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Know how of english grammar
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1. COURSE OUTLINE
1. COURSE OUTLINE2. EXERCISES3. INTRODUCTION4. NATO Codes5. VOWEL SOUNDS6. CONSONANT SOUNDS7. VOWEL COMBINATIONSA Vowel CombinaFons
ai/ayOther a vowel combinaFons
E Vowel CombinaFonsee and eaOther e vowel combinaFons
I Vowel CombinaFonsO Vowel CombinaFonsU Vowel CombinaFons8. DIGRAPHSDigraphsTrigraphs
IRREGULAR VOWELS/EXCEPTIONSTENSESPREPOSITIONSNOUNSVERBSADJECTIVESADVERBSARTICLESPRONOUNSSUBJECT VERB AGREEMENTSENTENCE STRUCTURE
COMMONLY USED WORDSGAMES & ACTIVITIES
2. EXERCISES
# Breathe from your stomach
# exaggerated SMILE to fish
# le\ to right stretch & kissing noise
# open mouth -‐ tongue -‐> up, down, le\ & right. Tongue in clockwise & counterclockwise.
# L& R sound -‐ tongue fully out -‐ & tongue fully pulled back
# EEE (smile) -‐ AAAA (open) -‐ OOO (fish)
# Say "AW"-‐ (like "Arkansas" -‐-‐ drop the jaw).
# Say "EE"-‐Pull the corners of your lips back and say "Eeeeee...."
# Make wide chewing moFons while humming gently.
# Stretch every muscle in your jaw and face. Open your mouth as wide as possible (as if you were about to yawn), while moving your jaw in circles, and sideways.
# Open your mouth wide, as in the previous exercise, and shut it again. Repeat 5 Fmes.
# Jaw IsometricsYou can do this jaw exercise yourself or have someone help you. Start with your mouth open. Have someone hold your chin firmly. Try to close your mouth using nothing but your jaw muscles -‐ do not move your head! Hold for a count of 5.You will definitely feel faFgue in your jaw muscles a\er doing this a few Fmes. Start out only doing 3-‐5 of these.Now, for the next jaw exercise you start in the opposite direcFon. Start with your mouth closed. This Fme have someone place their hand under your chin. Without moving your head try to open your mouth. Hold for a count of 5.Try 3-‐5 and increase the amount as you gain strength.
3. INTRODUCTION
Ingredients of Language
● Vowels -‐ These affect the basic pronunciaFon of a word.● Consonants -‐ These are the smallest units of sound. They are also most affected by our regional
and mother tongue influence.● Syllables -‐ These allow us to break up words so that we can idenFfy what their pronunciaFon could
be.● Syllable Stress -‐ Helps us to accurately pronounce a word.● Symbols – Every language has a set of symbols called alphabet.● Spellings -‐ Important for effecFve wriFng. PronunciaFon is Important for effecFve communicaFon.● EnunciaFon – Fully pronouncing each syllable of a word with the proper emphasis.● Grammar -‐ Every language has set of rules, which decides sentence construcFon.● Vocabulary -‐ Set of words used commonly and it increases with age.● ModulaFon -‐ Helps us imbibe the expression and rhythm associated with a language to keep the
audience hooked.● Rate of Speech -‐ Speaking at a pace that is comfortable to hear and comprehend.● Fillers – Use of meaningless words or sounds that is distracFng.● Slang – Informal language specific to a parFcular group.● Stance -‐ Maintaining an appropriate posture to facilitate communicaFon.● AcFve Listening – An act of paying ajenFon to the speaker and also lekng him/her know that you
are paying ajenFon.●Voice Clarity-‐ Speaking clearly so as to be understood.
4. NATO Codes
A Alpha N November
B Bravo O Oscar
C Charlie P Papa
D Delta Q Quebec
E Echo R Romeo
F Foxtrot S Sierra
G Golf T Tango
H Hotel U Uniform
I India V Victor
J Juliet W Whisky
K Kilo X X-‐Ray
L Lima Y Yankee
M Mike Z Zulu
5. VOWEL SOUNDS
A has FIVE sounds. 1. Ae -‐ Arabic, Apple, Hand, Accent, Back, Allergy, Have, Had, Has, An9virus, Ap9tude, Inac9ve, KidnapMouth Posi9on: Wide open, laughter lines, 2. Au = Awwww Words beginning with Au,Al, AwAuto, Always, Awesome, Almost, 3. A -‐ sound of the alphabetAny, Many, Bake, Anyway, Able, behave, agentcomplaint4. Aa -‐ Second leKer of the Hindi AlphabetAsk, Asthma, Basket, Aghast 5. Uh -‐ Gentle, short sound.Petal, Meal, frontal, Appropriate, Awake
EXERCISE: Iden9fy the sounds of A in the following Words:
Ability Accenture Aggressive Already Are
Able Administra9on Agony An Argument
About Adver9sement Air Apologise Around
Absolutely Again Airport Appe9te Ask
Accelerate Against Alias Appreciate Asked
Accent Aged Ally Appropriate Assess
a able about above across act ac9on actually add addi9on adjec9ve afraid Africa aSer again against age ago agreed ahead air all allow almost alone along already also although always am America among amount an and angle animal another answer any anything appear apple are area arms army around arrived art as ask at away
E has TWO sounds. 1. Eh -‐ Most common sound50% of the UH (1st leKer of Hindi)Lend, Mend, Bent, Elephant, Energy, Embrace, Effort, Especially, Every, Evidence, Episode,2. Eee -‐ alphabet sound.Used less frquentlyMeal, Meat, Eel, Elated. Easy, Each, Equal, Equality, Erase, Event, Evil, Either, Usually Ea = ee
Excep9on -‐ Eye (i sound)
Ear Elite Energy Envelope Et cetera (etc)
Echo Embarrass Engine Environment Evening
Economics Embassy Engineer Equal Event
Educa9on Emergency Enough Equality Everyone
Either Employee Entertain Escape Everything
Eleven Endeavour Entrepreneur Especially Evolu9on
each early ears earth east easy eat edge effect eggs eight either electric elements else end energy engine England English enjoy enough entered en9re equal equa9on especially Europe even evening ever every everyone everything exactly example except exci9ng exercise expect experience experiment explain express eye
I has TWO sounds. I ice idea if I'll important in inches include increase Indian indicate industry informa9on insects inside instead instruments interest interest into iron is island isn't it its it's itself
1. E (soS EE) ImliIndia, Image, Inves9gate, Infinite, 2. I alphabet (Eye)Ice, Iron, Ion, Irony, Idle, Idol, Iodine,
i never has a long EE sound -‐ beau9ful
O has THREE sounds. object observe ocean of off office oSen oh oil old on once one only open opposite or order other our out outside over own oxygen
1. Au (soS)Organise, October, Op9cal, Onside, Occupy, Object, Offend, Orange, College, Knowledge, 2. O (the alphabet)Oasis, Obey, Oblige, Omega, open, 3. UhOccassion, Oven, Official, Dove,
U has FOUR sounds. uncle under underline understand unit un9l up upon us use usually
1. Uh = First leKer of the Hindi alphabetcut, but, muK, Most words star9ng wit ‘UN’ or ‘UP’. For eg. Understand, untoward, unstable, upturn, upstairs. Excep9on -‐ Uniform & other Uni words2. U (the alphabet sound)Unique, Uniform, Universe, uranium, user, usable, u9lity, usual, duke, cute, mute3. OoohLuke, fluke, flute, glue, 4. Oo (5th leKer of the Hindi alphabet)Pulley, bull, pull
6. CONSONANT SOUNDSA comprehensive list of consonant sounds follows:B makes the /b/ sound as in bat; also, when b follows m in the same syllable, it is silent as in lamb.B baby back bad ball bank base be bear beat beau9ful became because become bed been before began begin behind being believe bell belong below beside best beKer between big bill birds bit black block blood blow blue board boat body bones book born both boKom box boy branches break bright bring Bri9sh broken brother brought brought brown build building built burning business but buy by
C makes the /k/ sound as in cat and the /s/ sound as in cease—When c is followed by e, i or y, it says /s/ as in cent. Otherwise, it says /k/ as in cat.Examples of the /s/ sound: centre, ceiling, circle, and cycle.\Examples of the /k/ sound: co/age, cave, cream, curious, and clever.call came can cannot can't capital captain car care carefully carry case cat catch ca3le caught cause cells center cents century certain chance change chart check chief child children choose church circle city class clean clear climbed close clothes cloud coast cold color column come common company compare complete compound condi8ons consider consonant contain con8nued control cook cool copy corn corner correct cost co3on could couldn't count country course covered cows create cried crops cross crowd current cut
D makes the /d/ sound as in dog.dance dark day dead deal death decided decimal deep describe desert design details determine developed dic9onary did didn't died difference different difficult direct direc9on discovered distance divided division do doctor does doesn't dog dollars done don't door down draw drawing dress drive drop dry during
F makes the /f/ sound as in fat.face fact factories factors fall family famous far farm farmers fast father fear feel feeling feet fell felt few field fig fight figure filled finally find fine fingers finished fire first fish fit five flat floor flow flowers fly follow food foot for force forest form forward found four frac9on France free French fresh friends from front fruit full fun
G makes the /g/ sound as in get, and the /j/ sound as in gem.When g is followed by i, e or y, it says /j/ as in gym. Otherwise, it says /g/ as in gold.Examples of the /j/ sound: gentle, giant, and gymnas4c.Examples of the /g/ sound: gallon, gold, guide, glass, and grow.Excep9ons: get, got, begin, girl, give, gear, geese, gi6, girth, geyser, and giddy.Game garden gas gave general get girl give glass go God gold gone good got government grass great Greek green grew ground group grow guess gun
H makes the /h/ sound as in hat; also, some9mes h is silent, as in honesty.had hair halt hand happened happy hard has hat have he head hear heard heart heat heavy held help her here high hill him himself his history hit hold hole home hope horse hot hours house how however huge human hundred hun9ng J makes the /j/ sound as in jam.Japanese job joined jumped justK makes the /k/ sound as in kite.keep kept key killed kind king knew know known L makes the /l/ sound as in lap, and the /lə/ sound as in glad and cycle.
lady lake land language large last later laughed law lay lead learn least leave led leS legs length less let let's leKer level lie life liSed light like line list listen liKle live located long look lost lot loud love lowM makes the /m/ sound as in mad.machine made main major make man many map march mark match material maKer may maybe me mean measure meat meet melody members men metal method middle might mile milk million mind mine minutes miss modern molecules moment money months moon more morning most mother mountain mouth move movement much music must my N makes the /n/ sound as in nap.name na9on natural near necessary need never new next night no nor north northern nose not note nothing no9ce noun now number numeral P makes the /p/ sound as in park.page paint pair paper paragraph park part par8cular party passed past pa3ern pay people per perhaps period person phrase picked picture piece place plains plan plane plant plants play please plural poem point pole poor posi8on possible pounds power prac8ce prepared presidents pre3y printed probably problem process produce products property provide pulled pushed put
R makes the /r/ sound as in race. When r follows a vowel, it makes a special sound: see R-‐Controlled Vowels.race radio rain raised ran rather reached read ready really reason received record red region remain remember repeated report represent resent rest result return rhythm rich ride right ring rise river road rock rolled room root rope rose round row rule run S makes the /s/ sound as in sit, and the /z/ sound as in has.safe said sail same sand sat save saw say scale school science scien8sts score sea seat second sec8on see seeds seem seen sell send sense sent sentence separate serve set se3led seven several shall shape sharp she ship shoes shop short should shoulder shouted show shown side sight sign signal silent similar simple since sing sir sister sit six size skin sky sleep sleep slowly small smell smiled snow so so= soil soldiers solu8on some someone something some8mes son song soon sound south southern space speak special speed spell spot spread spring square stand stars start state statement stay steel step s8ck s8ll stone stood stop store story straight strange stream street stretched string strong students study subject substances such suddenly suffix sugar suggested sum summer sun supply suppose sure surface surprise swim syllables symbols system
T makes the /t/ sound as in tap; also, some9mes t is silent, as in whistle.table tail take talk tall teacher team tell temperature ten terms test than that the their them themselves then there these they thick thin thing think third this those though thought thousands three through thus 8ed 8me 8ny to today together told tone too took tools top total touch toward town track trade train train travel tree triangle trip trouble truck true try tube turn two typeV makes the /v/ sound as in van.valley value various verb very view village visit voice vowelW makes the /w/ sound as in wet. w placed before a single vowel will usually modify its sound, as in wash.wait walk wall want war warm was wash Washington wasn't watch water waves way we wear weather week weight well we'll went were west western what wheels when where whether which while white who whole whose why wide wife wild will win wind window wings winter wire wish with within without woman women wonder won't wood word work workers world would wouldn't write wri3en wrong wroteX makes the /ks/ sound as in box, the /gs/ sound as in exact, and the /z/ sound as in xylophone.
