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7/27/2019 English Teaching Methodology
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English Teaching
Methodology
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LANGUAGE LEARNING AND
TEACHING Objectives:
1. understand the way knowledge of
language learning influences languageteaching
2. evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of different teaching
methods
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I. Language learning
Knowing a language=
1. knowing the items that make up the
language, being able to supply theseitems when they are missing, or being
able to do without them
2. the ability to produce an infinite number
of sentences in response to an infinite
number of stimuli
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3. knowing its:
-pronunciation(knowledge of sounds,
stress and intonation)-grammar (knowledge of the rules which
help creating an infinite number of
sentences = grammatical competence)
-vocabulary(knowledge of what words
mean both literally and metaphorically)
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-discourse(knowledge of how language is used
appropriately and how language is organized as
discourse = communicative competence)
-appropriacy(knowledge of how to use language
appropriately: how to get it to do what we want
it to do in the right circumstances)1
-language skills(possession of the four basic
skills: speaking, writing, listening and reading)
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Learning a language= a
heterogeneous process, comprising lots
of mechanisms, beginning with those ofPavlovs conditioning type, up to the
most complex ones, those of the type of
problem solving.
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Learning styles
a) visual learners
learn better by visual means (by readingand by looking at pictures or films);
- they remember instructions best if they
see them on the blackboard
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b) auditory learners
learn well by hearing things (lectures or
tapes)- they like teachers to give oral instructions
- they like making tape recordings of what
they are learning and having discussions
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c) kinaesthetic learners
learn best when they have hands-on
experience, when they are physicallyinvolved or can actively participate;
- they like moving around when they learn
and prefer a variety of classroom
activities
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II. Learning theories and
approaches Acquisition and learning(S. Krashen)
Acquisition= the natural way, paralleling firstlanguage development in children
a subconscious process which has as a result
the language proficiency through understanding
and using language for meaningful
communication
It is more successful and longer lasting than
learning
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Learning=
the process in which conscious rules
about a language are developed; it results only in knowing about the
language, that is, explicit knowledge
about the forms of a language and the
ability to verbalize this knowledge
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Theories of learning a language
1)Behaviouristicdeveloped by Skinner
Characteristics:
applied the theory of conditioning (ananimal can be trained to learn something
through a three-stage procedure:
stimulus, response and reinforcement/
reward) to the way humans acquire their
first language.
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language was considered as a form of
behaviour.
language learning is considered to bebased on experience, imitation and
selective conditioning and the language
habit formed by constant repetition.
mistakes were immediately criticized,
good results were immediately praised.
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2) Nativistic Noam Chomsky
Characteristics:
language acquisition is considered to bea more or less autonomous processbased on an inborn mechanism oflanguage acquisition
linguistic competence is the mostimportant thing
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language was not a form of behaviour,
but a rule-based system (a large part of
language acquisition means in fact thelearning of the system)
the language learner acquires language
competence (knowledge of the grammar
rules present in the system) and heexperiments it as language user.
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3) task-based learning
Characteristics:
it is based on the idea that attention should not
be given too much to the nature of languageinput, but to the learning tasks that students areinvolved in
students should be asked to perform
communicative activities (tasks) in which theyhave to use the language. (he more they dothis, the better they become at using thelanguage)
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the tasks chosen, should contribute to
communicative goals; enhance learning;
have carefully designed elements andwell specified objectives;
engage students in some form of
genuine problem solving activity
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4) cooperative learning
involves the learner-centered
characteristics;- it also refers to the collaborative efforts of
students and teachers working together
to pursue goals and objectives
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5)interactive learning
created for communicative purposes ( theinteractive classes are those which do group
and pair work);- students receive authentic language input in
real-life contexts;
- students produce language for meaningful
communication; produce oral communication;write to and for real audience; focus on thesocial aspect of language;
- integrate the four skills.
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6) self-directed learning
- is based on the idea that students have to
be trained to be good learners; theirlearning is better if they make most oftheir own resources, if they can taketheir own decisions about what to donext, how best to study
- a good language programme should bebased on a mixture of class-work andself-study
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7) humanistic approaches
based on the idea that the humanisticaspects of learning should be stressed.
- the experience of the students is whatcounts
- the development of the studentspersonality, as well as the
encouragement of positive feelings areconsidered to be as important as theirlearning of a language
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III. Language teaching
The teaching processinvolves
presenting and explaining the new material (in a
clear, comprehensible and available for learning
way)
providing practice (in order to reinforce learning
and improve performance)
testing and evaluation (to check what has been
mastered and what still needs to be learned or
reviewed; to evaluate both the students and
the teachers work)
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Principles in teaching:
1) the communicative principle
language as a means of communication is an
activity (foreign language classes should beactive)
- students should be encouraged to workthroughout the whole course of a class
- the foreign language should be used almostexclusively during the classes
- conversational practice is introduced from thevery first stage
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2) the meaningful learning principle
asks for avoidance of too much
grammatical explanation and mechanicaltechniques;
- stress should be on students developing
their power of making associations, on
their capacity of analysis and synthesis
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3) the intrinsic motivation principle
stress should be on the students developingtheir intrinsic motivation, which is concerned
with what takes place in the classroom (asopposed to extrinsic motivation)
- intrinsic motivation plays an important role in thestudents success or failure as languagelearners, being influenced by such factors as:the physical condition in which learning takesplace, the method by which students are taught,the teacher and his teaching style, as well asthe students success in learning
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- the teachers task is to develop strategies
so as to give students reasons to work,
to motivate them to fully take part in theprocess of learning
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4) the risk-taking principle
students should be encouraged to take
risks in their attempt to use the language- the teacher should choose suitable
techniquesfrom simple to complex and
constantly affirm his belief in their ability
of solving tasks
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5) the languageculture connection
principle
students should develop a positiveperception of the target language and its
people;
- teaching a language means teaching
about the people speaking thatlanguage; their culture and way of
thinking
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6) the affective principle
language learning and teaching should
take place in a relaxed and supportiveatmosphere;
- the teacher should be patient and
understanding;
- the teacher should encourage co-
operative learning
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Teaching approaches and
methods
Approach
= a conception, a system, a point of viewconcerning the nature of the subjectmatter to be taught
- it involves commitment to a particulartheory about language or learning
- it determines the methods andtechniques to be used
- it includes many methods of teaching
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method
= an orderly presentation of the material ata given stage of the lesson
- a set of techniques and procedures,representing the level at which theory isput into practice and at which choices
are made about the particular skills to betaught, the content to be taught and theorder in which this content will bepresented
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procedure
= a part of a method
- it encompasses the actual moment-to-moment teaching (drills, dialogues, the
feedback given to learners concerning
the form or content of their utterances).
