions carried out byvarious political parties take place in the centralcore area creating acute traffic chaos.

� Speed and delayIt has been observed that there is a low journeyspeed of traffic stream particularly in the core areaof the city; on an average of 5–10 km/h during peakhours. Some of the reasons for low speed are highvolume of slow traffic, inadequate carriageway,encroachment along the roads and poor roadsurface. Speed in newly developed parts of the citylike Mahanagar, Indira nagar, Gomti nagar, etc., iscomparatively high.� Emission from vehicles

Vehicular emissions are assuming alarming propor-tions in urban area. Emissions causing concerns arecarbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, unburnt hydro-carbons, and particulates. Annual emissions of thefive criteria pollutants CO, HC, NOx, SPM and SO2

by different modes and technologies of transport areestimated by using the following equation, and ispresented in Table 14:

P ¼ Nij Ei EF i,

where P denotes emissions expressed in gms/day;Nij denotes vehicles of type i in year j; Ei denoteseffective kms traveled per day per vehicle; EFi

denotes emission factors (gm/km) of vehicle of typei.� Energy consumption by different modes of transport

The energy consumption by different modes oftransport has been calculated using the followingequation:

Vij ¼ Nij Ei � 365,

Fij ¼ V ij=FEi,

where Nij denotes vehicles of type i in year j; Ei

denotes effective kms traveled per day; Vij denotesno. of kms traveled annually by vehicles of type i;FEi denotes fuel efficiency of vehicles (kms/litre); Fij

denotes fuel consumed by vehicles of type I in year j.The total energy demand by various vehicles in theyear 2000–2001 is estimated using the aboveformulae and presented in Table 15.

(ii)

RailwaysLucknow has two railway corridors of the Northernand North-eastern railways passing through the wholecity, cutting old parts as well as newly developed areas.There is great potential of using it for intra citytransport which will eventually save energy spent inpersonalized transport.

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684862

4.5. Forecasting the demand and supply of energy

Having knowledge of the potential demand for variousfuels and energy types and the then prevalent supply ofenergy, if the conditions remain unchanged, is quintessen-tial for any policy preparation. Owing to the rapid rate ofchange due to various factors, the forecasting has beendone only for a short period, year 2001–2011.

�

Ta

Est

Sl.

1

2

3

4

Sou

Population: Time series data of Lucknow city show thatthe population growth follows a polynomial threedegree curve. It is given by the following equation:

y ¼ �15; 777x3 þ 227; 946x2 � 498; 423xþ 966; 258,

R2 ¼ 0:9907.

Using the above equation, the forecasted populationin the year 2011 will be 27,50,000 and the total increasein population will be 5,64,073.

�

Table 17

Estimated cost-benefit analysis of LFG extraction

Sl. no. Unit

Electricity, petrol, diesel and LPG: The estimatedrequirements and shortfall of electricity, petrol, dieseland LPG are presented in Table 16.

4.6. Optimal energy management in Lucknow city

In the light of the studies taken in detail for domestic andtransport sectors, the two major consumers of energy, aplausible set of policy guidelines has been proposed forfeasible and workable management of energy in Lucknowcity. The recommendations can be put under three broadcategories viz.,

1 Amount of waste left for disposal per year Tonne/

year

492,750

2 Total amount of waste at the end of 8 years (a) tonne 3,942,000

(i)

ble

im

no

rc

Methods of supply augmentation.

3 Annual gas production m3 LFG 15,214,737

(ii) Energy efficiency and conservation measures/ DSM. 4 Power generator effect (b) kW 3,111 (iii) 5 Annual predicted power production(c) kWh 24,891,564

6 Investment extraction system US$ 834,600

Policy measures to be taken by the GovernmentAuthorities.

7 Investment: gas engine/generator US$ 2,311,200

8 Planning, design, engineering US$ 834,600

9 Total investments (d) US$ 3,980,400

10 Investment costs per kW installed (d/b) US$/kWh 1279

11 Investment costs per tonne of waste (d/a) US$/tonne 1.01

12 Annual operation and maintenance costs (approx.) US$ 500,000

4.6.1. Methods of supply augmentation

This section primarily deals with augmentation ofelectricity supply through non-conventional technologiesand innovative methods.