Y makes the /y/ sound as in yet. y can also act as a vowel.Examples of Y as a Consonant -‐ Yes, yam, yell, yellow, yogurtExamples of Y as a Vowel -‐ gym, my, cycle, baby, hairy, skyyard year yellow yes yet you young your you're yourself
Z makes the /z/ sound as in zip.
7. VOWEL COMBINATIONSA vowel combinaKon is a combina9on of two or three vowels, or of a vowel and at least one consonant, that is associated with one or more specific single sounds. For example, ea has the sounds /long e/ and /long a/; ay has the sound /long a/, and igh has the sound /long i/. These vowel combina9ons are some9mes calleddigraphs, diphthongs, trigraphs, and triphthongs.Vowel combina9ons occur in three different forms in wriKen English:
1.Vowels oSen appear in clusters within a single syllable. This is the most common form.2.Vowels oSen appear in combina9on with a par9cular consonant or consonants which, together, represent a
sound unit that is different from what you would expect if you didn't know the specific combina9on. For example, the o in old has the /long o/ sound, but if you didn't already know that already, you would think that the o in cold was short.
3.Another common combina9on in English is one or two vowels followed by gh. The gh is usually silent. It is usually easier to decode the whole unit (igh, eigh) than to process the vowel and the gh seperately.
A Vowel CombinaKonsai/ayTogether, ai or ay make a /long a/ sound.Example words: aim, rain, braid, paint, ray, say, stay, tail, twain, praise, stain, and mainOther a vowel combinaKons
●ay as in day, say, play, spray, and tray●au as in fault, gaunt, fraud, launch, pause, and sauce●aw as in saw, paw, claw, dawn, and crawl●augh as in caught, taught, daughter, naughty, haughty, and slaughter●wa /wô/ as in want, wash, swamp, squash, squat●wa /wă/ as in wax, wag, swam, and quack●all as in ball, tall, hall, and small●ald as in bald, scald, and alder●alk as in talk, walk, chalk, and stalk●alm as in alms, calm, palm, and psalm●alt as in halt, malt, and salt
E Vowel CombinaKonsee and eaTogether, ee or ea make a /long e/ sound. Some9mes, ea together makes a /short e/ sound or a /long a/ sound instead.Example words (ee): peek, see, queen, sleep, cheese, street, meet, and teamExample words (ea /long e/): eat, sea, each, leaf, peach, mean, team, ease, and pleaseExample words (ea /short e/): dead, head, spread, health, and meantExample words (ea /long a/): break, great, steak, and yeaOther e vowel combinaKons
●eu/ew as in sleuth, deuce, few, new, and shrewd●ei/ey/eigh /long a/ as in veil, beige, they, whey, eight, and weigh●ei/ey/eigh /long e/ as in seize, key, money, valley●ei/ey/eigh /long i/ as in heist, eye, geyser, height
I Vowel CombinaKons●ie /long e/ as in brief, field, grieve, and piece●ie/ye /long i/ as in die, 9e, dye, and rye●igh as in high, thigh, night, flight, and wright●ign as in sign, align, assign, and benign●ind as in bind, kind, mind, grind, and behind
O Vowel CombinaKons
●oo as in boo, food, smooth, and moose●oo as in book, look, good, and stood●oa /long o/ as in oat, loam, groan, loathe, and loaves●oe /long o/ as in doe, and hoe●oi/oy /y/ as in oil, coin, voice, boy, and ploy●old/olk/olt /long o/ as in gold, scold, folk, yolk, bolt, and volt●oll/ost /long o/ as in roll, knoll, scroll, ghost, most, and post●oll/ost /short o/ as in doll, loll, cost, lost, and frost●ou/ow as in out, round, bounce, how, down, and browse●ou/ow /long o/ as in soul, poultry, own, glow, snow, and owe●ou as in you, soup, group, and rouge
U Vowel CombinaKons●ue /long u/ as in cue, due, hue, rue, sue, blue, clue, flue, glue, and true●ui /long u/ as in suit, fruit, cruise, juice, and sluice
COMPLEX VOWEL SOUNDS
Besides long vowel sounds, short vowel sounds, and the schwa sound, there are some other special sounds in English that are represented by vowels. They are as follows:
●/aw/ sound as in awful and awe●/oi/ sound as in boil, poison, toilet, and annoy●/ou/ sound as in lighthouse, cow, flower, and fountain●/oo/ (ʊ) sound as in took, pulley, platypus, pull, and football
Note that "oo" makes two different sounds in different words, having the ʊ sound as in hook, or the ū sound as in boot.
R CONTROLLED VOWELSWhen a vowel is followed by an r, it makes a special sound. These are called r-‐controlled vowels, or r-‐colored vowels. These phonemes are as follows:
●/ar/ sound as in car, guitar, Arthur●/âr/ sound as in care, bear, mare, scare, aquarium●/îr/ sound as in pier●/ir/ sound as in turnip, spider, cer4ficate, and beaver●/or/ sound as in manor, observatory, author, brought, and orchard●/er/ sound as in bu/er, cu/er, and mother
Usually, /ar/ always sounds like the ar in car, and /or/ always sounds like the or in for. The ir, er, and ur, sound the same as in bird, her, and fur. These all make a /ər/ sound.
8. DIGRAPHS
A digraph is a single sound, or phoneme, which is represented by two leKers. A trigraph is a phoneme which consists of three leKers. However, many people will simply use the term 'digraph' generally to describe both combina9ons. In digraphs, consonants join together to form a kind of consonant team, which makes a special sound. For instance, p and h combine to form ph, which makes the /f/ sound as in phonemic.When two or more consonants appear together and you hear each sound that each consonant would normally make, the consonant team is called a consonant blend. For instance, the word blend has two consonant blends: bl, for which you hear the sounds for both b and l, and nd, for which you hear the sounds for both nand d.Digraphs
●ch, which makes the /ch/ sound as in watch, chick, chimpanzee, and champion●ck, which makes the /k/ sound as in chick●ff, which makes the /f/ sound as in cliff●gh, which makes the /g/ sound as in ghost and ghastly●gn, which makes the /n/ sound as in gnome and gnarled●kn, which makes the /n/ sound as in knife and knight●ll, which makes the /l/ sound as in wall●mb, which makes the /m/ sound as in lamb and thumb●ng, which makes the /ng/ sound as in fang, boomerang, and fingerprint●nk, which makes the /nk/ sound as in ink, sink and rink●ph, which makes the /f/ sound as in digraph, phone, and phonics●qu, which makes the /kw/ sound as in quick●sh, which makes the /sh/ sound as in shore, shipwreck, shark, and shield●ss, which makes the /s/ sound as in floss●th, which makes the /th/ sound as in athlete, toothbrush, bathtub, thin, and thunderstorm●th, which makes the /th/ sound as in this, there, and that●wh, which makes the /hw/ sound as in where and which●wr, which makes the /wr/ sound as in write●zz, which makes the /z/ sound as in fuzz and buzz
Trigraphs●chr, which makes the /chr/ sound as in chrome and chromosome●dge, which makes the /g/ sound as in dodge and partridge●tch, which makes the /tch/ sound as in catch, match
IRREGULAR VOWELS/EXCEPTIONSSome9mes, the basic rules of phonics do not apply. Each of these instances must be memorized. Common examples include, but are not limited, to:
●IGH as in "high" or "sight"●-‐NG as in "sing," "song," "sung"●OST as in "most" (but not "lost" or "cost") uses the long sound instead of the normal short sound.●OW has two different sounds as in "low" and "cow." (or, "sow" and "sow.")●ED has three different sounds as in "liSed," "played," and "walked"●OI does not follow the two vowels rule, e.g., "moist" or "boil."●Double O has two different sounds, as in "book" and "loose."●OUS as in "nervous."●AU as in "fault" or "haul."●-‐SION, -‐TION, and -‐CION are all pronounced "shun."●OUGH has at least seven different sounds, as in "bough," "cough," "hough," "tough," "thorough," "thought,"
and "through."
9. TENSESAcKvity, acKon state or being in the past
SIMPLE PAST3 USES -‐ 1) Past events that are now finished John cut his finger last week I went to college 3 years ago. He ate the dinner 1 hour ago. I slept well last night.2) Situa9on in the past I lived in New York for 10 years 3) A series of ac9ons in the past He entered a room, lit a cigareKe and smiled at the guests.3 FORMS1) Declara9ve Sentences Subject + Verb+ED or an irregular verb form He entered the room, lit a cigareKe & smiled at the guests. 2) Ques9ons Aux verb + Subject + Verb in present form How long did he work there?3) Nega9ve Sentences Subject + Aux verb+not + Verb in past form He didn't learn any Italian when he was in Italy two year ago.
PAST CONTINUOUSWe usually use The Past Con9nuous (Progressive) to talk about longer ac9ons in progress in the past. The ac9ons can be interruped by something ("He was reading when she arrived") or can be happening at the same some ("She was learning English when he was watching TV"). There are also two other uses.5 USES1) AcKons in progress (in the past) I was watching TV yesterday in the evening. She was not crying.2) Interrupted acKons in progress (in the past) [ Sentence in Past Con9nuous ] + WHEN + [Sentence in Past Simple ] WHEN + [ Sentence in Past Con9nuous ] + [Sentence in Past Simple ] [ Sentence in Past Simple ] + WHEN + [ Sentence in Past Con9nuous ] I was talking with James when the telephone rang. The plane crashed when Angelica was playing tennis. 3) IrritaKon over something or somebody (in the past) I was wondering if you could open the window. I was thinking you might help me with this problem4) AcKons in progress at the same Kme (in the past) I was watching TV and Barbara was reading a book. The family was ea9ng the dinner and talking.5) Timid / polite quesKon I was wondering if you could open the window. I was thinking you might help me with this problem
3 FORMS1) PosiKve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + Verb + ing Have you been running? How long have you been learning English?2) QuesKons Auxiliary verb + Subject + Verb + ing Have you ever seen this program? Have you found the telephone number?3) NegaKve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + Verb + ing He hasn't taken any drug for two years I haven't met my perfect partner yet
HOW TO auxiliary verb "to be" in the past form The past form of the auxiliary verb "to be" is: For third person singular: "was" For all others: "were"Present Par9ciple of your verb (verb + ing)talk + ing = talking be + ing = being
SIMPLE PRESENTcan express both the present and the future.6 USES1) Facts and GeneralizaKons talk about things we believe are (or are not) true. generalize about somebody or something. It is a big house. Buenos Aires is a large city. A dog is not larger than an elephant2) Habits and RouKnes to indicate that an ac9vity is a habit or a rou9ne. We leave for work at 7.30 every morning. Susan oSen meets with her friends aSer school. They usually play football on Sunday. USED with adverbs of frequency always never frequently/oSen usually seldom/rarely nowadays every week/year some9mes/occasionally from 9me to 9me I always go to church on Sundays.3) Permanent SituaKons talk about situa9ons in life that last a rela9vely long 9me.