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technique
= a stratagem used to accomplish an immediate
objective in the lesson.
There can be
a) static techniques (illustration, explanation,
demonstration);
b) dynamic techniques (dramatization, simulation)
c) integrated techniques consisting of both a
linguistic object and a related activity (e.g.: a
song = an object; singing = the activity).
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Grammar Translation Method.
A) The synthetical method
- language is a synthesis of wordsarranged in sentences according todifferent rules
- students had to learn the rules and
construct sentences based on them- the rules were memorized in a strict
traditional order.
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A) The analytical method
- teaching should start with the written
text and by its analysis, to come toteach its words and rules
- everything had to be taught by
induction
- the main technique was translation into
the target language
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The advantage
- it paid great attention to meaning.
The drawbacks- it was a very schematical and rigid
system, unable to embrace richness
and variety of the spoken language
(idioms and set phrases could not be
learned according to rules and lists)
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The Direct Method
- Its aim was to develop the students capacity ofthinking in a foreign language.
- it stressed the importance of acquiring thespoken language
- excluded completely the use of the mothertongue
- the meaning of the words was explained by the
direct presentation of objects, by direct intuition- abstract notions were explained by means of
paraphrases, synonyms, antonyms or bydeducing the meaning from the context.
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- pronunciation was considered to be
important;
- little attention was given to the writtenlanguage
- the teaching of grammar was considered
secondary and was achieved by
practice.
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The advantages
- it emphasized the spoken language
- it replaced the learning of isolated wordsand endless grammar rules anddefinitions with the learning ofsentences, phrases and idioms.
- Drawbacks- the complete elimination of the mother
tongue
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The Oral Method
- its aim was to develop the students capacity of
memorizing and habit-forming
- it excluded any form of writing
- It considered that there should be no reading
matter at all
- provided methods of work meant to develop
the students power of unconscious
assimilation.
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The Audio-Visual Approach
- It is based on sociolinguistics
- it stressed on the simultaneous use ofauditory and visual stimuli: filmstrips,slides, films and tapes
- the idea was that the foreign language
should be learned in its natural forms asspeech, not as writing, and helped by themodern technical aids.
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- The advantage
- students become familiar with everyday
language
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The Audio-Lingual Approach
- meant the application of the structural linguistics to theteaching of the foreign language;
- it was based on conditioning and on behaviourism.
- its aim was the acquisition of a practical set ofcommunicative skills and to make language accessible tolarge groups
- the main characteristics were repetition andmemorization, which led to the development of skills and
habits(drills became the main activity, followed bypositive or negative reinforcement).
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- attention was given to stress, intonation
and rhythm
- dialogues were used as the main meansof presenting language and emphasis
was on listening and speaking
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- advantages:
- the first laboratory classes were
introduced- listening became a skill used for the first
time
- drawback
- using such drills, students could be in
danger of becoming parrots.
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The Situational Method
- was based on behaviorism
- considered language as an established set of
habits, a set of responses conditioned to occur
with certain stimuli (situations or words)
- considered that through the observation and
imitation of language in realistic situations,
students could master the rules inductively,without needing to be conscious of them
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Suggestopedia
a humanistic approach
- considered that the main aim of teaching was
understanding and creative solution ofproblems
- the teachers role was to create situations inwhich the learner is most suggestible and thento present linguistic material in a way mostlikely to encourage positive reception andretention by the learner
- the method insisted on students comfortablyrelaxed, on comfortable furniture and music
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- students were given new names and
listened to extended dialogues
- the idea was that the special setting, thegeneral ease of the situation, the
adoption of a new identity and the
dependence on listening to dialogues
could help students to acquire thelanguage
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The Silent Way- based on the idea that the teacher should be
silent as much as possible in the classroom andthe learner should be encouraged to produce
as much language as possible;
- the teacher offers a very limited amount of
input, he models the language to be learned
once only, and then indicates what students
should do by pointing or other silent means.
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- the method views learning as a problem-
solving, creative, discovering activity, in
which the learner is the main actor.
- the teacher does not praise; he does not
criticize either; he simply indicates that
the student should try again, until
success is achieved.
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- learning becomes a process of personal
growth resulting from growing student
awareness and self- challenging.