13 Total operation and maintenance costs (20 yrs) (g) US$ 10,000,000

14 Sales price for electricity (h) (Rs 3.9/kWh) US$/kWh 0.086

15 Annual revenue from energy sale (i) ¼ (c)� (h) US$/year 2,140,674

� 16 Total revenue per tonne of waste (k) ¼ (20� (i)/(a)) US$/tonne 10.86

17 Revenue balance (k)—(((d)+(g))/(a)) US$/tonne 7.31

Source: Prepared by the Investigators.

Setting up of landfill gas (LFG) recovery plant inLucknowLandfill mining has the capacity to reduce the volume ofwastes by 30–60 per cent. Besides, in energy starved city,

16

ated requirement and shortfall of electricity, petrol, diesel and LPG in 2011

. Energy type Unit Req in 2001 Req in 2

Electricity MWh 1,403,307 4,258,980

Petrol KL 84,886 257,730

Diesel KL 136,831 354,904

LPG MT 95,885 112,200

e: Calculated by the Investigators based on discussion in the text.

the extraction of landfill gas for electricity productioncan bring extra dividends. The estimated cost-benefitanalysis of landfill gas extraction assuming that the totalwaste collected (after recycling by informal sector) goesto the landfills, is presented in Table 17. It has beenassumed that 10 per cent of the total waste generatedgoes for recycling by informal sector (waste pickers,itinerant waste buyers, dealers, and manufacturers, etc.).The table clearly illustrates that there is a net profit ofUS$ 7.31 per tonne of waste (INR 328/tonne). Thus, anestimated 24,891MWh of electricity can be generatedannually if landfill gas is extracted and used for powerproduction.

� Mini hydel at thermal power plant cooling water tail-

endsMini hydel potential at thermal power plant coolingwater tail ends is a potential source of energy retrieval,efficiency and conservation. Studies conducted by theUttar Pradesh State Electricity board (UPSEB) show apotential of 3.0, 1.5 and 0.25MW, respectively atSingrauli, Rihand and Unchahar thermal power plants.This will reduce the prevalent energy gap (2001) by7.6 per cent and the future energy gap (2011) by1.2 per cent.

011 Estimated

shortfall in 2011

Assumed average growth rate per

capita per annum for projections (%)

3,359,889 10

185,975 6

218,073 10

16,314 3

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4863

�

Power generation from cogeneration projectsA cogeneration facility is one, which simultaneouslyproduces two or more forms of useful energy such aselectric power and steam, electric power and shaftpower, etc. Such facilities, due to their ability to utilizethe available energy in more than one form, usesignificantly less fuel input to produce energy thanwould be needed otherwise.Sugar industry is a potential source of bagasse-basedcogeneration. There is a potential of 600–700MW ofpower production in these sugar mills, as per an estimate(1994–1995). Even if 10 per cent of this is achieved in 5years, supply augmentation will be of the order of60MW and can fill a major portion of city’s prevalentand future energy gap.Besides, there is a huge potential of cogeneration inother industries in the state like, pulp and paper, cement,chemical, etc., which have not yet been estimated. � Promotion of market development and infrastructure

development for propagation of renewable energytechnologiesThe city has a nodal agency for renewable energy called,Non-conventional Energy Development Agency(NEDA). Inspite of this, the household survey revealsthat the market penetration of these renewable energytechnologies is very poor. The barriers to the commer-cialization of Renewable Energy Technologies like lackof user confidence, information dissemination, unreli-able after-sales service, lack of credit infrastructure,poorly developed markets, etc. need to be removed.Solar photovoltaic and solar thermal have a goodpotential in the area and the technologies should bemade more popular. To improve market penetration,subsidy should be directed for promoting marketdevelopment and infrastructure development at thelocal level.

4.6.2. Energy efficiency and conservation measures/DSM

Energy efficiency and conservation are very muchessential tools for energy management. It buys time forexpanding sources of supply. In fact, every MW of energy

saved/conserved is equivalent to a MW generated. A numberof energy efficient technologies have been identified invarious sectors. Energy efficient technologies seek toprovide the same output levels as the conventionaltechnologies, but at a lower rate of energy consumption.Though these technologies cost more than the conventionaltechnologies, the increased cost is usually more thancompensated through the energy savings achieved overthe lifetime of the equipment. Various energy efficienttechnologies were studied in the urban context and onlythose have been selected for implementation in the shortrun, which are economically feasible as well as have lowpay back periods.

� Identification of energy efficient technologies (EETs) inthe domestic sector

J Replace incandescent lamps with circular fluorescentlamps

The average no. of 60W bulbs and 100W bulbs per capitaas found in the household survey conducted is 0.80 and0.84, respectively.