I live in Boston. He works as a fireman. Margaret drives a Porsche.4) State Verbs we use present simple with state verbs We know this man Margaret drives a Porsche I like swimming
5) Fixed / Official arrangements To talk about events that don't change The mee9ng starts at 4pm The train leaves at noon When does the plane take off?6) NarraKons To tell a story or a joke A man goes to visit a friend and is amazed to find him playing chess with his dog. He watches the game in astonishment for a while 3 FORMS1) DeclaraKve Sentences Subject + Verb A dog is an animal I have two eggs2) QuesKonsAuxiliary Verb + Subject + Verb Ques9ons require the auxiliary verb to do or, in the third person singular, does. A: Does she like going to the mountains? B: Yes, she does.
Keep in mind that when you ask a ques9on, the verb does not conjugate: YES: Does she have a dog? NO: Does she has a dog? For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary: YES: Is he tall? NO: Does he be tall?3) NegaKve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb+not + Verb They don't live in New York anymore I don't like winterPresent SimpleListed below are uses with examples, and the structure of the present simple tense.Permanent or long-‐lasKng situaKonsWhere do you work?The store opens at 9 o'clock.She lives in New York.Regular habits and daily rouKnesI usually get up at 7 o'clock.She doesn't oSen go to the cinema.When do they usually have lunch?
FactsThe Earth revolves around the Sun.What does 'strange' mean?Water doesn't boil at 20 degrees.FeelingsI love walking around late at night during the summer.She hates flying!What do you like? I don't want to live in Texas.Opinions and states of mindHe doesn't agree with you.I think he is a wonderful student.What do you consider your best accomplishment?Timetables and schedulesThe plane leaves at 4 p.m.When do courses begin this semester?The train doesn't arrive un9l 10.35.Common present Kme expressions include:usually, always, oSen, some9mes, on Saturdays, at weekends (on weekends US English), rarely, on occasion, never, seldomStructurePosiKveIn the posi9ve form add an 's' to the base form of the 3rd person singular. If the verb ends in -‐y preceded by a consonant, change the -‐y to -‐ies.I, You, We, They -‐> eat lunch at noon.He, She, It -‐> works well in any situa9on.NegaKveConjugate the helping verb 'do' not (don't and doesn't) the base form of the verb to make nega9ves.I, You, We, They -‐> don't enjoy opera.He, She, It -‐> doesn't belong to the club.QuesKonsConjugate the helping verb 'do' (do or does) the base form of the verb in ques9on forms.Do -‐> I, you, we, they -‐> work in this town?Does -‐> he, she, it -‐> live in this city?
PRESENT CONTINUOUSmainly used to express the idea that something is happening at the moment of speaking.
5 USES1) Present AcKons ac9ons happening at the moment of speaking. He is ea9ng a dinner. They are swimming.2) Temporary AcKons ac9vi9es con9nuing for only a limited period of 9me I'm riding a bike to get to work because my car is broken They are not talking with each other aSer the last argument. 3) Longer AcKons in progress when we are in a middle of doing something 9me-‐consuming They are working hard to earn money.
I am training to become a professional footballer.4) Future (personal) arrangements & plans something will be done in the near future. I'm mee9ng Ka9e in the evening. He's flying to Rome in September.5) IrritaKon in the present over something or somebody to express irrita9on or anger over somebody or something in the present. She's always complaining about everything! Johny is always asking me stupid ques9ons! 3 FORMS1) DeclaraKve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + Verb + ing They are swimming in the sea He is ge�ng married this month2) QuesKons Auxiliary verb + Subject + Verb + ing Is she ea9ng my cake now? Are you mee9ng David today?3) NegaKve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + not + Verb + ing He is not joking We are wai9ng for my uncle
FUTURE SIMPLEwords that imply the future or aux construcFon + main verbwill, can,should, may, must, might, going to,
4 USES1) Promises to make promises I promise I will buy you this toy. Promise you will never leave me! 2) Unplanned AcKons talk about unplanned (spontaneous) decisions. I will close the window. It's star9ng to rain Don't worry! I will help you with this problem. 3) PredicKons based on experience or intuiKon It will rain in a moment. It will get more difficult. 4) Habits He will always make noise when we are sleeping. She will bite her lip if she's nervous about something. 3 FORMS
1. DeclaraKve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + Verb will ='ll or will+not=won't
you should never use will to say what somebody has already arranged or decided to do in the future: I think he will regret his choice. I will come back at 10 p.m.2. QuesKons Auxiliary verb + Subject + Verb Will he be surprised when he sees me? Will Mark be able to do the shopping before 10 a.m.? 3. NegaKve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + Verb I won't take any heavy equipment with me. I'm sorry I won't be able to help you with your English today.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS 3 USES1) Future acKons Future ac9ons in progress. In an hour, I will be si�ng in front of my TV. In the evening, I will be baking a birthday cake.2) Guesses Guesses about the present or the future. Beatrice will be ge�ng married very soon. He won't be coming any 9me soon. He is s9ll at the office.3) QuesKons Polite ques9ons about somebody's inten9ons*. Will you be going to the supermarket? I have something to buy. Will you be coming home before or aSer 10 p.m.?3 FORMS1) Declara9ve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Verb + ing She'll be having a bath when I'm back home. They will be ge�ng home just about now.2) Ques9ons Auxiliary verb + Subject + Auxiliary verb + Verb + ing Is she going to be cooking when we knock at the door? Will you be using the screwdriver?3) Nega9ve Sentences Subject + Auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Verb + ing We won't be having supper tomorrow before 8 o'clock. I am not going to be learning English tomorrow at this 9me.
10. PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONSPreposiNons are words which begin preposiFonal phrases.A preposiNonal phrase is a group of words containing a preposi'on, a noun or pronoun object of the preposi'on, and any modifiers of the object.A preposiFon sits in front of (is “pre-‐posiFoned” before) its object.The following words are the most commonly used preposiFons:
about below excep'ng off toward
above beneath for on under
across beside(s) from onto underneath
a=er between in out un'l
against beyond in front of outside up
along but inside over upon
among by in spite of past up to
around concerning instead of regarding with
at despite into since within
because of down like through without
before during near throughout with regard to
behind except of to with respect to
It is useful to locate preposiFonal phrases in sentences since any noun or pronoun within the preposiFonal phrase must be the preposiFon’s object and, therefore, cannot be misidenFfied as a verb’s direct object.
To the store is a preposiFonal phrase.Store is the object of the preposiFon to, not the direct object of the verb drove.
Car is the direct object of the verb drove.
To the grocery store is a preposiFonal phrase. NOTE:A word that looks like a preposiFon but is actually part of a verb is called a parFcle.
Held up is a verb meaning “to rob.”Therefore, up is not a preposiFon, and bank is not the object of a preposiFon.Instead, bank is the direct object of the verb held up. To avoid confusing preposiNons with parNcles, test by moving the word (up) and words following it to the front of the sentence: Up the bank four armed men held.If the resulFng sentence does not make sense, then the word belongs with the verb and is a parFcle, not a preposiFon.Note the difference:
The resulFng sentence makes sense. Therefore, up is a preposiFon.
The resulFng sentence does not make sense. Therefore, up is a parFcle in this sentence. The following examples illustrate the difference between preposiFons and parFcles:
Some other examples of parFcles:
give in turn in pull through wore out broke up
go in for put in for bring up found out blow up
look up make up look over
PreposiFons – TimeEnglish Usage Example
●on ●days of the week ● on Monday
●in ●months / seasons●Fme of day●year●a\er a certain period of Fme
(when?)
● in August / in winter● in the morning● in 2006● in an hour
●at ●for night●for weekend●a certain point of Fme (when?)
● at night● at the weekend● at half past nine
●since ●from a certain point of Fme (past Fll now)
● since 1980
●for ●over a certain period of Fme (past Fll now)
● for 2 years
●ago ●a certain Fme in the past ● 2 years ago
●before ●earlier than a certain point of Fme ● before 2004
●to ●telling the Fme ● ten to six (5:50)
●past ●telling the Fme ● ten past six (6:10)
●to / Fll / unFl
●marking the beginning and end of a period of Fme
● from Monday to/Fll Friday
●Fll / unFl ●in the sense of how long something is going to last
●He is on holiday unFl Friday.
●by ●in the sense of at the latest●up to a certain Fme
● I will be back by 6 o’clock.● By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.
PreposiFons – Place (PosiFon and DirecFon)English Usage Example
●in ●room, building, street, town, country
●book, paper etc.●car, taxi●picture, world
● in the kitchen, in London● in the book● in the car, in a taxi● in the picture, in the world
●at ●meaning next to, by an object●for table●for events●place where you are to do
something typical (watch a film, study, work)
● at the door, at the staFon● at the table● at a concert, at the party● at the cinema, at school, at work
●on ●ajached●for a place with a river●being on a surface●for a certain side (le\, right)●for a floor in a house●for public transport●for television, radio
● the picture on the wall● London lies on the Thames.● on the table● on the le\● on the first floor● on the bus, on a plane● on TV, on the radio
●by, next to, beside
●le\ or right of somebody or something
● Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.
●under ●on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else
● the bag is under the table
●below ●lower than something else but above ground
● the fish are below the surface
●over ●covered by something else●meaning more than●gekng to the other side (also
across)●overcoming an obstacle
● put a jacket over your shirt● over 16 years of age●walk over the bridge● climb over the wall
●above ●higher than something else, but not directly over it
● a path above the lake
●across ●gekng to the other side (also over)
●gekng to the other side
●walk across the bridge● swim across the lake
●through ●something with limits on top, bojom and the sides
● drive through the tunnel
●to ●movement to person or building
●movement to a place or country
●for bed
● go to the cinema● go to London / Ireland● go to bed
●into ●enter a room / a building ● go into the kitchen / the house
●towards ●movement in the direcFon of something (but not directly to it)
● go 5 steps towards the house
●onto ●movement to the top of something
● jump onto the table
●from ●in the sense of where from ● a flower from the garden
Other important PreposiFonsEnglish Usage Example
●from ●who gave it ● a present from Jane
●of ●who/what does it belong to●what does it show
● a page of the book● the picture of a palace
●by ●who made it ● a book by Mark Twain
●on ●walking or riding on horseback●entering a public transport vehicle
● on foot, on horseback● get on the bus
●in ●entering a car / Taxi ● get in the car
●off ●leaving a public transport vehicle ● get off the train
●out of ●leaving a car / Taxi ● get out of the taxi
●by ●rise or fall of something●travelling (other than walking or
horseriding)
● prices have risen by 10 percent● by car, by bus
●at ●for age ● she learned Russian at 45
●about ●for topics, meaning what about ●we were talking about you
PreposiNons of Time, Place, and Introducing ObjectsThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on November 5, 2008 .
