English

Communication

David Berlo: Source, Receiver, Message, Channel

English Language Learning

Macro Skills Cueing Systems Communicative Competencies

Listening Phonology Grammatical

Speaking Morphology Discourse

Reading Semantics Sociolinguistic

Writing Syntax Strategic

4 cueing system

1. Phonology- Sounds of the language

2. Morphology – formation of words

3. Semantics – Meaning derivation

4. Syntax – grammar, structure and form of language

Listening

Kinds of listening

Interactional/Emphatic Listening – Listening to others for the purpose of communicating.

Transactional/Critical listening- Listening to acquire knowledge

3 modes of listening

Unidirectional – The listener cannot respond to the things he heard

Bidirectional – if the listening process is reciprocal (two way)

Autodirectional – If the listening process is reflexive – meaning, the speaker is also the listener.

Speaking

Manner of articulation

Stops/Plosive – When the air stream is compressed and passes through a small opening creating

a friction. PTKBDG

Fricatives- These are sounds produced when the air stream is compressed and passes through a

small opening creating friction. FVSZH,TH

Affricates – When a plosive is followed by a fricative, Tz and Dz

Nasals – When the oral cavity is blocked so the air passes through the nose. N,M and Ng

Liquid – Sounds are produced when air stream moves around the tongue in an unobstructed

manner.

Glides – Close to vowel sounds W and Y.

Points of articulation

Bilabial- two lips touching each other

Labio dental – lower lip touches the upper teeth

Dental – tip of the tongue and the inner edge of the upper teeth

Alveolar – tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge

Palatal – the tongue and hard palate

Velar – dorsal tongue and soft palate

Glottal – throat passage

Voiced or voiceless- a sound is a voiced if the vocal cords vibrate and the sound is voiceless if

the vocal cords are not vibrating.

Consonant Chart

Manner Place of Articulation

Bilabial Labio

Dental

Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal`

Stop P B T D K G

Fricative F V Th SH ZH H

Affricate TS DZ

Nasal M N NG

Liquid L R

Glide W Y

The Supra Segmentals

Pitch- Highness or Lowness of sound

Volume – Loudness or softness of sound

Intonation – Rising and falling of sound

Stress – Placement of emphasis or force on certain words

Reading

Phonemic awareness – being familiar with the sounds of the language

Phonics - relationship between symbol and sounds

Fluency – ability to blend and mix the sounds to form a meaningful utterance

Vocabulary – ability to attach meaning to words

Comprehension – Decode and create meanings from a group of words.

Jean Chall : READING STAGES

Stage 0 Pre reading stage – sounds of language

Stage 1 initial reading stage - realize the correspondence between the symbol and the sound

Stage 2 Confirmation stage – Comprehension

Stage 3 Reading to learn – Academic Reading, comprehend what they read

Stage 4 Multiple viewpoint stage and Stage 5 Construction and judgement stage – Giving their

opinion and criticize

Purposes of reading

Skimming – reading to get the main idea

Scanning – reading to get specific information

Grammar

Parts of speech

Nouns

Kinds of noun

Proper nouns – names of specific person, things or place

Common – refer to any one of a class of persons, places or things

Count – Can be counted or measured

Non count – cannot be counted/phenomena/events/occasions

Collective – name of a group of persons or things

Compound – two words acting as single unit.

Pronoun

Kinds:

Personal – person speaking, spoken to, or spoken about.

Possessive – Show possession

Reflexive and intensive

Indefinite – do not refer to specific noun(anyone, anybody, everyone)

Interrogative – used in asking questions /who.what,when where

Demonstrative – pointing nouns/ this. These / that

Adjectives

Tells something about a noun or pronoun

Order of adjectives

Determiner Observation Descriptive Adjectives Origin Material Qualifier Noun

Size Shape Age Color

An Expensive Red European Sports Car.

An Extra-

ordinary

Silver Necklace.

Six Long-

stemmed

White American Daisies.

Her Shiny Short Black Hair.

My Big Old German Dog.

Those Long Ceramic Jewelry Boxes.

That Smooth Big Round Gold Locket

Few Tiny African Insects

Some Erotic Indian Films.

Verbs

Regular verbs – if the past form is derived by adding –d or –ed.

Irregular verbs – if its past form is derived not by adding d or –ed but through a change in

spelling

Linking verbs

Auxiliary verbs – helping verbs

Emphatic verbs – give certain emphasis

Modals – stating ability , expressing regret , giving danger , expressing admission , expressing

obligation

Adverbs – adverbs modify, adjectives or another adverb

Adverb of manner – how a thing is done

Adverb of time – when the action happened\

Adverb of frequency – answers the question how often

Preposition – links words within a sentence. How two separate things are related.

In front of, I regard to, inside, in spite of

Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions – but, and, for, nor, or,

Correlative conjunctions – connect words under the same grammatical structure

Either or, neither nor

Interjection – strong feeling or emotions

4 kinds of sentence

Simple – composed of one independent clause

Compound – two or more independent clause

Complex – composed of one independent clause and two or more dependent clause

Compound complex – two or more independent clause and one or more subordinate clause

Literature

Fiction – prose imaginative composition which may or may not be based on history or fact.

SHORT STORY, NOVEL, DRAMA , ALLEGORYY

Elements of Fiction

Plot, conflict (m vs m, m vs nature, m vs self m vs God), Character, Setting, Theme, Point of

view ( 1st person, 2

nd person , 3

rd person, camera eye, revolving, composite)

Figurative language

1. synecdoche – association of some important part with the whole it represents ex. The

face who launched a thousand ships

2. Simile – an indirect association ex. She is like a flower.

3. Personification – humanly attribute to inanimate object/animal. Ex. The sun is looking

down on me.

4. Oxymoron – self contrasting statement. Ex. Loud silence.

5. Metonymy – an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something

that represents it.

6. Metaphor – a direct comparison. You are the sunshine of my life.

7. Irony – the contrast between what was expected and what had actually happened

8. Hyperbole – an exaggeration

9. Euphemism – creating a positive connotation out of something negative. Ex. Loved

Child (Illegitimate child)

10. Ellipsis – omission of words in a sentence.

11. Asyndeton – not putting any connectors. Ex. No retreat, no surrender.

12. Apostrophe – a direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away. Ex.

Love, please come and take me.

Philippine History

Origin of the Philippines

Land Bridge Theory

House

Bahay Kubo – was suited to climate. Bamboo or wood stakes

Batalan – where washing and bathing were done

Badjaos – lives in boat houses

Mode of Dressing

Kanggan – male Filipinos wear collarless short – sleeved jacket as the upper pard of their

clothing

Bahag – lower part of their clothing.