- learners create their own utterances by
putting together old and new information.
They are expected to develop autonomy
and responsibility, to interact with eachother and suggest alternatives to each
other.
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- charts and other visual aids are used.
- teacher is responsible for designing
teaching sequences, creating lessonelements and creating an environment
that encourages students risk taking and
that facilitates learning
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The Total Physical Response
- built around the coordination of speech
and action; it attempts to teach languagethrough physical activity
- its ultimate aim is to teach basic
speaking skills
- content is determined by the teacher.
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- the teacher gives students instructions;
- students do not have to speak; they
have to listen carefully and then carryout the teachers commands. They
respond to these commands individually
and collectively. They have little
influence over the content of learning
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- the teacher plays an active and directrole; he decides what to teach, modelsand presents the new material, selects
supportive material for classroom use.He emphasizes comprehension skillsbefore students are taught to speak.
- when students are ready for it, they give
commands to other students; they areencouraged to speak only when they feelready to do it
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- speaking abilities are developed in
learners at their own natural pace
- students learn language through actions,through physical response.
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The Communicative Approach
- starts from a theory of language as
communication; this is why the main goalof the approach is enabling students to
communicate using the target language
appropriate to a given social context,
that is, developing their communicativecompetence.
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communicative competence:
-grammatical competence: the domain of
grammatical and lexical capacity; themastery of the language code;
knowledge about the language and the
necessary skills required to understand
and express the literal meaning ofutterances
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-sociolinguistic competence:
- the ability to understand the social context in
which communication takes place;
- the ability to produce and understand
utterances in terms of the context in which they
appear;
- it includes taking into consideration the status
role of the speaker, his attitude, the sharedinformation, the communicative purpose, the
degree of formality and social convention
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-discourse competence:
- refers to the interpretation of individual
message elements; the ability tocombine meanings with unified texts
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-strategic competence: refers to the
verbal or non-verbal strategies that
communicators employ to initiate,
maintain, finish, repair and redirect
communication
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Characteristics of the approach:
- concentration is on use and appropriacy
rather than on meaning and grammar;- attention is given to communicative tasks
to be achieved through the language
rather than exercises on the language
- the emphasis is on student initiative
rather than on teacher-centered activity
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- the teacher evaluates not only accuracy but alsothe students fluency
- the role of the teacher: a facilitatorof hisstudents learning; he is a managerof theclassroom activities (modifies them and adjuststhem to the needs of his students); during theactivities he is an advisor, answering thestudents questions and monitoring theirperformance. He is the initiatorof the activities,
but does not always interact with students;sometimes he is a co-communicator, but moreoften he establishes situations that promptcommunication between and among students
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- students are actively engaged in
negotiating meaning; they try to learn to
communicate by communicating
- they become more responsible for their
learning;
- they use the language through several
communicative activities: games, role-play, simulation and problem solving
tasks.
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The new types of activities:
brainstorming, story-telling, info transfer,
recognition exercises, dialogues, mime,
identification ( give them freedom and
responsibility, developing
students`analytical and creative thinking)
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- the four skills: listening, speaking,
reading, writing are integrated
- the classroom procedures favourinteraction among students, giving them
the chance to work individually, in pairs
or in groups
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- the approach uses such concepts as
forms, meanings, functions (situations,
likes, dislikes, agreeing, disagreeing,
offering, accepting, refusing, arguing)
and notions (time, location, weight, etc.)
- dialogues center round communicative
functions; they are not normallymemorized;
- contextualization is a basic premise.
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- attempts to communicate are encouraged from
the very beginning
- errors are considered a normal part of learning
- the students native language has no particular
role in this approach;
- the target language should be used not only
during communicative activities, but also for
examples, in explaining the activities tostudents or in assigning homework.
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- the students learn from classroom
management exchanges
- teacher helps learners in any way thatmotivates them to work with the
language
- any device which helps the learner is
accepted.
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The Natural Approach
- is a communicative approach, whichfocuses on teaching communicative
abilities
- language is considered as a vehicle forcommunicating meanings and messages
- techniques recommended are borrowedfrom other methods and adapted to meetrequirements
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the learner
- is seen as a processor of
comprehensible input- he acts out physical commands, points
to pictures, answers questions, fills in
charts, involves himself in role-play,
games;
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- he participates in group problem solving
or offers personal information and
opinions.
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the teacher
- is the primary source of comprehensibleinput
- he creates an interesting and friendlyclassroom atmosphere, in which thereexists a low filter for learning
-he chooses a rich mix of classroomactivities, involving much group work orpair work.
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Characteristics of the traditional approachesare:
passive learner role
cognitive domain emphasized extrinsic motivation
mainly competitive
regular testing
teacher as instructor and imparter of knowledge mainly memory, practice and rote
hierarchical and authoritarian structure
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Characteristics of new approaches are:
active learner role
learners and teachers see each other as equals
cognitive and affective domains are given equal status
intrinsic motivation
teacher is considered as a guide and learner too
learning is made by discovery
accent is on creative expression
little testing mainly co-operative group work
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TEACHING SKILLS
listening, speaking, reading and writing
1) Listening and reading involve reception
in the foreign language; this is why theyare called receptive skills.
2) Speaking and writing involve
production; they are called productive
skills.