Summary:This resource provides guidelines and a pracFce acFvity for using preposiFons in your wriFng.PreposiNons
PreposiFons are words or short phrases that idenFfy the spaFal (in space), direcFonal (the direcFon in which something is moving), or temporal (in Fme) relaFonship of one or more people or things to other people or things. PreposiFons communicate abstract relaFonships as well as concrete ones. While all languages have preposiFons, English has a parFcularly large number of them, with important differences of nuance between similar preposiFons. This handout will give an overview of preposiFons, along with a pracFce acFvity.PreposiNons for Time, Place, and Introducing ObjectsOn is used with days:
●I will see you on Monday.●The week begins on Sunday.
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the Fme of day:●My plane leaves at noon.●The movie starts at 6 p.m.
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:●He likes to read in the a\ernoon.●The days are long in August.●The book was published in 1999.●The flowers will bloom in spring.
To express extended Fme, English uses the following preposiFons: since, for, by, from-‐to, from-‐unNl, during, (with)in.
●She has been gone since yesterday. (She le\ yesterday and has not returned.)●I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)●The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)●The decoraFons were up from spring unNl fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)●I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of Fme in the evening.)●We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
To express noFons of place, English uses the following preposiFons: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at.
●There is a wasp in the room.●Put the present inside the box.●I le\ your keys on the table.●She was waiFng at the corner.
To express noFons of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following preposiFons: over, above.
●He threw the ball over the roof.●Hang that picture above the couch.
To express noFons of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following preposiFons: under, underneath, beneath, below.
●The rabbit burrowed under the ground.●The child hid underneath the blanket.●We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.●The valley is below sea-‐level.
To express noFons of an object being close to a point, English uses the following preposiFons: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.
●She lives near the school.●There is an ice cream shop by the store.●An oak tree grows next to my house●The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.●I found my pen lying among the books.
●The bathroom is opposite that room.English uses the following preposiFons to introduce objects of the following verbs.
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare●She took a quick glance at her reflecFon. (excepFon with mirror: She took a quick glance in the
mirror.)●You didn't laugh at his joke.●I'm looking at the computer monitor.●We rejoiced at his safe rescue.●That prejy girl smiled at you.●Stop staring at me.
Of: approve, consist, smell●I don't approve of his speech.●My contribuFon to the arFcle consists of many pages.●He came home smelling of alcohol.
Of (or about): dream, think●I dream of finishing college in four years.●Can you think of a number between one and ten?●I am thinking about this problem.
For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish●Did someone call for a taxi?●He hopes for a raise in salary next year.●I'm looking for my keys.●We'll wait for her here.●You go buy the Fckets and I'll watch for the train.●If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.
PreposiNons for Time, Place, and Introducing Objects -‐ Part 2Summary: This secFon deals with preposiFons and their standard uses.Contributors: Chris Berry, Allen Brizee, Elizabeth AngeliLast Edited: 2011-‐03-‐23 03:07:43
One point in NmeOn is used with days:• I will see you on Monday.• The week begins on Sunday.
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the Fme of day:• My plane leaves at noon.• The movie starts at 6 p.m.
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:• He likes to read in the a\ernoon.• The days are long in August.• The book was published in 1999.• The flowers will bloom in spring.
Extended NmeTo express extended Fme, English uses the following preposiFons: since, for, by, from—to, from-‐unNl, during,(with)in• She has been gone since yesterday. (She le= yesterday and has not returned.)
• I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)• The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)• The decoraFons were up from spring unNl fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)• I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of 'me in the evening.)• We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
PlaceTo express noFons of place, English uses the following preposiFons: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at.• There is a wasp in the room.• Put the present inside the box.• I le\ your keys on the table.• She was waiFng at the corner.
Higher than a pointTo express noFons of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following preposiFons: over, above.• He threw the ball over the roof.• Hang that picture above the couch.
Lower than a pointTo express noFons of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following preposiFons: under, underneath, beneath, below.• The rabbit burrowed under the ground.• The child hid underneath the blanket.• We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.• The valley is below sea-‐level.
Close to a pointTo express noFons of an object being close to a point, English uses the following preposiFons: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.• She lives near the school.• There is an ice cream shop by the store.• An oak tree grows next to my house• The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.• I found my pen lying among the books.• The bathroom is opposite that room.
To introduce objects of verbsEnglish uses the following preposiFons to introduce objects of the following verbs.
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare• She glanced at her reflecFon.
(excep'on with mirror: She glanced in the mirror.)• You didn't laugh at his joke.• I'm looking at the computer monitor.• We rejoiced at his safe rescue.• That prejy girl smiled at you.• Stop staring at me.
Of: approve, consist, smell• I don't approve of his speech.• My contribuFon to the arFcle consists of many pages.• He came home smelling of alcohol.
Of (or about): dream, think• I dream of finishing college in four years.• Can you think of a number between one and ten?• I am thinking about this problem.
For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish• Did someone call for a taxi?• He hopes for a raise in salary next year.• I'm looking for my keys.• We'll wait for her here.• You go buy the Fckets and I'll watch for the train.• If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.
Preposi(ons of Direc(on -‐ ToThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on January 11, 2010 .
Summary:This resource explains how to use the preposiFon \'to\' in sentences regarding direcFon.Uses of "To"The basic preposiFon of a direcFon is "to."
TO: signifies orientaFon toward a goalWhen the goal is physical, such as a desFnaFon, "to" implies movement in the direcFon of the goal:
We flew from New York to Paris. (Or) We flew to Paris.When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an acFon, "to" marks a verb; it is ajached as an infiniFve and expresses purpose. The preposiFon may occur alone or in the phrase in order. The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:
• We flew from New York to Paris to see our father.The other two preposiFons of direcFon are compounds formed by adding "to" to the corresponding preposiFons of locaFon.
The preposiFon of locaFon determines the meaning of the preposiFon of direcFon.
ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surfaceIN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a volume
("To" is part of the direcFonal preposiFon toward, and the two mean about the same thing.)
The frog jumped onto the lilypad.
The milk went into the glass.
With many verbs of moFon, "on" and "in" have a direcFonal meaning and can be used along with "onto" and "into".This is why "to" is inside parentheses in the Ftle of the handout, showing that it is somewhat opFonal with the compound preposiFons. Thus, the following sentences are roughly synonymous:
The paper went into the garbage can.
The crab washed up onto the shore.To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposiFon conveys the compleFon of an acFon, while the simple preposiFon points to the posiFon of the subject as a result of that acFon. This disFncFon helps us understand how direcFonal and locaFonal preposiFons are related: they stand in the relaFonship of cause and effect.• The paper went into the garbage can.
PosiNon of subject: the paper is in the garbage can.• The crab washed up onto the shore.
PosiNon of subject: the crab is on the shore.• See the secFons below for some excepFons to this rule.
Uses of "to"To occurs with several classes of verbs.Verb + to + infiniNveVerbs in this group express willingness, desire, intenFon, or obligaFon.
Willingness: be willing, consent, refuseDesire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, preferIntenNon: intend, plan, prepareObligaNon: be obligated, have, need• I refuse to allow you to inFmidate me with your threats.
• I'd like to ask her how long she's been skiing.• I plan to graduate this summer.• Henry had to pay his tuiFon at the Bursar's office.
In other cases "to" is used as an ordinary preposiFon.
Verbs of communicaNon: listen, speak (but not tell), relate, appeal (in the sense of 'plead,' not 'be ajracFve')
Verbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly, travelExcept for transfer, all the verbs in listed here can take toward as well as to. However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific desFnaFon, while "toward" suggests movement in a general direcFon, without necessarily arriving at a desFnaFon:
The plane was headed toward a storm cloud.
The golf ball rolled toward the hole.
Here are some more examples:• Drive toward the city limits and turn north. (Drive in the direcFon of the city limits; turnoff may
be before arriving there.)• Take me to the airport, please. (I actually want to arrive at the airport.)
PreposiNons of DirecNon -‐ OntoThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on January 11, 2010 .
Summary:This resource explains the uses of the preposiFon, "onto."Uses of "Onto""Onto" can generally be replaced by "on" with verbs of moFon.
The hat went on(to) his head.
Here are some more examples:• Dietrich jumped on(to) the mat.• Huan fell on(to) the floor.• Athena climbed on(to) the back of the truck.
Some verbs of moFon express the idea that the subject causes itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain place (compare the three example directly above).Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto, with the lajer being preferred by some speakers.
Here are some more examples:• The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)• Sam hung the decoraFon on the Christmas tree. (not onto the tree)• He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)• Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)• Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.• The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.• The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.
Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both preposiFons are raise, scajer (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.• The farmer scajered seed on(to) the ferFle ground.• We're adding on a wing at the back of the building.• We're adding a porch onto the house.
In "We're adding on a wing at the back of the building" on is really part of the verb, while in "We're adding a porch onto the house" onto is a simple preposiFon. This contrast points to a fairly important and general rule:
Simple preposi'ons can combine with verbs, but compound preposi'ons cannot.
Note also that in "The farmer scajered seed on(to) the ferFle ground", the word "on" has its ordinary meaning of a posiFon on a surface, but in this case the surface is verFcal rather than horizontal— the
side of a building.
There are a number of verb-‐preposiFon combinaFons which are formally like "add on" but have the meaning "of conFnuing or resuming an acFon" when used in the imperaFve mood.
Except for hang, which takes both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The meanings of these combinaFons, some of which are idiomaFc, are given in parentheses. Not all of them have the force of a command.• Hang on(to the rope) ('conFnue to grasp Fghtly')• carry on ('resume what you were doing')• sail on ('resume or conFnue sailing')• dream on ('conFnue dreaming'; a humorous way of saying 'that is an unajainable goal')• lead on ('resume or conFnue leading us')• rock on ('conFnue playing rock music')
Drive on! (Or, Keep driving toward the city). PreposiNons of DirecNon -‐ IntoThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on January 11, 2010 .
Summary:This resource explains how to use the preposiFon, "into."Uses of "Into"With verbs of moFon, "into" and "in" are interchangeable except when the preposiFon is the last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of Fme, manner, or frequency.
In this case only in (or inside) can be used.
Spike is lying in his house. (Not into.)
Here are some more examples:• The paFent went into the doctor's office. The paFent went in. (not into)• Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. ('to take up residence in a new
home')• Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.
In "Our new neighbors move in yesterday", the last word is the Fme adverbial yesterday, so the object of the preposiFon in can be omijed. Of course, in an informaFon quesFon, "into" also can be last word except for an adverbial when its object is quesFoned by a wh-‐ word:• Now what kind of trouble has she gojen herself into?• Now what sort of trouble is she in?
Verbs expressing staFonary posiFon take only "on" or "in" with the ordinary meanings of those preposiFons.
If a verb allows the object of the preposiFon to be omijed, the construcFon may have an idiomaFc meaning.• The cat sat on the mat.• The doctor is in his office.• The doctor is in. ('available for consultaFon')• In(to) has two special uses with move.
