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English 306A; Harris
The cognitive basis of language
Elements and combinatoricsMetaphoricity, metonymySymbolicity (relation of convention)Indexicality (relation of necessity)Iconicity (relation of resemblance)
English 306A; Harris
At every level• Sounds combine into
syllables and morphemes
• Morphemes combine into words
• Words combine into phrases and sentences
• Sentences combine into turns or paragraphs
• Turns combine into conversations
• Paragraphs combine into texts
Elements + combinatorics
English 306A; Harris
SignsSignifier/signified pairs
Indexassociation-by-necessity
Iconresemblance
Symbolassociation-by-convention
Meaning
signifier
signified
“cow”QuickTime™ and a decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
English 306A; Harris
Types of signs
IndexA sign defined by relationship of necessity (especially cause and effect). Prototypically, think fever.
IconicA sign defined by relationship of resemblance. Prototypically, think picture.
SymbolicA sign defined by relationship of arbitrariness, convention, and learning. Prototypically, think word.
English 306A; Harris
Dimensions of signs
IndexicalityA semiotic tendency defined by relationship of necessity (esp. cause and effect).
IconicityA semiotic tendency defined by relationship of resemblance.
SymbolicityA semiotic tendency defined by relationship of arbitrariness, convention, and learning.
English 306A; Harris
Index-to-icon-to-symbol migration theories
Pooh-pooh, Yo-he-hoIndex-to-icon-to-symbol
Bow-wowIndex-to-icon-to-symbol
HmmmmmIndex+icon-to-symbol
Bow-wow-pooh-pooh-yo-he-ho-hmmmmm theories
English 306A; Harris
Metaphor and metonymy
Indirect representationSomething (called the vehicle) carries the primary signification for something else (tenor) that ordinarily holds that signification.
Metaphor is iconicThe vehicle/tenor relationship is an asserted resemblance: the tenor is said to be like the vehicle in some way.
Metonymy is indexicalThe vehicle/tenor relationship is (not exactly necessary but) drawn from the same habitat: the tenor is related to the vehicle in some way.
English 306A; Harris
Metonymy, metaphor
to go tyson to go ballistic
REPRESENTATIVE
COMPARATIVE
English 306A; Harris
Metonymy—The principle of set membership
One element of a set or a relationship (the vehicle) singled out to represent other element(s) (the tenor)
• Hollywood loves westerns.• Toronto collapses!• Calgary wins in OT!• All hands on deck.• Thirty head of cattle.
English 306A; Harris
Metaphor—The principle of comparison
One element (the vehicle) represents another element (the tenor), to which it is unrelated.
• My love is red, red rose.• Homer is a pig.• Toronto is toast.• The table leg is broken.• The orthopedic wing is closed.• Fire kills thousands every year.
(Personification)
English 306A; Harris
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy”
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy”
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy”
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy”
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy”
Metaphor• Tenor = vagina• Vehicle = cat• Attributes
• Warm• Furry•
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy!” Stage 1
Metonymy (synecdoche)
• Tenor = woman• Vehicle = pussy-as-
vagina
The ultimate devaluing of a (category of a) person: to a small anatomical component.
!
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy!” Stage 2
Metaphor• Tenor = the insult target• Vehicle = woman (not
vagina)• Attributes
• Weak• Soft• Quitter
• Means ‘Opposite of a man’, but in a wholly evaluative way.
=
English 306A; Harris
“Pussy”
Metaphor Metonymy Metaphor
Indexicality, Iconicity• a relatively mundane
example of ordinary language
• not a fancy literary or rhetorical device
• these processes, and figuration generally, are pervasive
English 306A; Harris
We now return you to regular programming
F
English 306A; Harris
Metonymy, metaphor
to go tyson to go ballistic
Associa
tion
Simila
rity
ComparisonRepresentationThe picture is metaphoric; the expression isn’t
English 306A; Harris
Conceptual metaphors
TIME IS MONEYspend a day, invest three months, bank your overtime, cost me a weekend, …
ARGUMENT IS WARhe attacked my point, I defended it well, she shot me down, I blew her out of the water, …
ANGER IS HEATyou make my blood boil, I was steamed, he has a fiery temper, she's a hothead, …
TIME IS MONEYspend a day, invest three months, bank your overtime, cost me a weekend, …
ARGUMENT IS WARhe attacked my point, I defended it well, she shot me down, I blew her out of the water, …
ANGER IS HEATyou make my blood boil, I was steamed, he has a fiery temper, she's a hothead, …
TIME IS MONEYspend a day, invest three months, bank your overtime, cost me a weekend, …
ARGUMENT IS WARhe attacked my point, I defended it well, she shot me down, I blew her out of the water, …
ANGER IS HEATyou make my blood boil, I was steamed, he has a fiery temper, she's a hothead, …