Putong – men headgear

Baro or camisa – women wore wide sleeved jacket

Saya – women’s skirt or lower part

Tapis – additional cover

Ornaments – kalumbiga – armlets, gold rings, gold necklace, gold bracelets

Pintados – early Filipinos adorned their bodies with tattoos

Social classes

The nobles – gat or lakan

Free men – usually free

Dependents – ALIPIN

Aliping namamahay – owned houses and properties

Aliping sagigilid – had no right. Can be sold anytime by their master

Government

Barangay –datu, hari or raja

Burial mourning and practices

Laraw/larao – mourning for dead chieftain

Maglahe – for a dead man

Morotal – for a dead woman

Language and dialects

Tagalog

Iloko

Pangasinan

Kapangpangan

Sugbuhanon

Hiligaynon

Samarnon

Maguindanao

Literature

Awit

Salawikain

Hele

Bugtong

Ihiman

Kumintang

Hud hud and the alim – ifugai

Biag ni lam ang – ilocanos

Handiong – bicolanos

Bantungan, indirapatra, sulayman, parang sabil – muslims

Music and dances

Kudyapi – tagalog guitar

Tultogan – visayan bamboo drum

Silbay - Ilocano red flute

Kutibeng – Ilocano five stringed guitar

Balitaw and dandansoy – visayans

Kumintang – tagalog

Mahinhin – tagalog

Kinnotan – ilocanos ants dance

Dates to be remembered

March 16, 1521 – Magellan sighted samar

March 17, 1521 archipelago of st. lazarus

March 29, 1521 – first blood compact Magellan and raja kulambo

March 31 1521 first Christian mass fr. Pedro de valderrama

April 27, 1521 Magellan was killed

Ruy lopez de Villalobos named Filipinas Feb 2, 1543

General Miguel Lopez de legazpi reached cebu and claimed the island for spain – feb 13,1565

Legazpi and Raja Sikatuna – March 16, 1565

Ciudad del santissimo nombre de jesus first Spanish settlement – January 1, 1571

Manila was conquered by Martin de Goiti – June 3, 1571

General Legazpi first Governor of the Phils. – June 24, 1571

Martin de goiti was killed by limahong – nov 30 1574

Royal audiencia may 16, 1584

Battle of playa Honda april 12-14 1617

La naval de Manila – Oct 3, 1646

Manila conquered by british forces - oct 5, 1762

Britain surrendered to spain after 7 years of war – may 17 1764

Truce between france and England may 31, 1764

DAGOHOY REBELLION – Octover 31, 1829

Apolinario Dela Cruz or Hermano Pule was executed November 4 , 1841

Rise of nationalism

JP Rizal June 19, 1861

Execution of GOMBURZA – Feb 17 1872

Miguel morayta aims to introduce and to campaign for Filipino representative in Spanish courts

– January 12, 1889

La Solidaridad, graciano lopez jaena – feb 15, 1889

El Fili was published with financial assistance from valentineventura – feb 18, 1891

La Liga Filipina – July 3, 1892

Rizal’s exile in dapitan (4 yrs) – July 7, 1892

KKK by nonifacio, arellano, diwa, plata and diaz – july 7, 1892

KKK was discovered by Fr. Mariano Gil through Teodoro Patino – August 19, 1896

Cry of Balintawak – August 23, 1896

Battle of Pasng tamo – Aug 25, 1896

Battle of Pinaglabanan – aug 30, 1896

Gen. Emilio Aguinaldi led the uprising in kawit cavite – Aug. 31, 1896

13 men from cavite Los Trece Martirez de Cavite – Sept 12, 1896

Martyrdom of Rizal - December 30, 1896

Tejeros Convention(Magdalo and Magdiwang) – March 22, 1897

Execution of Bonifacio Brothers (Andres and Procopio) – May 10 1897

Biak na Bato – July 7, 1897

Truce of biak na bato between pedro paterno and gen primo de rivera – December 15, 1897

American Period

Spaniards blew American warship in Maine Cuba – feb15 1898

US against Spain April 25 1898

George Deewey defeated the Spanish Armada May 1, 1898

Gen Emilio Aguinaldo waved the Philippine Flag for the first time – May 28, 1898

Proclamation of independence – June 12, 1898

Mock battle of manila bay between spain and America – Aug 13, 1898

Military government was established - August 14, 1898

Treaty of paris sum of 20million – December 10, 1898

Period of suppressed nationalism

America’s benevolent assimilation – decemer 21 , 1898

First Philippine republic – January 23, 1899

Fil-Am war –Feb4 1899

Gen. Aguinaldo transferred te capital from malolos to Pampanga – march 31, 1899

Antonio Luna assassinated by aguinaldo’s guards – june 5, 1899

Gregorio del Pilar killed in the battle of tirad pass – December 2, 1899

Gen Aguinaldo was captured by gen Funston – March 23 1901

Antonio Lucban attacked American garrison September 28, 1901

First Philippine assembly Manuel luis quezon as majority floor leader and Sergio osmena as

speaker – oct. 16, 1907

U.P. – June 18, 1908

Francis Harrison First American governor – Oct. 6, 1913

Underwood-Simons Tariff Law – Open trade between PH and US – October13, 1913

Bicameral Legistratures senate and representatives – Aug 29, 1916

CPP by Crisanto Evangelista – August 26, 1930

Right of suffrage – December 7, 1933

Commonwealth Government Tydings McDuffe Law – March 24, 1934

American- sponsored constitution of the Philppines – March 23 1935

SAKDALISTA – May 12, 1935

The inauguration of Commonwealth with manuel quezon as pres and Sergio osmena as VP –

Nov 15, 1935

Jaoenese Occupation

Pearl harbour – December 8, 1941

Manila as open city – December 26, 1941

HUKBALAHAP by Luis Taruc – March 29, 1942

Fall of Bataab and Death March – April 9, 1942

Fall of Corregidor – may 6, 1942

Japanese sponsored government Jose P. Laurel as Puppet president – Oct. 14, 1943

Douglas mc Arthur – oct. 20, 1944

Battle of leyte gulf – oct 24-26, 1944

Atomic bomb Hiroshima – august 6, 1945

Nagasaki – Augst 9, 1945

Japenese imperial forces surrendered sept.2 1915

3rd

republic

Phil rehabilitation act - april 30, 1946

Treaty of general relations which legalized the retention of US bases – july 4m 1946

Agreement between US and Philippines in Bases – march 14, 1947

Manuel roxas died of cardiac arrest – April 4, 1947 Elpidio quirino became president

Ramon Magsaysay and carlos p Garcia became pres and vp nov. 10, 1953

Luis Taruc HUKBALAHAP surrendered to Benigno Aquino

SEATO was organized –Sept 8-10, 1954

Langley Agreement – Sept. 8, 1955

Magsaysay died – March 17, 1957 Carlos Garcia became pres

Diosdado Macapagal elected president – November 11, 1957

Pres Diosdado Macapagal changed the date of independence from july 4 to june 12, 1898 – May

12, 1962

Pres. Diosdado macapagal approved agriculture land reform – aug. 8 1963

COMTEMPORARY

Marcos – November 9, 1965

ASEAN – Aug 8, 1967

Gloria diaz – July 20, 1968

CPP – December 26, 1968

Marcos reelected – Nov, 11, 1969

1971 constitutional convention – june1 1971

Plaza Miranda bombing – aug21 1971

Martial law – sept 21, 1972

Announcing of Martial law Sept 23, 1972

Batasang pambansa – sept 23, 1972

Lifted martial law – jan 16, 1981

Marcos won another 6 year term boycotted election – june 16, 181

Aquino assassinated – Aug 21 1983

Funeral processions Aug 31, 1983

Snap elections – feb 7, 1986

Marcos was proclaimed – feb 16, 1986

Military mutiny by juan ponce enrile and fidel ramos – feb 16, 1986

Marcos fled and cory became the first woman president – feb 25, 1986

Mendiola Massacre – Jan 22, 1987

Coup d’ etat by gregorio honasan – aug. 28, 1987

Another coup d’etat December 1, 1987

MV Dona Paz worst sea tragedy – December 20, 1987

US military bases were extended for 2 years oct. 17, 1988

7.6 earthquake hit Luzon Cabanatuan, nueva ecija, baguiom and dagupan – July 16, 1990

Mt. Pinatubo – june 15, 1991

APEC – Nov. 24-25, 1996

Centennial celebration of phil. Independence – june12, 1998

Estrada was impeached – nov 13, 2000

Edsa 2 – jan 16, 2001

VP Gloria sworn as 14th

president – jan 20, 2001

Balikatan – Feb 1, 2002

Mutual Logistic Support Agreement – November 21, 2002

4th

meeting of families – January 22-26,2003

Overseas absentee voting – feb 13, 2003

Anti money laundering- march 7, 2003

Oakwood mutiny – july 27, 2003

Citizenship retention and reacquisition act – august 29, 2003

Salvador h. laurel died jan 28, 2004

August 21 as ninoy Aquino day- feb 25, 2004

Arroyo and de castro were elected – may 11, 2004

Fernando poe died – December 14 2004

2006 – milenyo and reming

2008 centennial year of UP

2009 summit on climate change

National elections 2010

May 10, 2010 first automated national elections in Phils.