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1.Teachinglistening
Listening =
1. the ability to identify and understand
what other people are saying;2. recognizing speech sounds, dialects
and speech rhythm
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The main aim = making students
understand the foreign language spoken
at normal speed and in normal
conditions
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Other listening aims:
listening for discriminating among the distinctivesounds of English
recognizing reduced forms of words recognizing grammatical word classes: nouns,
verbs, adjectives
recognizing systems: tense, agreement pluralforms
listening for the main idea/gist
listening for specific information
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distinguishing between literal and impliedmeaning
inferring situations or participants
listening to check if your answers areright or wrong
listening to match pictures withdescriptions
listening to complete a picture
listening to re-order a jumbled dialogue
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listening for dictation
listening for identifying intention/attitudes
listening for identifying relevant points andrejecting irrelevant ones
listening for recognizing discourse markers(well/now/finally)
listening for recognizing cohesive devices inspoken discourse (which/that)
listening for guessing unknown words orphrases
predicting outcomes
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Methodologic considerations:
teacher should give SS guidance on the
structure of what they are going to hear. students should listen to the real thing
from early stages in the course
students must be told that they do not
need to understand everything from thevery beginning;
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students should be offered a first listening for a
general idea and then segments of tape for
detailed work
students should be let to check answerstogether in pairs or groups before feedback
work
the listening material should be graded
according to the students level the interest of the students should be
encouraged
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students should be provided with differenttypes of input: lectures, radio news, films, TVplays, announcements, everydayconversations, stories, English songs
longer pieces of listening should be divided intoshorter sections, each with its own listeningtask
students should be provided with a variety of
voices, accents and speaking styles
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listening should be integrated with oral or
written activities
listening activities should be stopped once the
students become restless or frustrated
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Classroom activities
A listening activity class has three stages:
a) Pre-listening (meant to provide acontext for listening, to activate the
learners background knowledge about
the topic and activate a vocabulary set
associated with the topic). Itcompensates for classes with no
cassette recorders or visual
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The activitiesincluded in this stage could be:
elicitation/discussion about the topic (toencourage students exchange ideas/opinionsabout the topic)
brainstorming (students predict the words andexpressions likely to appear in the passage,express hypotheses about the content of thepassage, based on previous knowledge)
games (for warming-up relaxation and training
in basic listening skills; e.g. miming words andexpressions heard; minimal-pair distinction)
guiding questions
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Other activities during this stage:
T introduces new vocabulary
T offers a reason for listening
T may assign a task
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b) While-listening
1) 1stlistening for a general idea
2) 2ndlistening for details
3) 3
rd
listening for total comprehension
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Strategiesused:
inferring information about the speakers and thesituation that is implied in what they hear
matching what they hear against their ownexperience and knowledge of the world ant theirpreoccupations
distinguishing the most important informationfrom less important details
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trying to visualize elements of what is heard
and form a mental picture that corresponds to
that of the speaker
making predictions about what the speaker isgoing to say
responding intellectually or emotionally to the
listening material: agreeing, disagreeing,
approving, disapproving, etc.
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Activities:
1) bottom-up exercisesof the type:
discriminating between phonemes
obeying instructionsstudents perform actions
or draw pictures in response to instructions
ticking off itemsstudents are given a list, text
or picture and they are asked to tick off words
or components as they hear them within aspoken description, story or simple list of items
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word recognition (matching word with pictures;
circling in a list the word they hear; pointing to a
image or a thing; pointing to a image or a thing)
answering questionsstudents are askedone/more questions in advance; they listen to
the text which offers the correct answer and
detect it
note-takingstudents take brief notes from ashort lecture or talk
recognizing pertinent details
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comparing (to compare passages withprediction in pre-listening)
obeying instructions (students show
comprehension by physical movement, finishinga task, etc.)
repetition of short phrases or completeutterances recorded
detecting differences or mistakesthe teacher
tells a story or describes something the classknows, including a number of deliberatemistakes and students have to detect them
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true/false exercisestudents tick or cross what
they think is right or wrong
clozethe listening text has occasional brief
gaps; students write down what they think mightbe the missing word
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2) top-down exercises:
paraphrasingstudents rewrite the listeningtext in different words
summarizingstudents write a short summaryof the listening passage
problem solving- a problem is described orally;students listen to it and discuss the solution
getting the gist of the text
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recognizing the topic
analysing discourse structure
evaluating themes and motives
finding main ideas and supporting details
making inferences
predicting outcomes
information transfer(maps/plans/grids/lists/pictures)
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sequencing - students give the right order for a
series of pictures
information search - students listen to a
passage and take notes on the segments thatanswer a particular question
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c) Post-listening
The stage may include activities such as:
answering to show comprehension - students
answer to multiple-choice or true/falsequestions
problem solving - students are given all theinformation relevant to a particular problem andthen set themselves to solve it
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summarizing
jigsaw listening - different groups of students
listen to different but connected passages, each
of which supplies some part of what they needto know; then, they come together to exchange
information in order to complete a story or
perform a task
writing as follow-up to listening activities speaking as follow-up to listening activities
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2. Teaching reading
Reading = an active activity;
The overall purposein teaching reading
is to develop in students the attitudes,
abilities and skills needed for obtaining
information, developing interests and
finally driving pleasure by reading
through understanding.
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Students must recognize
a) sonorous models represented by
graphical symbols,
b) their combinations as units of language;
c) structural indices (of word classes, of
persons, of tenses or category).