When "move in" is followed by a purpose clause, it has the sense of "approach".The lion moved in for the kill.• The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the building.
In "The lion moved in for the kill." and "The Police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the building" "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; We cannot say: "The lion moved into for the kill."
When "into" is used with move, it funcFons as an ordinary preposiFon to convey the idea of moving something from one place to another.• We'll move your brother's old bed into your room.
A man is jumping into the pool.
The man is in the pool.
The person is placing groceries into the shopping bag.
The person has completed puSng groceries in the bag.
Preposi(ons of Spa(al Rela(onship -‐ AThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on March 23, 2010 .
Summary:This resource covers the preposiFons that begin with A dealing with spaFal relaFonships.PreposiFons of spaFal relaFonships deal with "where" the subject of the sentence is or "where" the acFon is taking place.
Above
Write your name above the line.
Across
Draw a line across the page.
Against
She leans against the tree.
Ahead of
The girl is ahead of the boy.
Along
There is lace along the edge of the cloth.
Among
He is among the trees.
Around
Draw a circle around the answer.
Preposi(ons of Spa(al Rela(onship -‐ BThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on March 23, 2010 .
Summary:This resource covers preposiFons of spaFal relaFonship that begin with B.
Behind
The boy is behind the girl.
Below
Write your name below the line.
Beneath
He sat beneath the tree.
Beside
The girl is standing beside the boy.
Between
She is between two trees.
Preposi(ons of Spa(al Rela(onship -‐ F-‐OThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on March 23, 2010 .
Summary:This resource deals with preposiFons of spaFal relaFonship from F through O.From
He came from the house.
In front of
The girl is in front of the boy.
Inside
He is inside the house.
Nearby
There is a tree nearby the house.
Off
His hat is off.
Out of
He came out of the house.
Preposi(ons of Spa(al Rela(onship -‐ T-‐WThis resource was wrijen by Tony Cimasko.Last edited by Allen Brizee on March 23, 2010 .
Summary:This resource shows uses for preposiFons of spaFal relaFonship from T through W.Through
She went through the door.
Toward
She is walking toward the house.
Under
He is hiding under the table.
Within
Please mark only within the circle.
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
1 ) AT - IN - ONAT ON IN
We use at for a point: We use on for a surface: We use in for an enclosed space:
at the window - at the entrance - at the door
on the wall - on the ceiling - on the floor - on a page
in the garden - in the house - in London - in the water
at the end of the street - at the station - at the top on a cover in her bag - in a row - in a
townBill is waiting for you at the bus
stop.Have you seen the notice on
the notice board?There is nobody in the room. She lives in a small village.
Special Information:
AT ON IN1. We say that someone is at an
event:1. We use on with small
islands:1. We say in when we talk
about a building itselfat a party - at a pop concert - at
a conference - at a meetingShe spent her holiday on a
small island.The rooms of Tom's house
are small.
Tom is at a party.2. We say that a place is on the coast / on a river / on a
road:
2. We usually say in with towns and villages:
2. We say at with buildings when we say where the event (film, concert,...) takes place:
London is on the river Thames.His parents live in York.
Where were you yesterday? At the cinema.
Portsmouth is on the south coast of England.
The meeting took place at the headquarters.
3. We say at someone's house:
We were at Bill's house last Thursday.
4. We say at for a place which is a part of our journey:We stopped at a very nice
village. Does the train stop at Nashville?
AT ON INat home - at work - at school - at
university - at college - at the station - at an airport - at the
seaside - at sea (on a voyage) - at reception - at the corner of a street - at the back / front of a building / cinema / group of
people, etc. - arrive at with other places or events
on a farm - on the left - on the right - on the ground floor - on
the first, second,... floor - on the way - on the chair (sit) - on the
radio - on television - on a horse - on the corner of a street - on the back / front of a letter /
piece of paper etc
in the newspaper - in bed - in hospital - in prison - in the street - in the sky - in an
armchair (sit) - in a photograph - in a picture - in a mirror - in the corner of a
room - in the back / front of a car - arrive in a country or
town
2) TO - INTO - BYTO INTO BY
We say go / come / travel / fly / walk / return / drive / have
been etc. to a place or event:
We say go into / come into etc. = enter a room / building etc.:
We say by to say how we travel:
Last year we flew to London. We went to work at seven.
He opened the door and went into the room.
We went to Paris by plane. I usually go to work by bike / by car / by underground / by
busBUT:
we say on foot we cannot use by if you say my
car / the train / a taxi
Then use in for taxis and cars. Then use on for bike / public
transport.
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
AT ONWe use at with times: We use on with dates and days:
at 5 o’clock - at 11.45 - at midnight - at lunchtime
on 12 March - on Friday(s) - on Friday morning(s)
Tom usually gets up at 7 o’clock. on Sunday afternoon(s) - on Saturday night(s) on Christmas Day (but at Christmas)
We use at in these expressions: at night - at Christmas - at the moment / at
present - at the same time - at weekends - at the age of...
IN DURING
We use in for longer periods of time: We use during + noun to say when something happens:
in April - in 1986 - in winter - in the 19th century - in the 1970s - in the morning(s) / in the
afternoon(s) / in the evening(s)
during the film - during our holiday - during the night
In + period of time = a time in the future: I fell asleep during the film.
Jack will be back in a week. We met a lot of interesting people during our holiday.
The train will leave in a few minutes.
In + how long it takes to do something: I learned to drive in four weeks.
FOR SINCE
We use for + a period of time: We use since + a period of time:for six years - for two hours - for a week since April - since 1992 - since 8 o’ clock
I’ve lived in this house for six years. They have been watching TV for two hours.
It has been raining since one o’ clock. They’ve known each other since they were at school.
UNTIL FROM - TO
We use until/till to say how long a situation
continues:We use from - to + beginning and end of a
period:Let’s wait until it stops raining. I stayed in bed
until half past nine.Last evening we watched TV from 5 to 8 o’
clock.
NOUNSTradiFonal grammarians define a noun as "a person, place, thing, or idea." Child designates a person; therefore, child is a noun. Similarly, democracy designates an idea; therefore, democracy is a noun.In addiFon, nouns can be idenFfied by the presence of signal words such as the.
Word order can also provide clues about nouns. For example, in the following sentence, it is clear that the part of speech that will fit into slot #1 and slot #2 must be nouns:
O\en, suffixes will suggest that a word is a noun. For example, -‐'on, -‐ness, -‐ment, or -‐er at the end of a word usually signify that the word is a noun, as in sugges'on, happiness, involvement, and diner.Nouns may be made plural, usually with the suffix -‐s or -‐es, as in books and foxes.Nouns show ownership with the addiFon of an apostrophe and, someFmes, an addiFonal -‐s, as in a book's pages, twenty students' essays.Common nouns such as school, business, or person designate an enFre class.Proper nouns, on the other hand, designate a specific example of a class: Towson University, Black and Decker Company, Joe. Proper nouns are capitalized.Nouns may be countable (1 fork, 2 forks, 3 forks, etc.) or non-‐countable (sugar, oil).Nouns may signify concreteness (computer, fingernail) or abstractness (peace, friendship). FuncNons of NounsSubject (S) -‐ a noun or pronoun partnered with a predicate verb.A subject 1. does an acFon with an acFon verb
2. exists with a verb of being
3. is renamed or described a\er a verb of being or a linking verb
4. is acted upon with a passive verb
Object of PreposiNon (OP) -‐ a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" a\er a preposiFon in a a preposiFonal phrase.
Direct Object (DO) -‐ a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" a\er an acFon verb. A direct object "receives" or is the "object" of the acFon.
Retained Object (RO) -‐ a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" a\er a passive verb.
Indirect Object (IO) -‐ a noun or pronoun answering "to whom/what" or "for whom/what" a\er an acFon verb.An indirect object• always precedes a direct object• never has the word “to” or “for” stated
SubjecNve Complement (SC) -‐ a noun, pronoun, or adjecFve that renames or describes (equals) the subject a\er a verb of being or a linking verb.
ObjecNve Complement (OC) -‐ a noun, pronoun, or adjecFve that renames or describes (equals) the direct object. Test for OC: insert "to be" between the DO and the OC
ApposiNve (App) -‐ a noun or pronoun that renames another noun; An apposiFve is usually placed next to the noun it renames..
Gourmet renames the noun Joe. Therefore, gourmet is an apposiFve of Joe. When an apposiFve is not placed next to the noun it renames, the apposiFve is called a delayed apposiNve.
A delayed apposiFve may rename the word it in some sentence construcFons.
In the above sentence, the apposiFve to meet you renames it. It (to meet you) is a pleasure. In this sentence, pleasure is the subjecFve complement of it. Therefore, it = pleasure = to meet you.
VERBSVerbs have tradiFonally been defined as words that show acFon or state of being.
Verbs can also someFmes be recognized by their posiFon in a sentence.In the following two sentence frames, only a verb can be put into the empty slot. NOUN __________ THERE ________ NOUN (verb) (verb) O\en, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) will signify that a word is a verb. For example, the suffixes -‐ify, -‐ize, -‐ate, or -‐en usually signify that a word is a verb, as in typify, characterize, irrigate, and sweeten. Prefixes such as be-‐, de-‐, or en-‐ may signify that a word is a verb, as in bestow, dethrone, and encourage. These affixes, o\en inconsistent from verb to verb, are called derivaNonal affixes. Added to a word, they either change the word's part of speech Example:
or change the word's meaning Example:
The base form of a verb is derived from the verb’s infiniNve: to + verb
Four suffixes consistently added to a verb’s base create all forms of a verb used in all tenses:
1. -‐s creates 3rd person singular / present tense (He talks.)2. -‐ing creates the present parFciple / used with be (He is talking.)3. -‐ed creates the simple past (He talked.)4. -‐en creates the past parFciple / used with have (He has talked.)
Note: The -en verb ending used with a form of to have as an auxiliary is generally written -ed, as in has talked.
Unlike the derivaFonal affixes, these inflecNonal suffixes are consistently used with all verbs, even though their form may look different from verb to verb.Because many verbs in English are irregular; as result, their –ed and/or –en endings may not follow any obvious pajern.
Examples:Examples:
(to write) Smith writes short stories at home. (-‐s ending)(to write)
Smith is wri'ng short stories at home. (-‐ing ending)
(to write)
Smith wrote short stories at home. (-‐ed ending)
(to write)
Smith has wri_en short stories at home. (-‐en ending)
(to write)
*
(to buy) Jones buys a newspaper each day. (-‐s ending)(to buy)
Jones is buying a newspaper today. (-‐ing ending)
(to buy)
Jones bought a newspaper yesterday. (-‐ed ending)
(to buy)
Jones has bought newspapers every day. (-‐en ending)
(to buy)
*
(to go) Students go to the library o\en. (-‐s ending)(to go)
Students are going to the library o\en. (-‐ing ending)
(to go)
Students went to the library o\en. (-‐ed ending)
(to go)
Students have gone to the library o\en. (-‐en ending)
The majority of verbs are regular and consistently use -‐ed and -‐en to form their simple past tense and past parFciples. (e.g. talked, has talked)
Many verbs are irregular, however, and follow no consistent pajern in creaFng their -‐ed and/or -‐en forms. A list of the major irregular verbs is shown below.