June 30, 2010 – inauguration of noynoy

July 26 2010 SONA

July 25, 2011 SONA2

January 16, 2012 impeachment of corona

Math

Ratio : is a certain relation between 2 numbers expressed in terms of a quotient.

A rod 72 inches long is to be cut into 2 pieces in the ration 4:5. What is the length of the shorter

piece

Sol. Shorter piece = 4/9 (72) = 32 inches

42:x = 6:7

6x=42(7)

6x=294

x=49

5/4=10/x

5x=40

X=8

X:1/2=2:3/4

3/4x = ½(2)

3/4x=1

X=4/3

4/9=2x

18x=4

X=4/18=2/9

Application

An investment of 15,000 results in a gain of 3,000. How much must be invested to earn 5,000

15,000/3,000 = x/5,000

X=25,000

15000:3000= x:5000

3000x=5,000(15,000)

3,000x=75000000

X=25,000

A motorcycle covers 225km in 2.5 hrs. How far can he do in 1.75hrs?

Sol: 225/2.5=x/1.75

X=157.5km

225:2.5=x:1.75

2.5x=225(1.75)

2.5x=393.75

X=157.5

The interior angles of a triangle are in the ratio of 2:3:4/ what are the measurements of the 3

angles?

Sol. The sum of the interior angles of any triangle is equal to 180

2x+3x+4x=180

9x=180

X=20

2x=40

3x=60

4x=80

Percentage

40% of 200% is how much?

Sol: 40% [200]=N

0.4(200)=N

80=N

What percent of 150 is 7.50?

R(150)=7.50

R=7.50/150=0.05=5%

What part of 30 is 180?

R(30)=180

180/30 = 6 =600%

15%of 150 is what 30% of 30,000?

Sol 15% of 150= 0.15(150) = 22.50

30% of 3,000 = 0.30(3000)=900

22.50 is what percent of 990?

22.50=R(900)

22.50/900=R=0.025=2.5

200 increased by 10% is how much?

N=200 +0.10 (200)=200+20

N=220

15% discount. How much will her discount be if she buys 2 dresses at 180 each and one pair of

shoes costing 650?

360+650=1,010

Total discount= 0.15(1,010) = 151.50

Divisibility

2 if it ends in 2, 4,6,8

3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3. Ex. 459=18 and 18 is divisible by 3

4 if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4. Ex. 42,236 is divisible by 4

because the number formed by the last two digits is 36 and 36 is divisible by 4.

5 if it ends with 0 or 5

6 if it is divisible by 2 and divisible by 3. Ex 4452 and 32478

7 double the last digit and subtract it from the rest of the numbers, if the result is divisible by

seven, then the original number is divisible by 7.

Ex. 252 double the last digit (2+2=4)

Subtract 4 from 25, the result is 21 and since 21 is divisible by 7 therefore 252 is divisible by 7.

2,282 = 2+2=4 =228-4=224/7=32

8 if the number formed by the last 3 digits is divisible by 8.

11,648 since 648 is divisible by 8

11,648 is therefore divisible by 8.

9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9. Ex. 45,927=27/9=3

Polynomials

Addition

Add similar terms together

Subtraction

Change the sign of the subtrahend and proceed as in addition.

Ex. Subtract 5x2-3xy+4y

2 from -10x

2+2xy-y

2

-10x2+2xy-y

2

5x2-3xy+4y

2

(-)(+) (-)

-152+5xy-5y

2

Square = Area=edge(2)

Rectangle A=(base x altitude)

Right triangle A=1/2base x Altitude

Parallelogram A=Base x height

Trapezoid Area = ½ sum of base x height

Exercises

A square has a side of 5 inches. What is its area and perimeter?

Sol: Let x = side of the square

A=52=25sq.inches

P=4x=4(5)=20inches

A square has an area of 400 sq.cm. what is the perimeter?

Let x = side of the square

A=x2 = 400 x=20cm

P=4x = 4(20) = 80cm

Science

Empirical science –Based on observable phenomena and are capable of being tested for its

validity.

Natural Sciences – branch of science that explains natural events using scientific methods

Social sciences – study human behaviours and societies.

Formal Sciences – a priori to study formal systems

Branches of Natural sciences

Astronomy

Biology

Chemistry

Earth science

Physics

Scientific method

1. Identify the problem

2. Gathering of data

3. Formulating hypothesis

4. Testing hypothesis

5. Interpretation of data

6. Drawing conclusion

7. Publishing result

8. Theory

Scientific Attitudes

Curiosity

Objectivity

Critical mindedness

Open mindedness

Inventiveness

Risk taking

Intellectual honesty

Humility

Careful judgement

Perseverance

Biology

Branches

Comparative biology

Entomology

Ethology

Herpetology

Ichthyology

Mammalogy

Ornithology

Primatology

Veterinary science

Zoology

Characteristics of living things

1. complex and organized

2. growth and development

3. reproduction

4. respond to stimuli

5. living things obtain and use materials and energy

6. adaptation

7. homeostasis

8. evolution

Cells – basic unit of life

Prokaryotic cells – are cells that do not contain nuclei

Bacteria are prokaryotes

Eukaryotic cells – cells contain nulei

Cell structure

Nucleus – control center

Cytoplasm – liquid substance that fills the cell( endoplasmic reticulum – protein synthesis, Golgi

apparatus – Membrane structure, Lysosome – digestive plant for proteins, removes junk,

mitochondria – energy production, controls level of water and other materials in cell, Ribosomes

– Protein factories, Vacuole – sacs for storage, digestion and waste removal, chloroplast – energy

from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy, cell wall – primary cell wall, cytoskeleton –

helps support the cell.

Plasma Membrane – cells protective coat

Movement through plasma membrane

1. diffusion – higher concentration to lower concentration

2. osmosis – diffusion of water acriss a senu-permeable membrane

3. passive – mediated transport – transport of protein

4. active transport – requires an input by the call.

5. Endocytosis – process of taking material into the cell

Levels of Organization

Cells – basic unit of life

Tissues – made up of cells

Organs – made up of tissues

Organ systems – group of 2 or more organs and tissues that work together

Organisms- entire living things that can carry out all basic life processes

Energy and life

1. Autotrophs – organisms which use energy from the sun to make their own food

2. Heterotrophs – obtain foods from the food they consume

Mitosis

1. Prophase – 1st stage of mitosis

2. Metaphase – centrioles complete their migration to the poles

3. Anaphase – this ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes

4. Telophase – cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two daughter cells

Changes in Matter

Chemical Change – a change that produces matter with a different composition than the original

matter.

Physical change – change in form or appearance without changing the chemical make up

Gas Law

Boyle’s law –pressure –volume law

Charle’s law – temperature – volume law

Gay-lussac’s law – pressure-temperature law

Avogadro’s law – the volume amount law

Atomic Structure

Electrons – carry a negative charge

Protons – positive charge

Neurons – no charge

Types of chemical bonds

Ionic Bonds – form between positive ions and negative ions(attractive force between positive

cation and necative anion)

Covalent bonds – formed when the orbitals of two non metal atoms physical overlap and share

electrons with each other

Metallic bonds – Occur between metal atoms

Physics

1st law Newton’s law of inertia – an object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will

continue in motion with the same speed and direction unless acted on by a force

2nd

law (Law of acceleration)

The greater the mass of the object, the greater the amount of force needed to accelerate the

object.