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The reading passages
a) activate the students mental structures;
b) develop their capacity for inference,anticipation, deduction, analysis and
synthesis;
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c) stimulate their capacity for appreciation
and critical thinking by discussion and
reflection on the text;
d) raise awareness of language use;
e) foster confidence in reading and
interpreting texts
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Specific competences:
1) discrimination among orthographic
patterns
2) recognition of words at sight
3) distinction between the main idea and
the specific information
4) understanding of implied informationand attitudes
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5) understanding of layout and use ofheadings
6) recognition of grammatical word classes
(nouns, adjectives, verbs)7) recognition of systems (tenses,
agreement between subject andpredicate, sequence of tenses)
8) recognition of the communicativefunctions of the written text
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9) deduction of causes and effects
10) distinction between the literal and
implied meaning
11) development of reading strategies
12) development of skills in reading silently
and orally
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13) knowledge about how to use an index,
a table of contents, a dictionary
14) development of such skills as
predicting, recognizing discourse
markers
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The reading skill
is closely related to all the other
language skills and it also
serves as a means of introducing and
practising the components of language:
articulatory skills, intonations, vocabulary
and grammatical structures.
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There are several types of reading
grouped in opposites:
oral/mental;
individual/chorus;
prepared/unprepared;
controlled/independent;
intensive/extensive.
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Intensive reading
related to acquiring competence under
the teachers guidance
students often take notes, highlight the
important parts, identify details
the activities focus on comprehension
the students focus on the linguistic orsemantic details of a passage
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The textsfit to develop such reading are:
letters, postcards, telegrams, notices,
recipes, weather forecasts, instructions,
directions, rules and regulations, labels,menus, tickets, price lists, diagrams,
charts, maps, time-tables, essays,
reviews, questionnaires, reports
(especially functional texts).
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Extensive reading
its main purpose is the direct and fluent
reading for pleasure
its activities focus on students
response to texts
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The types of textsthat are generally
used: diary pages, extracts from novels,
tales, stories, newspaper and magazine
articles, biographical andautobiographical passages, jokes,
poems, comic strips
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Steps in teaching reading
1. to make students aware of what they do
when they read efficiently in their own
language
2. to give them guidance and practice (to
help them recognize and respond
appropriately to the type of text, byadopting a suitable attitude and suitable
tactics
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Methodological considerations:
Students must develop reading skills that
lead to a thorough understanding of the
text without using translation in their
mother tongue
Teachers and students should
understand that this process must beslow, gradual and continuous
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Reading is not recommended with
beginners without the help of the teacher
Reading must not be delayed too long
as students are tempted to take notes of
what they seem to hear
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The texts used for reading must containthe orally studied material and symbolswill continuously be associated with oral
versions At first, students will read and repeat
after a reading model and they willcorrelate correct pronunciation with
printed sound-symbol combinations,together with accent and intonation
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Once introduced, reading permits the
introduction of some writing exercises,
carefully chosen
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Classroom activities
a) Pre-reading
Aims of this stage:- to introduce students to the topic of the
text they are about to read;
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- to activate their background knowledge
about the topic and the vocabulary
related to it;
- to stimulate students interest and
encourage them to read more
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effective techniques:
- elicitation, brainstorming, guidingquestions, listening to a passage on a
related topic, perhaps based on visuals
are
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The teacher pre-teaches a few new key-
words related to the topic and writes
them on the blackboard in sentences.
A task can be also assigned to be done
as they are reading. Such tasks can
include: filling in a chart; matching
pictures to paragraphs, answeringtrue/false questions, finding out specific
words, etc
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b) While-reading
Reading activities can be of three
types:
a) conscious imitative reading-
- implies the imitation of the examples
set by the teacher or the tape;
- it can be both choral or individual;
- it is especially useful with beginners
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b) semi-independent reading
implies work of the students with the help
of the teacher;
- the model reading is not considered
important;
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- the students read in class first silently and
then aloud, individually;
- they may also get some texts to read at
home and then read them in the class
aloud during the next lesson
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c) independent reading
used with advanced students;
- the most important thing iscomprehension
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Reading tactics/strategies
a) Skimming = running the eyes very
quickly over the text in order to
- get a general impression of its character
and content;
- get its main idea/the gist
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b)scanning= reading the text very
quickly in order to locate the information
we need
c)sequential = reading the text from the
beginning up to its end
d) focusing= intensive reading of the part
of the text of special interest
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c) Post-reading
Activities in this stage must help students
to extract from the text- literal meaning
- implied meaning
- the main idea/general meaning
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- specific information/ details
- information relationships not especially
stated in the text /deduced meaning
- meta-content information, including:
1. the type of text (descriptive; narrative;
argumentative; reflective; explanatory;
comparison and contrast; allegorical)
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2. the genre (novel; poem; newspaperarticle; advertisement)
3. the theme of the text
4. types of relationships within the text(cause and effect; consequences ofactions; facts and opinions)
5. the intention of the author (if he wants to
shock, to amuse, to persuade, to warn,to impart information)
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6. the attitude of the author
(subjective/objective; indifferent/involved;
confident/detached)
7. the point of view
8. the setting
9. the characters
10. the atmosphere of the extract (gloomy;optimistic)
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11. the tone of the writer (monotonous,
optimistic, hopeful, pessimistic, ironic,
humorous, enthusiastic)
12. the rhetorical devices (cohesive
devices; lexical linkersrepetitions,
synonyms, pronominal references;
stylistic devicesmetaphors,personification, types of images, etc.)