Present Past (-‐ed form) Past ParNciple (-‐en form)
arise arose arisen
ask asked asked
a_ack a_acked a_acked
awaken awakened OR awoke awakened
bear bore borne/born
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
burst burst burst
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
dive dived OR dove dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got got OR go_en
give gave given
Present Past (-‐ed form) Past ParNciple (-‐en form)
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (things) hung hung
hang (people) hanged hanged
happen happened happened
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lie lay lain
loosen loosened loosened
lose lost lost
pay paid paid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shrink shrank OR shrunk shrunk OR shrunken
sing sang sung
sink sank OR sunk sunk
sit sat sat
speak spoke spoken
spin spun spun
spit spat spat
spring sprang OR sprung sprung
steal stole stolen
s'ng stung stung
Present Past (-‐ed form) Past ParNciple (-‐en form)
s'nk stank OR stunk stunk
strive strove striven
study studied studied
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wake woke OR waked woken OR waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wring wrung wrung
write wrote wri_en
A verb phrase is defined as the main verb together with all its auxiliaries (helping verbs).Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb.There are two types of auxiliary verbs:1. Inflected auxiliary verbs:
be have do
2. Modal auxiliaries (considered more fully under (auxiliary verbs)
present past no tense
will would must
shall should
can could
may might
Examples of verb phrases:
He has taken the test. (auxiliary has + main verb take.)
He is taking the test. (auxiliary is + main verb take)
He did take the test. (auxiliary do + main verb take)
He has been taking the test. (auxiliaries has been + main verb take)
Verbs may be divided into three types:
A. AcNon verbs -‐ show an acFon -‐-‐ either physical or mental
B. Verbs of being (forms of be -‐ is, are, was, were, has/have/had been, will be) -‐ show a state of existence:
C. **Linking verbs -‐ link a subject with its complement (A subjec've complement "completes" / "equals" the subject.) Linking verbs: appear, taste, smell, feel, look, sound, grow, seem, remain, become
NOTE: Most linking verbs can also be used as acFon verbs.
AcFon verbs may be either transiNve or intransiNve.A. A transiFve verb is one that is followed by a direct object.
Example:
B. An intransiFve verb is one that is NOT followed by a direct object. Example:
CauFon: An intransiFve verb may be followed by adjecFves, adverbs, and/or preposiFonal phrases. As long as the verb is not followed by a noun or pronoun funcFoning as the direct object, the verb is intransiNve. Example:
NOTE: Some acFon verbs may be either transiFve or intransiFve.
Example: (le=)
Another example (read):
Verbs have three moods: indicaNve, imperaNve, and subjuncNve.A. The indicaFve mood states a fact, asks a quesFon, or exclaims.
B. The imperaFve mood gives a command. The subject is always "you" understood.
C. The subjuncFve mood occurs in two instances:
1. The sentence indicates a situation contrary to fact.
2. The sentence
• shows a wish, desire, or demand
• in a nominal clause beginning with that
• following verbs such as desire, demand, request, suggest
ADJECTIVESThe Basic Rules: AdjecNvesAdjecFves modify nouns. To modify means to change in some way. For example:• "I ate a meal." Meal is a noun. We don't know what kind of meal; all we know is that someone
ate a meal.• "I ate an enormous lunch." Lunch is a noun, and enormous is an adjecFve that modifies it. It tells
us what kind of meal the person ate.AdjecFves usually answer one of a few different quesFons: "What kind?" or "Which?" or "How many?" For example:• "The tall girl is riding a new bike." Tall tells us which girl we're talking about. New tells us what
kind of bike we're talking about.• "The tough professor gave us the final exam." Tough tells us what kind of professor we're talking
about. Final tells us which exam we're talking about.• "Fi=een students passed the midterm exam; twelve students passed the final exam." Fi=een and
twelve both tell us how many students; midterm and final both tell us which exam.So, generally speaking, adjecFves answer the following quesFons:• Which?• What kind of?• How many?
Some other rules:Most of the Fme, adjecFves come before nouns. However, they come a\er the nouns they modify, most o\en when the verb is a form of the following:• be• feel• taste• smell• sound• look• appear• seem
Some examples:• "The dog is black." Black is an adjecFve that modifies the noun dog, but it comes a\er the verb.
(Remember that "is" is a form of the verb "be.")• "Brian seems sad." Sad is an adjecFve that modifies the noun Brian.• "The milk smells rojen." Ro_en is an adjecFve that modifies the noun milk.• "The speaker sounds hoarse." Hoarse is an adjecFve that modifies the noun speaker.
Be sure to understand the differences between the following two examples:"The dog smells carefully." Here, carefully describes how the dog is smelling. We imagine him sniffing very cauFously.But:"The dog smells clean." Here, clean describes the dog itself. It's not that he's smelling clean things or something; it's that he's had a bath and does not sFnk.
AdjecNves with Countable and Uncountable NounsSummary: This resource provides basic guidelines of adjecFve and adverb use.Contributors:Paul Lynch, Chris BerryLast Edited: 2010-‐04-‐17 05:54:23
The Basic Rules: AdjecNvesA countable noun is one that can be expressed in plural form, usually with an "s." For example, "cat-‐-‐cats," "season-‐-‐seasons," "student-‐-‐students."An uncountable noun is one that usually cannot be expressed in a plural form. For example, "milk," "water," "air," "money," "food." Usually, you can't say, "He had many moneys."Most of the Fme, this doesn't majer with adjecFves. For example, you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray." However, the difference between a countable and uncountable noun does majer with certain adjecFves, such as the following:• some/any• much/many• lijle/few• a lot of/lots of• a lijle bit of• plenty of• enough• no
Some/Any:Both "some" and "any" can modify countable and uncountable nouns.• "There is some water on the floor."• "There are some Mexicans here."• "Do you have any food?"• "Do you have any apples?"
Much/Many:"Much" modifies only uncountable nouns.• "They have so much money in the bank."• "The horse drinks so much water."
"Many" modifies only countable nouns.• "Many Americans travel to Europe."• "I collected many sources for my paper."
Limle/Few:"Lijle" modifies only uncountable nouns.• "He had li_le food in the house."• "When I was in college, there was li_le money to spare."
"Few" modifies only countable nouns.• "There are a few doctors in town."• "He had few reasons for his opinion."
A lot of/lots of:"A lot of" and "lots of" are informal subsFtutes for much and many. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean "much" and with countable nouns when they mean "many."• "They have lots of (much) money in the bank."• "A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe."• "We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer."• "We got lots of (much) rain last summer."
A limle bit of:"A lijle bit of" is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.• "There is a li_le bit of pepper in the soup."• "There is a li_le bit of snow on the ground."
Plenty of:"Plenty of" modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
• "They have plenty of money in the bank."• "There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland."
Enough:Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.• "There is enough money to buy a car."• "I have enough books to read."
NoNo modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.• "There is no Fme to finish now."• "There are no squirrels in the park."
Adjec3ve or Adverb?Rule #1: AdjecNves modify nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjecNves, and other adverbs.You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -‐ly to an adjecFve.Here are some sentences that demonstrate some of the differences between an adjecFve and an adverb.Richard is careless.Here careless is an adjecFve that modifies the proper noun Richard.Richard talks carelessly.Here carelessly is an adverb that modifies the verb talks.Priya was extremely happy.Here happy is an adjecFve that modifies the proper noun Priya and extremely is an adverb that modifies the adjecFve happy.Adverbs can't modify nouns, as you can see from the following incorrect sentences.He is a quietly man.The correct sentence above should say, "He is a quiet man."I have a happily dog.The correct sentence above should say, "I have a happy dog."
Rule #2: An adjecNve always follows a form of the verb to be when it modifies the noun before the verb. Here are some examples that show this rule.I was nervous.She has been sick all week.They tried to be helpful.
Rule #3: Likewise an adjecNve always follows a sense verb or a verb of appearance — feel, taste, smell, sound, look, appear, and seem — when it modifies the noun before the verb.Sharon's cough sounds bad.Here bad is an adjecFve that modifies the noun cough. Using the adverb badly here would not make sense, because it would mean her cough isn't very good at sounding.Castor oil tastes awful.Here awful is an adjecFve that modifies the noun oil. Using the adverb awfully here would not make sense, because it would mean that castor oil isn't very good at tasFng.The ocean air smells fresh.Here fresh is an adjecFve that modifies the noun air. Using the adverb freshly here would not make sense, because it would mean that the air has a sense of smell that it uses in a fresh manner.She seems unhappy today.
Here unhappy is an adjecFve that modifies the pronoun she. Using the adverb unhappily here would not make sense, because it would mean that she isn't very good at seeming.Be careful to noFce whether the word modifies the subject or the verb in the sentence. If the word modifies the subject, you should use an adjecFve. If the word modifies the verb, you should use an adverb. The difference is shown in the following pair of sentences.This apple smells sweet.Here sweet is an adjecFve that modifies the noun apple. Using the adverb sweetly here would not make sense, because it would mean that the apple can smell things in a sweet manner.Your dog smells carefully.Here carefully is an adverb that modifies the verb smells. Using the adjecFve careful here would not make sense, because it would mean that the dog gives off an odor of carefulness.
Avoiding Common Errors-‐ Bad or Badly?When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an adjecFve (Why? Feel is a sense verb;see rule #3 above). So you'd say, "I feel bad." Saying you feel badly would be like saying you play football badly. It would mean that you are unable to feel, as though your hands were parFally numb.
-‐ Good or Well?Good is an adjecFve, so you do not do good or live good, but you do well and live well. Remember, though, that an adjecFve follows sense-‐verbs and be-‐verbs, so you also feel good, look good, smell good, are good, have been good, etc. (Refer to rule #3 above for more informaFon about sense verbs and verbs of appearance.)Confusion can occur because well can funcFon either as an adverb or an adjecFve. When well is used as an adjecFve, it means "not sick" or "in good health." For this specific sense of well, it's OK to say you feel well or are well — for example, a\er recovering from an illness. When not used in this health-‐related sense, however, well funcFons as an adverb; for example, "I did well on my exam."
-‐ Double-‐negaFvesScarcely and hardly are already negaFve adverbs. To add another negaFve term is redundant, because in English only one negaFve is ever used at a FmeThey found scarcely any animals on the island. (not scarcely no...)Hardly anyone came to the party. (not hardly no one...)
-‐ Sure or Surely?Sure is an adjecFve, and surely is an adverb. Sure is also used in the idiomaFc expression sure to be. Surely can be used as a sentence-‐adverb. Here are some examples that show different uses of sure and surely. Light blue arrows indicate adjecFves and green arrows indicate adverbs.I am sure that you were there.Here sure is an adjecFve that modifies the pronoun I.He is surely ready to take on the project.Here surely is an adverb that modifies the adjecFve ready.She is sure to be a great leader.Here sure to be is an idiomaFc phrase that funcFons as an adjecFve that modifies the pronoun she.Surely, environmental destrucFon has been one of the worst catastrophes brought about by industrial producFon.Here surely is an adverb that modifies the verb has been.
-‐ Real or Really?Real is an adjecFve, and really is an adverb. Here are some examples that demonstrate the difference between real and really.She did really well on that test.Here really is an adverb that modifies the adverb well.Is she really going out with him?Here really is an adverb that modifies the verb phrase going out.Popular culture proposes imaginary soluFons to real problems.Here real is an adjecFve that modifies the noun problems.