3rd

law (law of interaction)

For every action there is an equal and opposite raction

Energy

Forms of energy

Mechanical energy

Radiant(electromagnetic)

Electrical

Chemical

Nuclear

Thermal

Heat Transfer

Forms of heat transfer

1. Heat conduction – when touching each other

2. Convection – transfer of heat through air or water

3. Thermal radiation – from electromagnetic wave

The world of Rizal’s Time

Political condition

The political changes b/w government and people are brought by: liberal ideas, democracy and

struggle for nationhood.

Industrialization

Gained momentum due to the discovery of electricity

Invention of combustion engine heralded the motorized age

Railways and steamships

Capitalists emerged

Reforms for work

Competition for markets became stiff.

Scientific developments

Factories multiplied in numbers

Vast quantities of coal and other minerals are needed for such developments

Socialism

Believes that the government should own and control the means of production

Karl marx declared that only a violent revolution could improve the lot of workers

Abolition of private ownership of land

Democracy

The most significant achievements in the 19th

century was the growing of European appreciation

for the worth and dignity of individuals

Abraham Lincoln : Government of the people, by the people, for the people

Philippines during rizal’s time

Social system

Filipinos had their own culture, government and religion.

Limpieza de sangre

Creating social ranking among various groups

Political system

King

Ministro de ultramar (ministry of colonies)

Governador general (national government)

Alcalde mayors (provincial)

Cabildo/Ayuntamiento (city)

Gobernadorcillo (town)

Cabeza de barangay (barangay)

Frailocracia

Rule of Friars

Education

Royal decree of 1863 – schools for elementary pupils

Royal decree of 1865 – establishment of schools for secondary students

Rizal was of mixed racial origin. Chinesse merchant Domingo Lam-co who married Inez de la

Costa

Lam-co’s son, Francisco, who was Rizal’s great grandfather became the Captain of Binan. They

adopted Mercado based from Claveria Decree.

Pepe’s sibling

Saturnine

Paciano

Narcisa

Olimpia

Lucia

Maria

Jose

Concepcion

Josefa

Trinidad

Soledad

Filipino

Antas ng wika

o Pormal – ginagamit nang higit sa mga nakakararami lalo na ng mga nakapag aral

Pambansa – kalimitang ginagamit sa mga aklat

Pampanitikan – ginagamit ng mga manunulat sa kanilang mga akda

o Impormal – ginagamit pang araw araw

Lalawiganin – ginagamit sa mga particular na pook o lalawigan

Kolokyal – pang araw araw na ginagamt sa mga pagkakataong impormal

Balbal – slang

Barayti ng wika

o Dayalekto – wikang ginagamit sa isang rehiyon

o Sosyolek – ginagamit sa relasyong sosyal

o Idyolek – kabuuan sng mga katangian sa pagsasaita nang isang indibidwal

o Jargon – tanging bokobolaryo ng isang pangkat

o Pidgin – nobody’s native language

o Creole –

Ponolohiya – pagaaral sa makabuluhang tunog ng isang wika

Morpolohiya –pinaka maliit na unit na nagtataglay nang kahulugan

Sintaksis – paguugnay ng mga salita upang makabuo ng pangungusap

Sintaks

o Pangungusap – isang salita o lipon ng mga salita na nagpapahayag ng isang diwa

o kaisipan

Sabjek – bahaging pinaguusapan

Predikeyt – bahagyang nagsasabi tungkol sa sabjek.

Karaniwan – kapag nauuna ang predikeyt sa sabjek

Di karaniwan – kapag nauuna ang sabjek sa predikeyt

o Pangungusap ayon sa pagkakabuo

Payak o simple – kung nagpapahayag ng iisang diwa o kaisipan

Tambalan o compound – kung ito ay mayroong dalawa o higit pang diwa

Hugnayan – itoy binubuo ng dalawang sugnay na ang isa ay makapag iisa

Langkapan – binubuo nang dalawa o higit pang sugnay na makapag iisa at

isa o dalawang sugnay na di makag-iisa

Retorika

o Rhetor – salitang griyego na ang ibig sabihin ay guro. Tumutukoy sa sining at

agham maging pasalita o pasulat na pagpapahayag.

o Mga sangkap ng retorika

Kaisipang nais ipahayag

Pagbuo ng mga pahayag

Estilo ng pagpapahayag

Saklaw ng retorika

o Wika

o Sining

Pasalaysay

Paglalarawan

Pangangatwiran

Paglalahad

o Lipunan

o Pilosopiya

o Panahon at sitwasyon

Gramatika at retorika

o Ang retorika ang may tungkuling pagandahin at patimpyasin ang isang pahayag,

samantalang papel naman ng gramatika ang pangalagaan ang kawastuhan para

maging malinaw ang pahayag.

Ang semantika may kinalaman sa interpretasyon ng mga kahuluga ng mga salita at

pangungusap

o Denotasyon – karaniwang kahulugan dala ng diksyunaryo

o Konotasyon – di tuwiran ang kahulugan

o Sinonim

o Antonym

o Polisemi

o Homofon

o Parafeys

Idyomatik – hindi direktang ibig sabihin

o Balat kalabaw hindi marunong mahiya

o Bulang gugo galante

o Di mahulugang karayom maraming tao

o Di maliparang uwak malawak

o Hilong talilong litong lito

o Hinahabol ng plantsa gusot gusot na damit

o Hinalong kalamay magulo, maingay

o Hindi kakapitan ng alikabok bihis na bihis

o Hihigop ng sabaw dadalo sa kasalan

Dalawang uri ng paglalarawan

o Objektib – paglalarawang nagbibigay laman ng kabatiran sa tao, hayop, bagay o

pangyayari o iba pang bagay na inilalarawan.

o Sabjektib – paglalarawang pinagagalaw ang guniguini ng bumabasa

Tayutay – pahayag na sadyang masining at kaakit akit

o Pagpapatulad (simile) ang tren ay parang alupihan.

o Pagwawangis (metaphor) tinik ka sa lalamunan ko

o Pagbibigay katauhan – sumasayaw ang mga alon

o Pagmamalabis – nagliliyab ang mga mata sag alit

o Pagtawag – Pagibig! Masdan ang ginawa mo.

o Pagpapalit tawag – malalim na pilat ang naiwan sa kanyang puso

o Pagpapalit saklaw - isang kayumangi ang pinarangalan sa larangan ng boksing.

o Paghihimig – kumabog sa matigas na lupa.

o Pagsalungat – tumatawa’y umiiyak.

o Parelelismo – sama-samang nabubuhay.

o Paglulumanay – ang babaeng naglalaro ng apoy.

o Pagpapalit wika – ang mapagkandiling plato ay naghain sa kanya ng pagkain

o Pag uyam – napakabait mong ahas.

o Pagtangi – hindi ako nagsasabi na ayaw ko sa kanya pero suklam na suklam ako

sa kanya.

o Tambisan –mapatingkad ang pagpapahayag

o Tanong retorikal – ang naniniwala ba sa sabisabi ay may bait sa sarili?

o Pagdaramdam - nagsasaad ng hindi pangkaraniwang damdamin

o Pagsusukdol – climax

o Paguulit – gumagamit ng magkatulad na titik sa simula ng isang pangungusap

o Pagbibigay aral –nagbibigay aral

o Asonans – paguulit naman ito ng mga tunog patinig

o Konsonans – paguulit ng mga katinig

o Apapora – pag-uulit saunang bahagi ng pahayag

NG at NANG

o NG

Bilang pantukoy

Pang ukol

Pangangalang paari

Tagatangap ng kilos

Pananda sa tuwirang layon

o NANG

Pangatnig sa hugnayan

Bilang pang abay

Pangitna sa salitang inuulit

Din at rin, daw at raw

o Rin at raw

Kung ang sinusundang salita ay nagtatapos sa patinig

o Din at daw

Nagtatapos sa katinig maliban sa /w/ at /y/.