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13. the discourse markers in the text
(enumerative: firstly/ secondly/ in the
end; showing reinforcement: again and
again/ also/ above all; showing similarity:similarly/ likewise; showing transition:
now/ by the way; illustrative: for instance/
for example; contrastive: on the contrary/
by contrast)
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Comprehension can be checked in various
ways:
- asking students to answer definite
questions beginning with who/ what/
when/ where/ why
- asking students to answer to true/false
questions- multiple-choice exercises
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- asking students to give responses based
on their personal experience and
opinions
- asking students to respond physically to a
command
- asking students to extend/provide an
ending to a story
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- asking them to follow specific directions
(find the words which
show/describe/tell)
- asking them to indicate sequence of
ideas by rearranging sentence
- numbering sentences in the order they
appear in reading
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- activities based on charts
- dramatized dialogues
- eliciting a summary of the entire passage
- rewriting the story and changing the
dialogue into indirect discourse
- selecting key sentences which illustrate
certain characteristics of the ideas
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- finding synonyms and antonyms of the
new words
- finding other stories on the same theme
- completing sentences
- making use of the new words and
sentences in original sentences
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- a game, to practise vocabulary
- illustrating favourite events by drama or
drawing
- engaging in a conversation that indicates
appropriate processing of information
Teaching Writing
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Teaching Writing
Traditional viewsof writing in English teaching
methodology considered writing as a means
rather than as purpose for communication.
More recent mehodologistsstress on the idea
that in teaching a foreign language, importance
should be given to all four skills. So, writing
activities should be designed to reinforce
listening, speaking and reading abilities and
give practice in the structural and lexical itemswhich have been introduced.
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There has been also noticed a shift from
the traditionalproduct-oriented
approach to a process-oriented one
during the last decades. Writing is nolonger understood as a product (essay,
report, story) but it is seen as a process
that can be taught; a way of learning, as
well as communicating
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The process should be viewed in two
lights:
a) as a language problema problem of
assembling words to form grammaticalsentences;
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a) as a rhetorical problema problem of
teaching students to organize words and
patterns so as to fulfill a given rhetorical
aim; emphasis should be given to thespecific communicative purposes of
writing
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The main aimsshould be
1. to develop students ability to convey
information through linking and
developing ideas and arguments inwhole pieces of written discourse
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2. to develop accuracy and fluency in
writing, to raise their awareness of
sentence, paragraph and whole text
structure
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3. to develop their awareness of sentence
linkers and discourse markers
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Students need to develop two types of
micro-skills in writing:
a) mechanical skills:
- correct spelling
- appropriate vocabulary
- knowledge of grammar (express a
particular meaning in differentgrammatical forms)
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- knowledge of punctuation
- knowledge of formats (letter format,
memos, etc.)
- correct choice of register and style
appropriate to the task
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b) composition skills:
- to choose an appropriate layout
- to achieve a high degree of accuracy (to
avoid ambiguity)
- to use linkers (in order to achieve
cohesion :However/In
addition/First/Finally)
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- to get coherence of the text
(paragraphing, introductions and
conclusions)
- to use creativity and imagination
- to develop writing strategies: using
prewriting devices, using paraphrasing
and synonyms
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The skill of correct writing is mainly
attained by practice, by exercises.
They go from a very controlledactivity up
to a freeone.
The stages of the lesson include:
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a) Pre-writing
has the role to stimulate and motivate
students to generate materials to write
on;
- influences active student participation in
thinking, talking, writing and working on
the topic under focus
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Techniques:
- oral group brainstorming- the use of
leading questions to get students think
about a topic or idea
- discussiona topic or question
- debating- orally presenting two sides of
an argument/topic
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- cubing - a quick consideration of the
subject from six points of view: describe
it; compare it; associate it; analyse it;
apply it; argue for/against it- clustering- beginning with a key word,
then adding other words, using free
association
- reading -silent reading or extensive
reading generate ideas for writing
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- group discussion- students are guided to
generate ideas about the topic
- meditating/mind transportation- require
students to make a voyage into a fantasyworld, thus providing a mood which
makes students want to write
- looping- non-stop writing on anythingthat comes to ones mind on a particular
topic
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b) While-writing
1. copying
- often boring and uninteresting for
learners (it is a completely mechanical
one)
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- can be simple(word for word) or tasked
(to underline letters or groups of letters
which represent a sound; to mark certain
grammatical forms; to write only certainparts of the sentence; to copy an
exercise and change the subject, etc).
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2. dictation
- it makes learners concentrate
- it helps developing listening as well as
writing, but sometimes, can be quite
mechanically done, without real
comprehension
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- dictation can be: auditive and visual
1.Auditive
- the teacher first reads the whole text and the
students listen- the teacher reads again sentence by sentence
and the students write
- the teacher reads the text for the third time, while
the students look over their writing, correctingthe possible mistakes
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2. visual dictation
- the teacher writes a word, a phrase or a
sentence on the blackboard and
analyses it
- he cleans the blackboard
- the students write the unit from memory
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3. Dicto-comp
- a type of controlled writing that combines
text dictation and text reconstruction
Technique:
- the teacher reads a passage to the class
- the students listen carefully
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- the teacher puts key words on the
blackboard
- the students write out what they
remember from the passage using thewords on the blackboard
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4. guided writing
- means to give the students a short text as
a model, do some oral preparation for
writing (with the whole class, studentsgiving suggestions; the teacher builds an
outline or a list of key expressions on the
board, expressions which are used by
students as a basis for writing)
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The technique of a controlled/guided
composition includes
- asking the students to tell a given text by
the help of main ideas indicating thebeginning of sentence just to avoid the
repetition of and
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- oral practicethat begins with the choice
of the title, then the students answer the
teachers questions in order to repeat
the vocabulary or enrich it with newitems
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- written exercisescomprise structural
exercises in relation to the chosen
subject; students have to complete
sentences, to change the tense of theverbs or to combine sentences using
conjunctions
- vocabulary studythe teacher teaches
students the correct use of vocabulary
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- student writing - the student starts to write
the composition
- simple paragraph writingthe students
are offered a paragraph as a model fortheir own
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Paragraph writing can include: paragraph
about a favourite subject/season/;
paragraph about a city/town/place; a
narrative paragraph, etc
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Composition work may be developed in
different ways:
- the teacher gives a list of words within
one social or cultural situation and asksthe students to use them in short
dialogues, paragraphs or letters
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- the teacher may give the students amodel of a short composition which isread and discussed and then they are
asked to write a similar one, changingthe name of the characters
- the teacher may ask students about anexperience they have had or answer a
series of sequential questions on a storythey have read in class; the studentsmay be asked to write a summary.