-‐ Near or Nearly?Near can funcFon as a verb, adverb, adjecFve, or preposiFon. Nearly is used as an adverb to mean "in a close manner" or "almost but not quite." Here are some examples that demonstrate the differences between various uses of near and nearly.The moment of truth neared.Here neared is a verb in the past tense.We are nearly finished with this project.Here nearly is an adverb that modifies the verb finished.The cat crept near.Here near is an adverb of place that modifies the verb crept.First cousins are more nearly related than second cousins.Here nearly is an adverb that modifies the verb related.The detecFve solves the mystery in a scene near the end of the movie.Here near is a preposiFon. The preposiFonal phrase near the end of the movie modifies the noun scene.
TradiFonally, adjecFves are defined as words that describe nouns or pronouns. When they describe nouns or pronouns, adjecFves typically answer the following quesFons:
What kind? Which one? How many?
For example, in the phrase -‐ TALL MAN
Tall is an adjecFve describing the noun man.
Tall answers the quesFon "which man?" or "what kind of man?"
Similarly, in the phrase, -‐ EASY ASSIGNMENT
Easy is an adjecFve describing the noun assignment.
Easy answers the quesFon, "what kind of assignment?"
AdjecFves are usually placed before the nouns they describe, as in the examples, tall man and easy assignment, above. Thus, one may idenFfy an adjecFve by using the following word-‐order test:
AdjecFves may also follow the noun they describe.
Example: Suresh, cold and achy, went straight to bed
Finally, adjecFves may follow a verb of being or a linking verb, thus compleFng the noun subject
Examples
Like nouns, adjecFves are o\en recognizable by their suffixes.
Endings such as -‐ous -‐ful -‐ish -‐able usually designate adjecFves.
Examples:
ComparaNve and superlaNve forms
Single-‐syllable adjecFves use -‐er and -‐est endings to designate comparaFve and superlaFve forms:
Examples:
AdjecFves of two or more syllables use more and most for comparaFve and superlaFve forms.
Examples:
Note:
Two-‐syllable adjecFves ending in -‐y may also use the -‐er / -‐est endings to designate comparaFve and superlaFve.
Examples:Examples:
Note: the following adjecFves do not follow the regular rules for forming comparaFve and superlaFve forms: good, bad, li_le, ill.
To create negaFve comparaFve and superlaFve forms, useTo create negaFve comparaFve and superlaFve forms, useTo create negaFve comparaFve and superlaFve forms, use
less for –er and least for –est
Examples:
ADVERBSThe Basic Rules: AdverbsAdverbs modify verbs, adjecFves, and other adverbs. (You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -‐ly to an adjecFve, though that is not always the case.) The most common quesFon that adverbs answer is how.Let's look at verbs first.• "She sang beau'fully." Beau'fully is an adverb that modifies sang. It tells us how she sang.• "The cellist played carelessly." Carelessly is an adverb that modifies played. It tells us how the
cellist played.Adverbs also modify adjecFves and other adverbs.• "That woman is extremely nice." Nice is an adjecFve that modifies the noun woman. Extremely is
an adverb that modifies nice; it tells us how nice she is. How nice is she? She's extremely nice.• "It was a terribly hot a\ernoon." Hot is an adjecFve that modifies the noun a=ernoon. Terribly is
an adverb that modifies the adjecFve hot. How hot is it? Terribly hot.So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the quesFon how. (They can also answer the quesFons when, where, and why.)
Adverbs are tradiFonally defined as words that describe verbs.
Adverbs answer any of the following quesFons about verbs:
how? when? where? why?
The following examples illustrate adverbs modifying verbs:
How did he li\ the barbell?
Easily is an adverb.
When will we use it?
Tomorrow funcFons as an adverb.
Where did she hide the key?
Nearby is an adverb.
Adverbs are the most moveable of all parts of speech; therefore, it is someFmes difficult to idenFfy an adverb on the basis of its posiFon in a sentence.
For example, the adverb slowly will fit into three places in the sentence He climbed the ladder:
Most adverbs end in -‐ly. In fact, most adverbs are formed by adding -‐ly to adjecFves:
Like adjecFves of more than one syllable, adverbs usually become comparaFve and superlaFve by using more and most.
Examples:
Flat adverbs
AdjecFves that do not change form (add -‐ly) to become adverbs are called "flat adverbs."Typical flat adverbs are early, late, hard, fast, long, high, low, deep, near.
To determine whether these words are funcFoning as adjecFves or adverbs, one must determine
1) what the word is describing (noun or verb)
2) what quesFon the word is answering
The following examples illustrate the disFncFon.
Early as adjecFve:
Early describes the noun train and answers the quesFon "which one?"
Early as adverb:
Early describes the verb arrived and answers the quesFon "when?"
Hard as adjecFve:
Hard describes the noun pass and answers the quesFon "what kind?"
Hard as adverb:
Hard describes the verb threw and answers the quesFon "how?"
ARTICLESUsing ArNcles
What is an arFcle? Basically, an arFcle is an adjecFve. Like adjecFves, arFcles modify nouns.English has two arFcles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or parFcular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-‐specific or non-‐parFcular nouns. We call the the definite arFcle and a/an the indefinite arFcle.the = definite arFclea/an = indefinite arFcleFor example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or par'cular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one parFcular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the."A/an" is used to refer to a non-‐specific or non-‐par'cular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.Let's look at each kind of arFcle a lijle more closely.
Indefinite ArNcles: a and an"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:• "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which
dog because we haven't found the dog yet.• "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman;
we need any policeman who is available.• "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-‐specific
thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.
Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog• an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-‐zer,' i.e. begins
with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle• an + nouns starFng with silent "h": an hour• a + nouns starFng with a pronounced "h": a horse
◦ In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred.A historical event is worth recording.
Remember that these rules also apply when you use acronyms:Introductory ComposiFon at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-‐year wriFng at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant lejers but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill PrevenFon Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.
If the noun is modified by an adjecFve, the choice between a and an depends on the iniFal sound of the adjecFve that immediately follows the arFcle:• a broken egg• an unusual problem• a European country (sounds like 'yer-‐o-‐pi-‐an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite arFcles are used to indicate membership in a group:• I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.)• Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.)• Seiko is a pracFcing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)
Definite ArNcle: theThe definite arFcle is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or parFcular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a parFcular member of a group. For example:"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me."I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a par'cular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's sFll a parFcular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat."I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.
Count and Noncount NounsThe can be used with noncount nouns, or the arFcle can be omijed enFrely.• "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any
water).• "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier
that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk)."A/an" can be used only with count nouns.• "I need a bojle of water."• "I need a new glass of milk."
Most of the Fme, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bojle of water.
Geographical use of THEThere are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.Do not use the before:• names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the
Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States• names of ciFes, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami• names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.• names of lakes and bays: Lake Ti'caca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes• names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes
or the Rockies or unusual names like the Ma_erhorn• names of conFnents (Asia, Europe)• names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the AleuFans, the
Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:• names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific• points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole• geographical areas: the Middle East, the West• deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian
Peninsula
Omission of ArNclesSome common types of nouns that don't take an arFcle are:• Names of languages and naFonaliFes: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (unless you are
referring to the populaFon of the naFon: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.")• Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball• Names of academic subjects: mathema'cs, biology, history, computer science
Summary: This handout discusses the differences between indefinite arFcles (a/an) and definite arFcles (the).Contributors:Paul Lynch, Allen Brizee, Elizabeth AngeliLast Edited: 2011-‐03-‐03 10:04:28
ArNcles: A versus AnSummary: This short handout deals with which arFcle to use before a noun -‐-‐ "a" or "an."Contributors:Chris Berry, Allen BrizeeLast Edited: 2010-‐04-‐17 05:55:10
How do you know when to use the indefinite arNcles?"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.• a cat• a dog• a purple onion• a buffalo• a big apple
With one excepFon: Use "an" before unsounded h.• an honorable peace• an honest error
"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:• an apricot• an egg• an Indian• an orbit• an uprising
With two excepFons: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.• a union• a united front• a unicorn• a used napkin• a U.S. ship• a one-‐legged man
Note: The choice of arFcle is actually based upon the phoneFc (sound) quality of the first lejer in a word, not on the orthographic (wrijen) representaFon of the lejer. If the first lejer makes a vowel-‐type sound, you use "an"; if the first lejer would make a consonant-‐type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phoneFc perspecFve, there aren't any excepFons. Since the 'h' hasn't any phoneFc representaFon, no audible sound, in the first excepFon, the sound that follows the arFcle is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second excepFon, the word-‐iniFal 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phoneFcally, which has consonantal properFes; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.
A & AN
(a) I have a pencil.(b) I live in an apartment.
(.c .) I have a smaU aoarn(d) I live in an old build
A and an are used in front of a singular noun (e.g., pencil,apartment). They mean "one."If a singular noun is modified by an adjecFve (e.g., small, old), aor an comes in front of the adjecFve, as in (c) and (d).A is used in front of words that begin with a consonant (21, c, d,f,g, etc.): a boy, a bad day, a car, a cute baby.An is used in front of words that begin with the vowels a, e, i, and0: an apartment, an angry man, an elephant, an empty mom, erc.
(e) I have an umbrella.(f) I saw an ugly picture.(g) I ajend a uniuersity.(h) I had a unique experience.
For words that begin with the lejer u:(1) An is used if the u is a vowel sound, as in an umbrella, anuncle, an unusual day.(2) A is used if the u is a consonant sound, as in a university,a unit, a usual event.
(i) He will arrive in an hour.(j) Newyear's Day is a holiday
For words that begin with the lejer h:(1) An is used if the h is silent: an hour, an honor, an honestperson.(2) A is used if the h is pronounced: a holiday, a hotel, a highpoint.
THREE GOLDEN RULES OF ARTICLESThere are lots of rules about the use of arFcles. Here we’ll concentrate on 3 golden rules. Most mistakes with arFcles are made through breaking one of these rules.
1. People’s jobs have a/an. He’s an architect.2. Singular countable nouns have an arFcle. That’s the woman I met last week.3. Things in general – no arNcle. Cats like mice.
1. When we say what people’s jobs are, we use a/an• She’s an architect.• He’s a doctor.• My grandfather was a teacher.
2. Singular, countable nouns always have an arFcle – a/an or the – or another determiner (my, your, this, that etc.)
Remember that we use the indefinite arFcle -‐ a/an -‐ when we talk about something that is not definite.• I saw a good film yesterday. The listener doesn’t know which film.• There’s a man at the door. We don’t know who the man is.• Do you want a drink? It’s not a par'cular drink.
… and we use the definite arFcle -‐ the – when we talk about something more certain.• I’m going to take the dog for a walk. The dog is a pet – it’s not just any dog.• Have you seen the car key? Speaker and listener know which car. It’s not just any car.• They live in the house opposite ours. There’s only one house opposite. It’s not any house.
3. When we talk about things in general we usually use a plural noun or an uncountable noun with no arNcle.• Birds eat worms. NOT The birds eat the worms.• Water flows downhill.• Kangaroos live in Australia.
BUT We went to the zoo and saw the kangaroos. These are parFcular kangaroos – not kangaroos in general.
There are many other rules about arFcles but remembering these 3 golden rules will reduce the number of mistakes you make.
Here we look at some other rules for the use of arFcles.
Special places • My son’s at university but my daughter s'll goes to school.• He was sent to prison for 10 years.• Now that winter’s here I find it difficult to get out of bed.• I go to work by bus but I go home on foot.
In expressions with a number of places there is no arNcle a\er a preposiFon.