Sina at sila

Sina kapag sinusundan ng pangngalan

Sila – bilang panghalip panao

Pinto at pintuan

o Pinto daanan na isinasara

o Pintuan – kinalalagyan ng pinto

Pahirin at pahiran

o Pahirin alisin sa pamamagitan ng pamunas o kamay

o Pahiran o lagyan ng isang bagay sa pamamagitan ng pamunas

May at mayroon

o May

Pangalan

Pangdiwa

Panguri

Pang-tukoy

o Mayroon

Sinusundan ng panghalip

Kataga

Panagot sa tanong

Subukin at subukan

o Subukin – nais patunayan

o Subukan – titignan nang palihim.

Social dimensions of education

Education

o Teaching and learning specific skills

o Imparting culture from generation to generation

Historical foundation

o Evolutionist – education started from primitive people

o Creationist – education started from adam and eve

o Modern day education owes much of its system to the institutions established by

ancient civilizations

Chinese education

o From riverbanks of Huang Ho and Yang Tze river

o Training people for public service

o Molding a person’s character and moral values

o Government has the responsibility to provide education

o Centered on literature, chinese language and teachings of Confucius

Analects – teachings of Confucius

Egyptian Education

o Polyeist people

o Pharaohs are kings and gods

o Priest and scribes are teachers of noble class

o Parents are teachers of lower class

o Practical and empirical

o Hieroglyphics – system of writing

o Provided the modernworld the basic foundation of education, art, science,

engineering and others.

Greek Education

o Spartan education

Military state

Mothers function as state nurse

Military training

Age 20 assigned for actual war

Age 30 they are compelled to marry

Girls education are limited to the instrucctions given by their mothers

o Athenian Education

Sound mind and sound body

Democratic form of living

Preserves family

Penthatlon – running, jumping, discus, javelin and wrestling

Kitharistes – music teacher, teaches poetry

Grammarian – writing teacher

Ephebos – atenian boy who finished training

o Greek educational Theorists

Socrates – know thyself, man is measure of all things

Plato – Theory of forms and ideas, a vision of utopia

Aristotle – father of modern sciences.

Philosophical Schools

o Academy – Plato

o Lyceum – Aristotle

o School of Stoics – Zeno

o Epicurean – Epicurus

o Roman Education

o Pragmatic Education - Practical application of learning.

Stages of Roman Education

Elementary 7-10 Literator

Secondary – 10-16 = Grammaticus

Higher Education – 16 up = Rhetorical

o Influential thinkers of Roman Education

Cicero

Ideal education for the middle ages

Quintillian

Memory and used it as a motivation, rewards instead of

punishment

Medieval education

Christianity declared as the official religion of the state by Constantine the

Great

Hierarchy of church in middle ages

Pope

Cardinal

Archbishop

Bishop

Priest/clergy

o Interesting History:

Plato and Aristotle

Role of the teacher

Relationship between teacher and student

Methods of teaching

Nature and order of teaching

Role of affect

Juan luis vives

Value of practice

Tap student’s interest

Instructions to individual differences

Self comparison than social comparison

Comenius

Visual aids

Multi cultural education

o Components

Content integration

Knowledge construction process

Prejudice reduction

Equity pedagogy

Modern education

o Humanism – studies of humanities / realizatio of the fullest of human career

Vittorino de Feltre - educate the complete citizen

Desiderus Eramus – Importance of studying the character of the child.

Women should enjoy the same educational rights enjoyed by men

o Reformation

Martin luther – attacked ecclesiastical abuses

Philip melanchon – state school system

o Rise of Protestantism – Increasingly becoming aware and angered by the excesses

of the papacy

o John calvin – sovereignity of God.

o Catholic –Counter Reformation

Catholic uses education to win back disenters

Religious moralism

Social Anthropological Dimension of Education

o Culture – Customs, beliefs, mores, folkways pf a certain group of people

o Sub-culture – practiced by small group of people

o Norm – What is considered normal is basically based on the number of people

practicing a certain behaviour

o Folkways – actions that have moral significance and became repetitive

o Kinds of group

Primary

Secondary

In group

Out group

Reference group

Peer group

Circle

Gang

o Types of group

Integrated group – common action in share meanings and values

Crowd – basis of a shared emotion and feelings

Audience or mass – common attitudes without interaction among

members

Public – have common interest but not necessary come to a common

agreement

Social problems

o Juvenile delinquency

o Crime

o Alcoholism

o Suicide

o Drug addiction

o Racial prejudice

o Industrial conflict

o Poverty

o Graft and corruption

Social control – to maintain social order

o Informal

Mores and folkways

Not written but perceived

Pressure to conform

Internalizing the values and attitudes of family

Helping the child to understand the norms

Desire acceptance

o Formal

Passage of law

Formal mechanism to maintain control over the behaviour of its members

Disallowing privacy or ascribing undesirable status

Social process – social change occurs in pattern

o Classifications

Competition – attain to gain scarce and valued resources of wealth, land

etc

Conflict – use of deliberate power

Accommodation 0 conscious adjustment and compromise to live without

conflict

Assimilation – learning and acceptance of one group of the belief and

values of another group

Culture

o Characteristics

Learned

Varied

Group product

Transmitted

Adaptive

o Philippine Cultural values

Strengths

Pakkipag kapwa tao

Family orientation

Joy and humour

Flexibility, adaptability, creativity

Hardwork and industry

Faith and religiosity

Ability to survive

Weakness

Extreme personalism

Extreme family centeredness

Lack of discipline

Passivity and lack of initiative

Colonial mentality

Kanya-kanya syndrome

Philosophical Foundation of Education

o Confucianism

Confucius

Book of changes, odes, history, ritual and rites, music, spring and autumn

annals

Human relations and virtues

Virtues were: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, sincerity

and harmony

Nature of man and society

Man is main component of society

Man’s life is not how long but how good

Everyone’s goal must be to make each other happy

Supremacy of human values

Wisdom is to know men, virtue is to love men

o Taoism

Each one for himself

Preserve life and avoid danger

On human conduct

Secret of prudence

If one wants to be strong, one must start with a feeling that one is

week

Admit socialism to attain capitalism

o Buddhism

4 noble truths

There is suffering

o Life is full of pain and misery

o There is a cause of suffering

o There is a cessation of suffering

o There is a way of leading to the cessation of suffering

Eight fold paths

Right faith

Right resolve

Right speech

Action

Living

Effort

Attentiveness

Concentration

Theory of KARMA

Other philosophies

o Whatness, whyness and howness

o Man is a rational animal

o Social

o Working

Branches of Philosophy

o Speculative

Logic

Cosmology

Psychology

Theodicy

Metaphysics

o Practical

Logic

Ethics

Philosophy of education

o Naturalism – John Locke

Denies everything that has supernatural significance

Natural goodness of man

Democratic and universal way- everyone must be educated

In accordance to human development and growth

Child as the centre of educational process

o Idealism – socarest abd plato

Nothing but just a mere representation of ideas

Introspection and intuition

Discover full potentials of child and cultivates it.