Total energyrequirement for oldtechnology (60Wbulbs)

¼ 2185927� 0.80� 0.06� 2000

(Average yearly use

per unit taken as

2000 h)

¼ 209,848,992KWh

Energy requirementfor new technology(22W)

¼ 2,185,927� 0.80� 0.022� 2000

¼ 76,944,630.4KWh

Therefore, annualenergy saving

¼ 132,904.4MWh

Total energy requirement for old technology (100Wbulbs)

¼ 2,185,927� 0.84� 0.100� 2000

(Average yearly use

per unit taken as

2000 h)

¼ 367,235,736KWh

Energy requirementfor new technology(22W)

¼ 2,185,927� 0.84� 0.022� 2000

¼ 80,791,861.92KWh

Therefore, annualenergy saving

¼ 286,443.9MWh

If 15 per cent of the total is replaced in 5 years periodannual energy saving is cumulated to be 62,902.3MWh.

J Replace TL fluorescent tubes with TLD fluorescenttubes (TL fluorescent tubes have a diameter of 1.500 and arerated at 40W. The TLD lamps have a diameter of 1.2500

and are rated at 36W)

The average no. of TL fluorescent per capita as found inthe household survey conducted is 0.94. Total energyrequirement for oldtechnology (40W)

¼ 2,185,927� 0.04� 0.94� 2000

(Average yearly use

per unit taken as

2000 h)

¼ 164,381,710.4KWh

Energy requirementfor new technology(36W)

¼ 2,185,927� 0.94� 0.036� 2000

¼ 147,943,539.36KWh

Therefore, annualenergy saving

¼ 16,438.1MWh

If 15 per cent of the total is replaced in 5 years periodannual energy saving is cumulated to be 2465.7MWh.

J Replace ceiling fan with efficient fan motor The average no. of ceiling fan per capita as found in thehousehold survey is 1.01.

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684864

Total energyrequirement for oldtechnology (70W)

¼ 2,185,927� 1.01� 0.07� 4000

(Average yearly use

per unit taken as

4000 h)

¼ 618,180,155.6KWh

Energy requirementfor new technology(60W)

¼ 2,185,927� 1.01� 0.06� 4000

¼ 529,868,704.8KWh

Therefore, annualenergy saving

¼ 88,311.5MWh

If 15 per cent of the total is replaced in 5 years periodannual energy saving is cumulated to be 13,246.7MWh.

J Replace standard efficiency cooler with high-efficiency cooler. The average no. of cooler per capita as found in thehousehold survey conducted is 0.38. Total energyrequirement for oldtechnology (230W)

¼ 2,185,927� 0.38� 0.23� 1200

(Average yearly use

per unit taken as

1200 h)

¼ 229,260,023.76KWh

Energy requirementfor new technology(184W)

¼ 2185927� 0.38� 0.184� 1200

¼ 183,408,019.0KWh

Therefore, annualenergy saving

¼ 45,852MWh

If 15 per cent of the total is replaced in 5 years periodannual energy saving is cumulated to be 6877.8MWh.

J Refrigerators Refrigerators account for about 16 per cent of the totalelectricity use by the domestic sector. Efficiency ofrefrigerators in India is very low. Efficient refrigeratorscan save 30–35 per cent energy and are cost-effective too,though they have high initial cost. Even with 15 per centreplacement, an approximate 11,167.8MWh electricitycan be saved per year. Currently, high-efficiency refrigerators are not availablein the Indian market as they use a different design ofcompressors, which are very sensitive to the quality ofpower supplied. The option has therefore, not beenconsidered.

�

Identification of energy-efficient technologies (EETs) inthe commercial sectorThe commercial sector mainly uses electricity andpetroleum products to meet its demand for lighting,cooking, space conditioning, etc. It is the second largestconsumer of electricity next to the domestic sector in thecity. This sector offers a large scope for efficiencyimprovements in electrical appliances, such as, bulbs,fans, air-conditioners, refrigerators as well as oil-basedstoves and small generator sets used by shops, hotelsand dhabas.

Since, a detailed study has not yet been carried out inthis sector, the exact potential of energy-efficienttechnologies (EETs) in the sector cannot be analyzed.However, even by replacement of incandescent lamps byCFLs, use of A.C.s with higher-efficiency ratio canresult in substantial savings. Provision of cost-effectiveenergy management and control system in big commer-cial centers and institutions (like hospitals, college, etc.)can bring huge dividends in terms of saving energy.Incentives may be given to the commercial centers in theform of tax benefits, etc., for making energy-efficientbuildings or it could be made mandatory throughintroduction of building codes.