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6. essay writing
The stages for writing an essay are:
- brainstorming - getting ideas together (by
help of mind-maps, discussions, pictures
information is collected; the source is
personal experience, imagination,
reading; students discuss the main ideasand support details)
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- grouping the ideas into units with
common themes - this means finding the
topic for each paragraph
- organizing the paragraphs (depending onthe type of essay)
- planning the essay (a plan of the essay
with the ordered paragraphs and anintroduction and conclusion)
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Other written communicative activities may
include:
- substitution exercises- based on a model
and then personalized
- giving directionsstudents write down
directions which other students have to
follow
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- writing commandsstudents write eachother messages which containcommands
- writing broadcastsstudents write itemsfor news broadcasts which they organizefor transmission
- the tourist brochurestudents can be
asked to write together a brochure aboutthe place they live in, are studying in orare about to visit
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- summary of a song/poem or novel (used
especially for lower-intermediate
students, and will help them prepare for
comprehension and discussionquestions )
- writing reports(book/film/play /interview
report)
- writing advertisements(to advertise food,
clothing, books, places)
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- writing journalsor diary pages
- letter writingto their friends in the
country and abroad; to their favourite
pop stars or film actors; formal andinformal letters, with their specific layout
- fairy tale writing - in groups, students
may invent a fairy story
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- story reconstructionstudents are shown
pictures from a story sequence and are
asked to write sentences about them,
reconstructing the story-warningsor notices
- list of pieces of advice
- resolutions for the future
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- instructionsfor using different objects
-descriptions of places, people and
processes
- writing postcards
- writing recipes
- opinion paragraphs; contrasting opinion
paragraph,
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- autobiographical writing
- profileof a person
- newspaper/magazine articles
- rules for a game or sport
- filling in an application formfor a job
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- argumentative essay
- e-mail/fax messages
- letter of reference
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Steps to improve writing include:
- constant and systematic use of reading
material to introduce the main rhetorical
features of English- use of written exercises that require the
students to connect sentences by means
of the proper linking devices
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- rearrangement of scrambled sentences
into a proper paragraph
- use of a non- paragraphed text that can
be studied and broken into 2-3paragraphs
- training in order to distinguish between
different registers an d styles, level of
formality, modes of address and use of
lexical items
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c) Post writing
- reading, correction and evaluation of the
written product
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Factors which may be considered in
grading, a piece of written work:
- length
- correct grammar
- originality of ideas
- range of vocabulary used
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- range and complexity of structures used
- appropriateness of style
- spelling
- handwriting
- punctuation
- organization of ideas
- relevance to the title
TEACHING VOCABULARY
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Vocabulary= the potentially infinite
number of words existing in a language.
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It usually divided into
a) active vocabulary(vocabulary for productive
use)including the words which students have
been taught /the students have learned, and
which they use, or are expected to use
b) passive vocabulary(vocabulary for receptive
recognition)including words which students
know, can recognize whenever they meet them,
but which they do not use
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knowing a word = being aware of the
following features:
- the correct pronunciation and spelling
- the denotative meaningthe objective,impersonal and intellective meaning of a
word ; it conveys the informational load
carried by a word and is neutral as far as
the attitude of the speaker is concerned
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- connotationsthe subjective, personal and
emotive of a word; the
emotional overtones the speaker usually
associates with each individual use of words;
the field of associations, implications,suggestions which surround the word
- the appropriate grammatical forms
- the styleformal/informal
- the transfer of meaning
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- the lexical sets - if the word relates to
other words within a common topic/
situation/ theme
- the relations of synonymy/ antonymy/homonymy/hyponymy
- collocationsin what way it can combine
with other words
- idioms
Methodological considerations:
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In teaching vocabulary the followingconsiderations are highly important:
- the students must be interested and must makean effort to understand;
- it is the teachers responsibility to provide avariety of activities that will keep the studentsinterested and will help them understand;
- the teacher should also provide frequent
repetition, to reinforce the learning process andfix the new vocabulary firmly in the minds of thestudents;
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- students should be exposed to differentkinds of contexts in which a word may beused, to ensure its proper usage;
- students have to work with wordsactively, regularly and systematically;
- learning of words should be meaningful(words should be learned through
comprehension, association andintegration of the new material with theone which has already been learned).