Emphasis is given on subjects

Lecture, discussion and the socratic dialogue

Emulation of examples and heroes

o Pragmatism – Charles sanders

What is useful is true

Make students work in groups

Experimentation, project making and problem solving

Application of what have learned

o Perennialism – Robert hutchins

Eternal, everlasting, ageless

Truth is universal

To learn means to acquire understanding of great works of civilizations

Ideas in the past are still taught because it has significance

Curriculum should contain cognitive subjects

Recurrent themes of human life

The teacher must have mastery of the subject and authority

Education of the rational person

o Humanism – de feltre, erasmus

Economic and political changes

Individualistic

Living life to the fullest

Individual freedom

Social

Social rather than individual happiness

Reforms and improvement of social rekationships

Education is a process

Learner is in control of his destiny

Concern on methods rather than discussions

Importance of playing in the curriculum

Use of praise and rewards

Literary appreciation, physical education, social training

o Progressivism – John Dewey

Change and growth

Focuses on the child as a whole

Questions and interests of students

Validation of ideas by the students through active experimentation

Discussion and interactions

o Realism

Actualities of life

Study through organized, separate and systematically arranged matter

Recitation, experimentation

o Existentialism – jean paul sartre

Subject matter is a personal choice

Willingness of student to choose

Emphasis is given on the students

Students should not be treated as objects to be measured

Giving opportunities for the students fir self actualization

Character development is through the responsibility of every individual

o Essentialism

Essence precedes existence

Traditional or back to the basic approach in education

Fundamental of education skill

Students to become competent and valuable members f society

Focuses on basics

Subjects that are given emphasis include geography, grammar, reading,

history, mathematics, art and hygiene

Stresses the values of hard work, perseverance

To think logically and systematically

Regular assignments, drills, recitation, frequent testing and evaluations

o Naturalism

Creation of common language

Democracy and duties of citizenship

Stimulates the development of the state which includes the control and

support of public schools

Grammar, geography, and history

Emphasis on content

o Constructivism

It is the individual that constructs reality

Adjusting one’s mental modes to accommodate new experience

o Reconstructivism

Schools should originate policies and progress

Teachers as instruments to encourage and lead students

Curriculum emphasizes on social reforms

Problem oriented type

o Behaviorism

The only reality is the physical world

Man is product of the environment

Legal bases of education

o Pre-spanish – way to preserve their culture and transmit this knowledge to future

generations

o Spanish regime – rearing children to learn skills acquired by the youth in spain

o American era – education accessible to all

o Japanese – instrument for Filipinos to embrace Japanese ideologies

o Marcos’ Regime

Pledges

Peace and order

Land reform

Economic reform

Development of moral values

Government and reorganization

Employment and man-power services

Social services

Principles of Teaching

Basic Concepts

o Strategy of teaching – developing a plan to attain goal and to guard against

undesirable results. The art of using psychological plan in order to increase the

probabilities and favourable consequences.

o Methods of teaching – series of related and progressive acts performed by a

teacher and students to attain specific objectives

o Technique of teaching – personalized style of carrying out a particular step of a

given method.

o Device – teaching aid or tool

Classification of teaching methods

o Traditional – old fashion way

o Time tested – methods that stood the test of time and still being used at present.

o Progressive – these are newer and more improved methods of teaching.

Variables that affect teaching method

o Objectives

o Nature of students

o Nature of subject matter

o The teacher

o Technology

o School environment

Lesson Planning

o Learning objectives

Description of what the student will be able to do

The conditions under which the student will perform the task

Criteria for evaluating student performance

o A goal is a statement of the intended general outcome of an instructional unit or

program. A learning objective is a statement of one of several specific

performances, the achievement of which contributes to the attainment of the goal.

o Learning objectives are guides to:

Selection of content

Development of instructional strategy

Development and selection of instructional materials

Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then

evaluating student’s performances

Characteristics essential to insuring clear statements of objectives

o Behaviour – describe the competency to be learned in performance term

The student will be able to compute the standard deviation

o Criterion – how well a learner must perform to be judge adequate, a degree of

accuracy.

The number computed will be orrect

o Conditions – conditions under which the learner will be expected to perform in

the evaluation situation

Given a set of data

o Given a set of data, the student will be able o compute the standard deviation.

Process oriented learner behaviour

o Knowledge

o Comprehension

o Application

o Analysis

o Synthesis

o Evaluation

Domains of learning

o Affective – learning of beliefs, attitudes and values

o Psychomotor – learning of physical movements such as ballet steps

o Cognitive – learning of information and the processes of dealing with that

information

Art of questioning

o Categories of questions

Low inquiry questions

Elicit the meaning of a term

Represent something by a word or a phrase

Supply an example of something

Make statement of issues

Supply a summary or a review that was previously said or

provided

Provide a specific, predictable answer to a question

High inquiry questions

Perform an abstract operation

Rate some entity as to its value, dependability

Find similarities or differences in the qualities of two or more

entities

Make a prediction that is the result of some stated condition

Make inferences to account for the occurrence of something

Basic approaches in early childhood education

o Montessori approach

Child will reach his/her maximum potentials in a prepared environment, to

take care of their own belongings

o Waldorf approach

Approach fosters home-like atmosphere and environment focusing on

creative play

o Reggio Emilia approach

The projects of students reflects the student’s interest and the teacher’s

simply guide them

o High/scope approach

Collaboration between the teacher and students

o Bank street approach

The program looked at the children as active learners and the world

around them is the best teacher

Childhood and adolescent learner

o Childhood – os defined as the time for a boy or girl from birth until he/ she is

an adult.

Every human being below the age of 18 unless

o Adolescence – is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood.

Physical and motor development

o Head to tail movement

o Sucking reflex

o Head turning

o Rooting reflex

o 3- 4 months grasping ability and relex

o Tonic neck

o 2-3 years ability to run, jump and hop, throwing and catching games

o 3-4 years climbing stairs

o 4-5 climbing stairs in an adult fashion

o 5-6 refining earlier skills

Brain development

o 4 mts the infant’s brain responds to every sound

o 8-9mts memories from experience

o 10 mts distinguish and produce sounds of their own

o 12 – 18 mts babies can keep in memory something that has been hidden and

find it again. Memories sequences

o 24 mts preschool children now have clear pictures in mind of people who are

dear to them

o 30 mts can keep in mind a whole sequence of spatial maps

o 36 mts can hold different emotions in his mind

Factors affecting development

o Maternal nutrition

o Child nutrition

o Early sensory stimulation

Exceptional development

o Physical disabilities

o Attention deficit disorder

o Attention deficit hyperactive disorder

Linguistic and literacy development

o 4mts of age, babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.

o Starts off as recall of simple words without associated meaning.

o Infants use their bodies and vocal cries to communicate.

o Biological preconditions

o Social preconditions

Language is acquired through imitation

Bilingual language development

o Simultaneous development

Acquires 2 language at the same time before the age of 3

o Sequential bilingualism

Can draw on the knowledge and experience of the first language while

acquiring the second language

o Red flags:

No sound by 2-6months of age

Less than 1 word per week for 6-15 mts

Less than 20 words by 20 mts

No use of word combination by age 2-3 yrs

Lack of normal milestones in the first language

Prolonged phases of not talking

Difficulty retrieving words

o Factors affecting language development

Inadequate stimulation

Delayed gen. development

Specific difficulty with language learning.

Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles

Medical problems

Inadequate awareness of communication

Reduced hearing

Change in child’s environment

Exposure to too many language

Inadequate opportunity for speech

Emotional factors

Short attention span

Family history

Exceptional development

o Aphasia – loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language.

o Dyslexia – difficulty with written language

Cognitive development

o Theories of cognitive development

o Jean piaget – schemata in developmental stages

Sensorimotor period 0-2

1st congenital reflexes

sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or

interesting objects

2nd

development of habits

3rd

substage coordination between vision and apprehension

o Dawn of logic

4th

coordination of secondary circular reaction stage

o Development of logic

o First proper intelligence

5th

substage new means to meet goals

o Young scientist

6th

substage

o Beginning of insight and true creativity

o Trial and error

Pre operational 2-7 – mentally acting on objects

Symbolic functioning – use of mental symbols to represent

something which is not physically present

Centration – child focusing. Attending to one aspect of

stimulus or simulation

Intuitive thought – believe in something without knowing why

she/he believes it.

Egocentrism – only o think from her/his point of view

Inability to conserve – lacks perception of conservation of

mass, volume and number

Animism – inanimate objects have lifelike qualities

Concrete operational 7-11 – appropriate use of logic

Seriation – arrange objects in order

Classification – name and identify sets of objects according to

appearance.

Decentering – takes into accound multiple aspects of a problem

to solve it.

Reversibility – objects can be changed then returned to their

original stage

Concentration – quality, length or number of items is unrelated

to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items

Elimination of egocentrism – viewing things from another’s

perspective

Formal operational 11-adulhood

Thinking abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions

from the information available.

o Information processing theory

3 stages

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Sensory register –holds all sensory information for a very brief time

period

Short term memory

Long term memory

o Executive control processes

Guides the flow of information through the system

Attention, rehearsals organization (metacognitive skills)

o Forgetting – the inability to access information when needed

Theories of Intelligence

o Psychometric theory – structure of intelligence

Seven factors

Verbal comprehension

Verbal fluency

Numbers

Spatial visualization

Inductive reasoning

Memory

And perceptual speed

o Cognitive theories assumption that intelligence is comprised of a set of mental

representations of information

We process chunks of information one at a time

o Exceptional development

Giftedness

Mental retardation

Autism

Asperger’s syndrome

Down syndrome

Social and emotional development

o erik erikson – social development of human beings

marked by conflict

how each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific

life-stage challenge in tension with another

actionable wisdom

hope – trust vs mistrust

will – autonomy vs shame and doubt

purpose – initiative vs guilt

fidelity – industry vs inferiority

fidelity – identity vs role confusion

love – intimacy vs isolation

caring – generativity vs stagnation

wisdom - integrity vs despair

o albert bandura – social cognitive theory

behaviour

environment

internal events

o 3 types of reinforces of behaviour

Direct reinforcement – experienced by learner

Vicarious reinforcement – behaviour of the model

Self reinforcement – feelings of satisfaction

o Social cognitive theory

Attentional processes

Retentional processes

Motor reproduction

Motivational processes

Emotional Intelligence

o Self awareness- read one’s emotions

o Self management – controlling one’s emotions and impulses

o Relationship management – inspire, influence and develop others.

Moral development

o Pre conventional

o Conventional

o Post conventional

Factors affecting development

o Media

o Parenting

o Role models

o Peer groups

Facilitating human learning

o Acquisition of development of memories and behaviours

Theories of learning

o Thorndike

Associationism theory

Association between stimulus and response

o Law of effect, exercise and readiness

o Ivan Pavlov

Response is related to stimulus (Dog’s salivation experiment

Operant conditioning – has to do something in order to get a reward

Reinforcement – behavioural consequence that strengthens

behaviour

o Positive – increase frequency

o Negative – behaviour by removal

o Primary – food, water, sleep

o Secondary – money, grades, stars

o Albert bandura – observational learning

o Wolfgang kohler – gaining insight

o Gestalt theory how people assign meanings to visual stimuli

o Kurt lewin’s topological and vector theory – the behaviour of an individual at a

given moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously

o Jerome bruner’s theory – acquisition, transformation and evaluation

o Information processing theory – value of perception, attention and memory in the

learning process.

Individual differences in learning

o Multiple intelligence

Howard gardner

Naturalist

Interpersonal

Logical

Spatial

Intrapersonal

Bodily

Musical

Linguistic

Assessment of Learning

Assessment

o Refers to the process of gathering, describing, or qualifying information about the

student performance.

Measurement

o A process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an

individual possesses a particular characteristic

Evaluation

o Process of examining the performance of the student. Whether or not the student

has met the lesson objectives

Test

o Instrument designed to measure quality, ability, skill or knowledge

Types of Measurement

o Norm – referenced test

Measure the performance of a student compared with other student.

The purpose is to rank each student with respect to the achievement of

others in broad areas of knowledge and to discriminate high and low

achievers

o Criterion – referenced test

Designed to measure the performance of students with respect to some

particular criterion or standard.

Each individual is compared with a pre-determined set of standard for

acceptable achievement.

The purpose is to determine whether each student has achieved specific

skills or concepts. And to find out how much students know before

instructions begins and after It has finished

Differences between Norm-referenced test and criterion referenced tests

Norm- Referenced test Criterion reference test

Typically covers a large domain of learning

task, with just a few items measuring each

specific task.

Typically focuses on a delimited domain of

learning tasks, with a relative large number

of items measuring each specific task

Emphasizes discrimination among

individuals in terms of relative level of

learning

Emphasizes among individuals can and

cannot perform

Favours items of large difficulty and

typically omits very easy and very hard

items

Matches item difficulty to learning tasks,

without altering item difficulty or omitting

easy or hard items

Interpretation requires a clearly defined

group

Interpretation requires a clearly defined and

delimited achievement of domain

Types of Assessment

o Placement assessment

Concerned with the entry performance of student. To determine the

prerequisite skills.

o Diagnostic Assessment

Given before instruction. Aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of

the students regarding the topics to be discussed

Determine the level of competence of the students

Identify the students who have already knowledge about the lesson

Determine the causes of learning problems and formulate a plan for a

remedial action

o Formative assessment

Used to monitor the learning progress of the students during and after the

instructions.

Provide feedback immediately

Identify the learning errors

Provide information to the teacher for modifying instruction and used for

improving learning and instruction.

o Summative assessment

Given at the end of a course or unit

Determine the extent which the instructional objectives have been met

Certify student mastery of the intended outcome and used for assigning

grades

Provide information for judging appropriateness

Determine the effectiveness of instruction

Modes of assessment

o Traditional – typically select an answer or recall information to complete the

assessment

o Performance assessment – students are asked to perform real-world tasks that

demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills.

o Portfolio – a collection of student’s work specifically selected to tell a particular

story about the student.

Instructional objectives

o Characteristics

Describe a learning outcome

Student oriented focus on the learner not on the teacher

Observable or describe an observable product

Sequentially appropriate

Attainable within a reasonable amount of time

Developmentally appropriate

Factors to consider when constructing Good Test Items

o Validity – degree to which the test measures what is intended to measure.

The usefulness of the test for a given purpose

o Reliability – refers to the consistency of score obtained by the same person when

retested using the same instrument

o Administrability – the test should be administered uniformly to all students so that

the scores obtained will not vary due to factors other than differences of the

stuents’ knowledge and skills

o Scorability – the test should be easy to score

o Appropriateness – the test item that the teacher construct must assess the exact

performances called for in the learning objectives.

o Adequacy – the test should contain a wide sampling of items to determine

educational outcomes

o Fairness – the test should not be biased to examinees

o Objectivity – represents the agreement of two or more raters

Table of Specification

o Is a device for describing test items of the content and the process dimensions.