These places include: to/at school, to/at university/college, to/in church, to/in/out of prison, to/in hospital, to/in/out of bed, to/at work, at home.
NOTE: While we say ‘go to school’ and ‘go to work’ etc, the expression ‘go home’ has neither ‘the’ nor ‘to’.
Transport• I go to work by bus but I go home on foot.• I hate travelling by train.
Modes of transport (by bus, by train, by car, by plane, by bicycle) don’t have an arFcle. NoFce that on foot is different.
Geography
No arNcle – conNnents (Africa, Asia etc.) countries (France, Germany, Slovakia etc -‐ but the Slovak Republic, the United States, the United Kingdom) towns & ciNes (BraFslava, London etc.) lakes (Lake Victoria, Lake Balaton etc.) universiNes (Oxford University, Nitra University etc.)
With ‘the’ – seas & oceans (the AtlanFc, the Mediterranean etc.) mountain ranges (the Himalayas, the Tatras) rivers (the Amazon, the Danube etc.)
Other expressions• I don’t watch television very o=en but I listen to the radio all the 'me.• I’ve got a headache.• I’ve got a stomach-‐ache• I’ve got a cold.
BUT• I’ve got ‘flu.• I’ve got earache.• I’ve got toothache.
Other illnesses have no arFcle.
PRONOUNSPronouns are words that subsFtute for nouns.Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).KINDS OF PRONOUNS A. Personal Pronouns:
SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR PLURALPLURALPLURAL
subjecFve objecFve possessive subjecFve objecFve possessive
1st person I me my, mine we us our, ours
2nd person you you your, yours you you your, yours
3rd person hesheit
himherit
hisher, hersits
they
them their, theirs
Personal pronouns have the following characterisNcs:
1. Three persons (points of view) 1st person -‐ the one(s) speaking (I me my mine we us our ours) 2nd person -‐ the one(s) spoken to (you your yours) 3rd person -‐ the one(s) spoken about (he him his she her hers it its they their theirs) Examples
2. three genders feminine (she her hers) masculine (he him his) neuter (it its they them their theirs) Examples
B. DemonstraNve Pronouns:
DemonstraFve pronouns can also be used as determiners.Example:Hand me that hammer. (that describes the noun hammer)DemonstraFve pronouns can also be used as qualifiers:Example:She wanted that much money? (that describes the adjecFve much) C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronounsThese pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already there in the sentence.Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal pronouns.
Examples:I saw myself in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun, reflecFng the pronoun I.)I’ll do it myself. (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying the pronoun I.)Note: The following words are substandard and should not be used:
theirselves theirself hisself ourself D. Indefinite Pronouns:
Singular:
one someone anyone no one everyone
each somebody anybody nobody everybody
(n)either something anything nothing everything
Example:Somebody is coming to dinner.Neither of us believes a word Harry says.
Plural:
Examples:Both are expected at the airport at the same Fme.Several have suggested canceling the meeFng.
Singular with non-‐countables / Plural with countables:
Examples:Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.
Examples:
The accident is nobody’s fault.
How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?
Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most
Note the differences:
Each person has a chance.
(Each is a determiner describing person.)
Each has a chance.
(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
Both lawyers pled their cases well.
(Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)
Both were in the room.
(Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
E. InterrogaNve Pronouns:
InterrogaFve pronouns produce informaFon quesFons that require more than a “yes” or “no” answer.
Examples:
What do you want? Who is there?
F. RelaNve Pronouns:
RelaFve pronouns introduce relaFve (adjecFval) clauses.
Note: Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.
Use that and which to refer to things.
SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENTMaking Subjects and Verbs Agree
Subject comes before the word “OF”. SomeFmes there is no ACTION. He is here. ‘IS’ is the verb -‐ not an acFve verb. The subject and verb must agree in number: both must be singular, or both must be plural. Problems occur in the present tense because one must add an -‐s or -‐es at the end of the verb when the subjects or the enFty performing the acFon is a singular third person: he, she, it, or words for which these pronouns could subsFtute.NoFce the difference between singular and plural forms in the following examples:
Singular Plural
The student sings. (He or she sings) Your children sing. (They sing)
The bird does migrate. (It does) Those birds do migrate. (They do)
In order to find out if your subject and verb agree, you need to be able to idenFfy the subject of your sentence. Here are some helpful hints that will help you to decipher where your subject is and where it is not.
Where is my subject?• Most likely, your verb will agree with the first noun to the ler of the verb:
• The Supreme Court judge decides the appropriate penalty.• The Supreme Court judge decides the appropriate penalty.
• Subject: judge • Verb: decides
• The commijee members were saFsfied with the resoluFon.• The commijee members were saFsfied with the resoluFon.
• Subject: members • Verb: were
• Occasionally, a sentence has the subject arer the verb instead of before it. This strategy is o\en used for poeFc effect.
• Over the ripples glides a small canoe.• Over the ripples glides a small canoe.
• Subject: a small canoe • Verb: glides
• There was a well-‐known writer at the meeFng.• There was a well-‐known writer at the meeFng.
• Subject: a well-‐known writer • Verb: was
• You will not find the subject in a modifying phrase (MP), a phrase that starts with a preposiFon,
a gerund, or a relaFve pronoun and that modifies the meaning of the noun or subject under discussion.
• The group of students is going on a field trip.• The group of students is going on a field trip.• The group of students is going on a field trip.
• Subject: the group • MP: of students • Verb: is
• The survey covering seven colleges reveals a growth in enrollment.• The survey covering seven colleges reveals a growth in enrollment.• The survey covering seven colleges reveals a growth in enrollment.
Subject: the survey MP: covering seven colleges Verb: reveals
• The speaker whom you saw at the lecture is one of the state senators from Minnesota.
• The speaker whom you saw at the lecture is one of the state senators from Minnesota.
• The speaker whom you saw at the lecture is one of the state senators from Minnesota.
Subject: the speaker MP: whom you saw at the lecture Verb: is
• If subjects are joined by and, they are considered plural.
• The quarterback and the coach are having a conference.• The quarterback and the coach are having a conference.
Subject: the quarterback and the coach Verb: are having
•
• If subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the closer subject.
• Either the actors or the director is at fault.• Either the actors or the director is at fault.
Subjects: actors, director Verb: is
• Either the director or the actors are at fault.• Either the director or the actors are at fault.
Subjects: director, actors Verb: are
Basic Rule.The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb.NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The next trick is recognizing a singular or plural verb.Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they. Example:talks, talkWhich one is the singular form? Which word would you use with he? We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks is singular. We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.
Rule 1.Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.Example:My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Rule 2.
Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor require a singular verb as in Rule 1. Examples:Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decora'ons.
Rule 3.When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.Example:Neither she nor I am going to the fes'val.
Rule 4.When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.Example:The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
Rule 5.When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.Example:Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
Rule 6.As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.Example:A car and a bike are my means of transporta'on.
Rule 7.SomeFmes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.Examples:The poli'cian, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 8.The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.Examples:Each of the girls sings well.Every one of the cakes is gone.NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning is each one.
Rule 9.With words that indicate porFons—percent, frac'on, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth —look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposiFon) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposiFon is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposiFon is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:Fi=y percent of the pie has disappeared.Pie is the object of the preposiFon of.Fi=y percent of the pies have disappeared.Pies is the object of the preposiFon.One-‐third of the city is unemployed.One-‐third of the people are unemployed.NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-‐out fracFons.All of the pie is gone.All of the pies are gone.Some of the pie is missing.Some of the pies are missing.None of the garbage was picked up.None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.NOTE: Apparently, the SAT tesFng service considers none as a singular word only. However, according to Merriam Webster's Dic'onary of English Usage, "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and sFll is. The noFon that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criFcism" (p. 664).
Rule 10.The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is followed by a plural verb. Examples:The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.A number of people have wri_en in about this subject.
Rule 11.When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbsExamples:Neither of them is available to speak right now.Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Rule 12.The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb.Examples:There are four hurdles to jump.There is a high hurdle to jump.
Rule 13.Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of Fme. Examples:Ten dollars is a high price to pay.Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Rule 14.
SomeFmes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.Examples:Salma is the scien'st who writes/write the reports.The word in front of who is scien'st, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.He is one of the men who does/do the work. The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.
Rule 15.CollecFve nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence.Examples:The staff is in a mee'ng.Staff is acFng as a unit here.The staff are in disagreement about the findings.The staff are acFng as separate individuals in this example.The sentence would read even bejer as:The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Basic Sentence StructureIn order to be a complete sentence, a group of words needs to contain a subject and a verb, and it needs to express a complete thought.
There are five basic pajerns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as follows:
S-‐V Subject-‐Verb John sleeps.Jill is eaFng.Jack will arrive next week.
S-‐V-‐O Subject-‐Verb-‐Object I like rice.She loves her job.He's eaFng an orange.
S-‐V-‐Adj Subject-‐Verb-‐AdjecFve He is funny.The workers are lazy.Karen seems angry.
S-‐V-‐Adv Subject-‐Verb-‐Adverb Jim is here.Flowers are everywhere.No one was there.
S-‐V-‐N Subject-‐Verb-‐Noun She is my mom.The men are doctors.
Mr. Jones is the teacher.
At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-‐Verb relaFonship. Other elements can be added to make a sentence more interesFng, but they are not essenFal to its formaFon.
The following sentences are examples of the S-‐V pajern.
She sleeps. Core sentenceShe sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.She sleeps on the sofa. A preposiFonal phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.She sleeps every
a\ernoon.
A Fme expression is added to tell when she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-‐V relaFonship remains the same.Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is used.The dogs are sleeping in
the garage.
New subject may require a different form of the verb.
Note: Any acFon verb can be used with this sentence pajern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-‐V-‐O pajern.
They like rice. Core sentenceThe people like rice. Specific subject
The friendly people like rice. Subject modified with an adjecFveThe people in the restaurant like rice. Subject modified with an adjecFveThe people like boiled rice. Object modified with an adjecFveThe people like hot, white rice. Object modified with more than one adjecFveNote: Only transiFve acFon verbs can be used with this sentence pajern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-‐V-‐Adj pajern.
He is fine. Basic sentence with "be" verbHe seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking verbJordan is tall, dark and handsome. Series of adjecFves
He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier addedGeorge became sick last night. Different tense and linking verbNote: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pajern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-‐V-‐Adv pajern.
The teacher is here. Basic sentenceThe teacher is over there. Using an adverb phraseTeachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb usedThe teachers are in the
lobby.
PreposiFonal phrase funcFoning as adverb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pajern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-‐V-‐N pajern.
The man is a doctor. Basic sentenceThe women are doctors. Using plural noun and verbMy father is a nice guy. Modified subject and complementMy grandparents are
senior ciFzens.
Modified plural subject and complement
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pajern.
The Four Sentence Structures
1. A simple sentence has only one independent clause.I drink coffee.• An independent clause is a group of words (with a subject and a verb) that expresses a complete
thought.
2. A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. These clauses are joined by a coordinaFng conjuncFon or a semicolon.
I eat oatmeal, and Tim eats doughnuts.• A coordinaFng conjuncFon is a word that glues words, phrases, or clauses together.
3. A complex sentence has a subordinate clause joined to an independent clause with a subordinaFng conjuncFon.I washed the dishes a=er I ate my oatmeal.• A subordinate clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone.
4. A compound-‐complex sentence has a two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
Rachael Ray explained how cookies are made, and we prac'ced her techniques at home.