� Transport sector

Transportation sector accounts for major part of thecity’s fossil fuel consumption. The energy consumptionin this sector is found to be increasing at the rate of 10per cent per annum and this demand is bound toincrease in future. Given the increasing energy crunch,there is an urgent need for introducing energy-efficiencyand energy-conservation measures in this sector. Thereare five principal ways to influence transport systemsefficiency and reduce energy consumption, as discussedunder:

(i)

Urban land-use planningUrban land-use planning can optimize transportationactivity by allowing public transportation to lay asubstantial role. This is a long-term measure.Lucknow is following a concentric model of growth,similar to Delhi city. There are few major nodesoccupying the central part of the city. Everybody hasto commute from far-off places to these central nodes.The problem being further compounded by theabsence of an efficient mass transportation system. Ifthe present system prevails, very soon citizens will bewasting 50 per cent of their working time on streetsnegotiating to reach their destinations. Thus, therestructuring of urban pattern is a necessity to makethe city compatible for the operation of an efficientmass transport system.Lucknow has the inherent potential to grow as a linearconfiguration with the railway line as the spinalcorridor since it has the natural dynamics to growalong the Lucknow–Kanpur corridor on one side andalong the Luknow–Barabanki corridor on the other.This corridor, which has railway lines and the roadsrunning almost parallel, is the potential spine formaking the city dynamic.

(ii)

Modal mixThe differences in specific energy consumption perpassenger-km for the different modes of motorizedtravel clearly indicate that the car and two-wheelerconsume about two to three times more quantity ofenergy on a direct and indirect basis than the collectiveland transport modes. The efficiency potential thus

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4865

makes it very clear that public transport need to begiven patronage. Efficient use of intermediate publictransport combined with mass transportation systemwill reduce the use of private vehicles.

(iii)

Behavioral and operational aspectsThese are mainly non-technical and non-vehicle-related influences on the actual consumption of avehicle, such as, driving behavior, road conditions andtraffic flow. Making the driver visually aware of theexcessive fuel consumption, in particular, can correlatedriving behavior. Increasing congestion, however,diminishes possible gains in vehicle fuel efficiency(whatever little is there).

(iv)

Vehicle efficiency and fuel choiceThere is a need to gradually replace two-strokeengines. Switching to alternative motor fuels (naturalgas, LPG, biofuels) does not generally provide benefitsin terms of energy efficiency, rather its benefits are interms of abating atmospheric pollution or supplysecurity if a domestic resource can be used. Thepotential is often limited, since their introductionrequires particular fuelling infrastructure and some-times considerable changes to vehicles, both atsubstantial cost. This option is thus suitable as along-term measure for private vehicles. Cleaner fuelslike compressed natural gas, Ultra low sulfur diesel,etc., are recommended for public mode of transport.

(v)

Traffic managementTo achieve a sustainable and energy-efficient urbantransport, the traffic management has to be madeeffective. Some of the recommendations in this regardfor Lucnow city can be as follows:

�

To distribute the traffic volume on main corridors, it issuggested the timings of offices, schools, financialinstitutions, and commercial establishments should besegregated. � Terminal facilities for public transport to be planned at

outer cordon areas.

� The existing parking facility on all major roads and

commercial areas is highly inefficient. An in-depth studyneed to be done in this regard and accordingly, a holisticplan need to be made and implemented to increase theparking facility in major areas.

� The existing public transport system and intermediate

transport system is very inefficient and time consuming.There are no well-designed terminals and the buses stopanywhere. People, especially those using two-wheelersare willing to use public transport if the latter is madeefficient.

� All the major intersections need to be equipped with

computerized digital signal system.

� Wholesale activities in Chowk, Aminabad areas need to

be shifted in well-planned phases.

� The outer ring road provides a bypass to through traffic

between major and National and State highways and, if

completed can greatly reduce the congestion in the corearea. This will also reduce the energy consumption to aconsiderable extent. The project therefore, need to becompleted on a priority basis.

4.6.3. Policy measures to be taken by the government

authorities

Some of the broad measures to be taken by theAuthorities are as follows:

�

The Uttar Pradesh State Electricity Board shouldevaluate the demand and load curve analysis. Accord-ingly, load shifting can be done specially in the industrialand agricultural sectors. There is a considerable scope ofenergy savings by flattening the system load curve. � The electricity pricing structure should be re-shapened.