Number of items = number of class sessions x desired total number of students / total number

of class sessions

Item analysis

o The process of examining the student’s response to each item in the test.

o 3 criteria’s

Difficulty of an item

Discriminating power of an item

Measures of attractiveness

o Difficulty index(DF) refers to the proportion of the number of students in the

upper and lower groups who answered an item correctly

DF=Pug + PLG

Pug = proportion of the upper group who got an item right

Plg = proportion of the lower group who got an item right

Level of difficulty

Index range Difficulty level

0.00 – 0.20 Very difficult

0.21 – 0.40 Difficult

0.41 – 0.61 Moderately difficult

0.61 – 0.80 Easy

0.81-1.00 Very easy

Example: eighty students took an exam in algebra, 6 students in the upper group got the correct

answer and the 4 students in the lower group got the correct item for item number 6. Find the

discriminating efficiency

Given:

Number of students who took the exam = 80

27% of 80 = 21.6 or 22, which means that there are 22 students in the upper performing group

and 22 students in the lower performing group.

Pug = 6/22 = 27%

Plg = 4/22 = 18%

Di = Pug-Plg

=27%-18%

Di=9%

Dm = Pug+plg

Dm = 45%

De = d1/dm

=0.09/0.045

De= 0.20 or 20%

This can be interpreted as on the average, the item is discriminatingly at 20% of the potential of

an item of it’s difficulty

Types of Validity

o Content Validity – refers to the relationship between a test and the instructional

objectives, establishes content so that the test measure, what it is supposed to

measure

o Criterion related validity – refers to the extent to which scores from a test relate to

theoretically similar measures. It is a measure of how accurately a student’s score

can be used to estimate a score on a criterion measure

o Concurrent validity – requires the correlation of the predictor or concurrent

measure with the criterion measure

Four methods of establish reliability

o Test-retest method – administering the same test twice

o Equivalent-form method –administering 2 different but equivalent forms of the

test to the same students

o Split-half method

o Kuder-richardson formula

The mean

o Mean is the most common measure of the centre and it is also known as the

arithmetic average

Median

o Is a point that divides the scores in a distribution into two equal parts when the

scores are arranged according to magnitude.

Mode

o Refers to the score or scores that occurred most in the distribution

o Example: 34,36,45,34,45,55,61,34,46 mode= 34

Measures of variability

o Single value that is used to describe the spread out of the scores in a distribution,

that is above or below the measures of central tendency

Range

o Difference between highest and lowest score

Math

HS = 62

LS = 33

R = hs-ls

R= 62-33

R=29

Quartile deviation is the half of the difference between the third quartile and the first

quartile

Standard Deviation

Rubrics

o A scoring scale and instructional tool to assess the performance of student using a

task-specific set of criteria.

o Two parts: the criteria for the task and levels of performance for each criterion

o Types of Rubrics

Holistic – assigns a level of performance along with a multiple criteria as a

whole, in other words, you put the components together

Quick scoring, provide overview of student’s achievement

Analytic – breaks down the final products into component parts and each

part is scored independently.

Performance based assessment

o Is a direct and systematic observation of the actual performances of the students

based from a pre-determined performance criteria.

Curriculum development

Curriculum

o Curere means to run

o The “WHAT” of teaching

Different points of view of the curriculum

o Traditional

Course study and syllabus

Field of study which is made up of its foundations, domains of knowledge

as well as research theories and principles

Written documents or a plan of action in accomplishing goals

o Progressive

The total learning experiences of the individual

All the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers

Sequence of potential experiences set up in the schools

All the experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the

teacher and also learned by the students

Two models of Cur. Dev. And concepts

o Ralph tyler model

What should the school seek to attain

What educational experiences can be provided

How can these experiences be organized

How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not.

o Hilda taba

Teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in

developing it.

Three interacting processes in Cur.Dev

o Planning

o Implementing

o Evaluating

Allan glatthorn’s types of curriculum operating in schools

o Recommended – proposed by individual scholars, professional associations and

reform commissions, federal and state.

o Written – appears in school, district, division or country documents. To ensure

that the educational goals of the system are being accomplished

o Taught – delivered curriculum, an observer would see in action as the teacher

taught

o Supported curriculum – reflected in and shaped by the resources allocated to

support or deliver the curriculum.

o Assessed/tested curriculum – the set of learning that are assessed in teacher-made

classroom tests.

o Learned curriculum – denote all the changes in values, perceptions, and behaviour

that occur as a result of school experiences.

o Hidden curriculum – unstudied curriculum, unintended curriculum which is not

deliberately planned but may modify behaviour or influence learning outcomes.

Major foundations of curriculum

o Sociological and cultural – they are part of the bases and sources of many

curriculum matters and decisions.

Based on research and able to address multi-cultural concerns

Basis for curricular changes/ improvement

o Philosophical – gives direction to curriculum

Idealism - Plato

Mind and spirit and of developing them in the learner (subject

matter focused)

Realism – Aristotle

Truth can be tested/proven (Subject centred and organized from

simple to complex

Pragmatism – dewey

The world of change, man can know anything within his

experience(activity/Learner centred)

Perennialism

Human beings are rational (basic education of rational men)

Existentialism

Matter of individual existence (recognition of individual

differences)

Essentialism

Ideas Men should know for social stability (assimilation pf

prescribed basic subject matter)

Reconstructionism

Schools are the chief means for building new social order

Curriculum should include subjects that deal with social and

cultural crises

o Historical foundations of Cur. Dev.

Pre Spanish – practical training

Spanish – Christian doctrine

American – public school system

Commonwealth – development of moral character

Japanese – prosperity sphere educational objective

New society – man power training

4th

republic – rights of all citizens to quality education

Major theories of learning

o Behaviourism – stimulus are reinforces

Thorndike

Law of learning

Law of readiness, exercise and effect

Classical conditioning- Pavlov

To condition the child in early years of life to train them what you

what them to be

Operant conditioning (Skinner)

Elicited responses

Emitted responses

Observational learning and modelling – Bandura

People learn through observation and modelling

Hierarchy learning - gagne

8 types of learning

o Signal learning

o Stimulus response

o Motor chains

o Verbal association

o Multiple discrimination

o Concepts

o Rules

o Problem solving

o Cognitivism – mental operation

Jean Piaget – from birth to maturity

Sensorimotor 0-2

Preoperational 2-7

Concrete operational 7-11

Formal operations 11-onwards

o Humanistic psychology – whole child

Tyler’s method

Continuity

Sequence

Integration

Taba curriculum strategies for productive learning

Bruner – acquisition, transformation and evaluation

Lev Vygotsky

ZPD

Cultural transmission and development

Learning precedes development

Sociocultural development theory

Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to evelopment

Child is an active agent

Thinking and learning theories

Gardner’s Multiple intelligence

Constuctivism

Individual as the active person in the process of thinking, learning

and coming to know

K to 12 model as developed by DepEd

o Universal kindergarten

o Unclogging BEC

o Electives to be offered in senior HS (arts, music, tech-voc)

o Salient Features of K-12

Strengthening early childhood education

Children who compete a standards-based kindergarten program are better

prepared for primary education

o Making the curriculum relevant to the learners

o Building proficiency through language

Core curriculum of the k-12 program

o Languages

o Literature

o Communication

o Mathematics

o Philosophy

o Natural sciences

o Social sciences

o Tracks

Academic – business, accountancy management(BAM), Humanities,

education, Social Sciences (HESS) Science, Technology, engineering,

mathematics (STEM)

AIMS OF k-12

o Information, media and technology skills

o Learning and innovation skills

o Effective communication skills

o Life and career skills

o

ROBERT JOHN P. PASTERA

Central Bicol State University of Agriculture Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English Minor in Social Studies

MA in Language and Literature

MAEd Major in English Instruction