TIME IS MONEYspend a day, invest three months, bank your overtime, cost me a weekend, …
ARGUMENT IS WARhe attacked my point, I defended it well, she shot me down, I blew her out of the water, …
ANGER IS HEATyou make my blood boil, I was steamed, he has a fiery temper, she's a hothead, …
English 306A; Harris
Conceptual Metonymy
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCTI only read Dr. Seuss, she wore Calvin Klein last night, the Wolf Blass has too much tannin, …
CONTAINER FOR CONTAINEDthat’s a tasty dish, the needle was the death of her, he drank the whole bottle, …
PERSON FOR INSTRUMENTI’m parked out back, she’s the lead guitar, he’s the drill press, …
PLACE FOR PEOPLEBC voted conservative, Alberta likes cowboy movies, Thunder Bay is surprisingly liberal, …
PLACE FOR INSTITUTIONOttawa raised our taxes again, Queen’s Park changed the speed limits, …
English 306A; Harris
Indexicality is metonymic
Defined by association (rather than similarity; often on necessity)
There must be a certain physical, temporal, or metaphorical relation between referential objects for the words/expressions to function
English 306A; Harris
Indexicality
EgocentricitySpeaker-oriented• Deixis (pointing words)
AnthropocentrismHuman-oriented• Inherent orientation
(human-body orientation projected to objects)
English 306A; Harris
Indexicality
Deictics
Gk. deiktos ≈ “to show”• Pointing words
Langauge which works by ‘gesturing outward’ from speaker (the ego), to other objects
English 306A; Harris
Indexical orientation — Deictic centre
Lexical egocentricity
Pronouns• EGO = 1st person (I, me, …)• EGO+others = 1st person
plural (we, us, …)• Hearer-of-EGO = 2nd person
(you, your, …)• Hearer-of-EGO+others = 2nd
person plural (you, your, …)• Not-EGO-and-not-hearer-of-
EGO = 3rd person (he, she, it, …)
• Not-EGO-and-not-hearer-of-EGO+others = 3rd person plural (they, them, …)
English 306A; Harris
Indexical orientation — Deictic centre
Lexical egocentricity
Proximals• Speaking location
• Where-EGO-is: here, near, … • Where-EGO-is-not: there,
far, …• Speaking time
• When-EGO-is: now, today, … • When-EGO-is-not: then,
tomorrow, …• Relative location to speaker
• Close-to-EGO: this, these, …• Not-close-to-EGO: that,
those, ..
English 306A; Harris
Indexicality
Anthropocentricity
Gk. anthropos ≈ “man” (hu)man-centred
Inherent orientation: human orientation projected onto artefacts and entities)
• front, back• left, right• before, behind
English 306A; Harris
Deictic (egocentric) vs. Inherent (anthropocentric) Orientation
egocentric
anthropo-
centric
English 306A; Harris
Metonymy in literature
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.
William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar
I should have been a pair of ragged clawsScuttling across the floors of silent seas.
T. S. Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity is metaphoric
Defined by similarity (rather than association)
Sequential order“Don’t drink and drive”
DistanceImmediacy of action
QuantityReduplication
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity
Principle of sequential order
Unless marked, the order of words mirrors the order of events.
• He kicked sand in my face and I got mad.
• I got mad and he kicked sand in my face.
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity
Principle of distance
Linguistic distance (proximity) tends to mirror conceptual distance.
• She squeezed me.• She gave me a squeeze.• She gave a squeeze to me.
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity
Principle of quantity
Length of utterance correlates with (speaker’s perception of) quantity of concept.
• Dinosaurs lived a l o o o n g time ago.
• Dinosaurs lived a long, long, long, … time ago.
• Lawyerese.• Political speeches.
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity — Principle of quantity
Reduplication
Japanesehito 'person'hitobito ’group of people'kami 'god'kamigami ’group of gods'
Mandarinxiao 'small'xiaoxiao 'very small'gaoxing 'happy'gaogaoxingxing 'very happy'
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity — Principle of quantity
Reduplication
/ora¯/ = man / ora¯ ora¯/ = all sorts of men
/anak/ = child /anak anak/ = all sorts of children
/ma¯a/ = mango / ma¯a ma¯a / = all sorts of mangoes
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity — Principle of quantity
Reduplication
/ora¯/ = man / ora¯ ora¯/ = all sorts of men
/anak/ = child /anak anak/ = all sorts of children
/ma¯a/ = mango / ma¯a ma¯a / = all sorts of mangoes
Download the SIL IPA fonts to
see these transcriptions in
PPS files
English 306A; Harris
Iconicity — Principle of quantity
Conceptual Reduplication
Trinidad and Tobago[jEswij]
• emphatic confirmation, agreement; interjective intensifier
• yes-we?• yes-whee?• yes-oui!
English 306A; Harris
Any questions?
Elements and combinatoricsMetaphoricity, metonymySymbolicity (arbitrariness, convention, learning)Indexicality (relation of association)
• Egocentricity (deixis)• Anthropocentricity (inherent orientation)
Iconicity (relation of resemblance)• Sequential order• Distance• Quantity