The subsidies from residential and agriculture sectorsneed to be removed, as it often results in apathy on thepart of end-users with regard to energy conservation.Incentives can be given to big establishments and largeconsumers to invest in energy efficient measures.

� Metering system underwent a change with the introduc-

tion of electronic meters in the city. However, metertampering has often been reported. Theft rates are quitehigh in the city. Metering should be done at all thefeeder lines.

� Various building codes with focus on energy-efficient

and cost-effective buildings need to be introduced by theDevelopment Authority.

4.7. Energy management model at city level

An energy management model has been proposed at citylevel. This can be applied for other cities as well. Theformation of a managing body has been proposed. Thebody will have all the necessary information—the overallenergy scenario—with regard to production, supply,present requirements and future requirements of the city.A database has also been proposed for this, as it will act asa useful tool for the managing body. The structure of thebody is presented in Fig. 4.

�

At the highest level of the body, there will be a ChiefManaging Director. He will monitor the functions of thebody and will keep a track on various activities of thebody. � The body will be divided into three sections, each

headed by a Deputy Chief Managing Director:(A) Electricity;(B) Petroleum products;(C) Renewable energy technologies (RETs)/Non-con-

ventional methods.

In the proposed model, the administration will have theknowledge about the demand and supply of energy byproduct wise, in different sectors and from different

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–48684866

sources. In case the quantity of energy requirement is veryhigh in a particular season, it will be communicated to therespective DSM departments by the field officers. Therespective departments Managing Directors will report thematter to the respective Deputy Chief Managing Directors,who in turn will report to the Chief Managing Director. Inthe model, the Managing Directors are empowered to takenecessary timely action to solve the problem and to keeptransparency in the system the field officers can directlymeet the Chief Managing Director, if required. In case ofhigher demand and lesser supply, the Chief ManagingDirector will in turn request the production system at Stateand National levels for augmenting/diverting the supply.He will also look at the possibility of supplying theincreased demand through the RET section at local level.All the Managing Directors will have meeting with therespective Deputy Chief Managing Director, and theDeputy Chief Managing Directors will have meeting withthe Chief Managing Director for making policies and theirimplementation. A detailed database shall be maintainedby each section, which will be regularly monitored forpolicy appraisal and necessary action. The proposedmodel, if implemented, will pave the way for efficientenergy management at city level.

CHIEF MANAGING D

DCMD

ELECTRICITYDCMD

PETROLEUM PROD

1.R & D (MD)

2.SUPPLY(MD)

3.DSM (MD)

1. R & D (MD)

2. SUPPLY (MD)

3. DSM (MD)

DSM-Petrol (manage

DSM- Diesel (manag

DSM- LPG & Kerose

(manager)

FIELD OFF

Each DSM (Demand Side Management) will have f

• Public relations/communications

• Market research, technical assessment, plan

• Program design and implementation

• Industrial sector

• Commercial sector

• Domestic sector

• Agricultural sector

• Sales

Note: DCMD- Deputy Chief Managing Director

MD- Managing Director

Fig. 5. Energy Managemen

The proposed model can be replicated at the State andNational levels to reap the real benefits of plannedinterventions (Fig. 5).

5. Conclusions

The modern world of globalization and urbanization isruled by energy equations. It is undoubtedly, one of thebasic necessities of life. The condensed literature studyreview of the various linkages highlights this paramountrole of energy. A study of various energy managementmeasures taken in the country, show a lacuna at micro-level. An attempt has, thereafter, been made to assessavailable energy sources and prevailing energy consump-tion pattern in the domestic sector and transport sector ofLucknow city. Having taken a detailed investigation of theprevalent energy consumption trends, the paper concludeswith the policy guidelines and recommendations to beadopted to meet the energy challenge presented by year2011. Methods have been suggested for taking supplyaugmentation measures as well as demand-side manage-ment measures. The model presented, if implemented bythe proposed administration promises to encourage energy

IRECTOR

UCTSDCMD

RETs/NON-

CONVENTIONAL tech.

r)

er)

ne

1. PRODUCTION (MD)

2. R & D (MD)

3. SUPPLY (MD)

4. DSM (MD)

ICERS

ollowing divisions:

ning, program evaluation

t Model, Lucknow city.

ARTICLE IN PRESSH. Zia, V. Devadas / Energy Policy 35 (2007) 4847–4868 4867

savings and make optimum utilization of the availableenergy resources in the city.

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