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words are related in several ways:
- by topic: animals, family relationships,
jobs
- by similarity of meaning: monkey, ape,gorilla
- in pairssynonyms:journey/trip;
margin/edge- in pairsopposites: hot/cold; old/new
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- in a series or a scale: boiling, hot, warm,
cool, cold, freezing
- by super-ordinates and hyponyms:
furniture: bed, table, chair, armchair- by activity or process: steps in making a
coffee or building a house
- word families:paint, painter, painting,paint work
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There are several possibilities of
introducing the new vocabulary into the
lesson:
a) during the introductory conversation,b) during the proper work with the text
c) under study or during the students
individual work with the dictionary
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a)When the new vocabulary is introducedduring the introductory conversation,
- the teacher has the role of selecting
those words which should be acquiredby students in an active manner;
- each uttered sentence should includeonly one word with a definite meaning
in the given context, in a familiargrammatical structure, which needs tobe simple and natural.
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- the teacher utters a sentence related to
the text and explains the new word by
means of a technique of word
interpretation. This implies ostensiveways of teaching:
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- demonstration- by showing an object or acutout figure;
- using realiadifferent objects brought
into the classroom- using picturesusing photographs,
blackboard drawings, illustrations frommagazines or newspapers
- using pictogramsthe teacher draws theword to represent its meaning
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- using flash-cards, handouts, OHP, tape
recorder, cassette recorder
- miming - by gestures or by performing an
action- using explanationsby description;
- by giving synonyms or opposites for the
words students already know;- by putting the word into a defining context
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- by paraphrasing
- by translating;
- giving the definition;
- giving examples;
- resorting to the semantic field the word
belongs to
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Other techniques of presentation and
discovery might include:
- word-building (use parts of words to help
students build new words or guess theirmeaning);
- matching (students match words to
words, or sentences or pictures);
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- using songs;
- using familiar or famous names words
(well-known words from song titles,
books or people
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b)
The new words can be also introduced
during the work with the text. Textbooks
are open; the text is read and studentsare asked to relate what they have
understood. The new words are
introduced in different possible ways
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- guessing from the contextinterpretation
by means of contextual inference from
meaningful sentences, in which students
understand almost all words, except theone in question
- the definition of the new word by other
words in the foreign language
- word analysis techniquefrom a known
stem to a new word
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- the use of synonyms or opposites
- substitution
- matching words with their definitions
students are asked to find words in thetext after having read their definitions
- word listsstudents list words under
appropriate headings
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- word chartsstudents are asked tobring to mind what certain words can beassociated with detailed descriptions
- students connect the words in columnA and B to make sentences connectedwith a certain topic
- word webswords are topic-related
- finding out differences between relatedwords
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- identification of false friends
- work with collocations, phrasal verbs
- the use of affixes to construct new words
- the use of translation
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c)
Introducing new vocabulary during the studentswork with the dictionary is a good exerciseespecially beginning with the third year of study;
it is a step forward in training students to workindependently. Students need to be trained toisolate the unknown word, trace it back to itsroot form, read the word again in the context, inorder to grasp the meaning of the whole
sentence, so that the appropriate meaning ofthe word should be looked up in the end.
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Exercises in teaching vocabularyare of
three types:
1)exercises of understanding vocabulary
based on the teachers explanation
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2)exercises of recognition:
- copying the text and underlying the new words
- analysis of the word or lexical unit as to form:
root, stem, affixes
- analysis of word according to semantic
peculiarities: synonyms, homonyms, antonyms
- picking up words from the text and then grouping
them according to different criteria
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3)exercises of use:
- filling in the blanks with new words
- substitution of drills and known structures
- answering questions
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- translations from Romanian into English
- retelling
- description of pictures
- composition on a given topic previously
prepared
- questions referring to the text under study
- classification of words according tocertain topic
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- correction of statements not true to facts
- completion of certain unfinishedsentences
- replacement of certain words by othersmaking all the other necessary changes
- rearrangement of words in the correctorder
- crossword puzzles- games
Teaching pronunciation
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Some methodological considerations
must be observed:
- the teaching of pronunciation should start
in the early stages of the languagecourse
- the teacher should be consistent in
correcting the errors
- the correction should be done on the spot
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- the teacher should stimulate the studentsto notice the mistakes made by theirclassmates and ask them to offer thecorrect forms
- the teachers explanations concerningpronunciation should be illustrated bymany examples and exercises
- the teacher must avoid to repeat thestudents errors in the form of question ofreproach
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- the teacher is not allowed to make fun of
the mistakes
- classroom atmosphere should be relaxed
- much attention should be given tointonation and stress
- the first lessons are of great importance;
it is the stage where correctpronunciation should be acquired
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Generally, there are three ways in teaching
pronunciation:
- imitation
- articulatory description
- comparison.
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Articulatory descriptionis made use of
especially when the students find it
difficult to pronounce a sound (usually
because this does not exist in theirmother tongue).
Comparisonis used especially when the
students confuse two sounds which are
similar
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Pronunciation practice
- should not include only sounds, clusters
and words, but also sentences
- the use of audio-visual aids, tapes,cassettes, radio or TV together with
many exercises of recognition and
production ensure the learning and
mastering of correct pronunciation.
TEACHING GRAMMAR
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Grammar= the way a language
manipulates and combines words or bits
of words in order to form longer units of
meaning
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Knowing a language
= knowing the items that make up that language
= being able to supply these items when they aremissing
= being able to do without them= the ability to produce an infinite number of
sentences in response to an infinite number ofstimuli
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Methodological considerationsinclude:
- grammar should never be taught and learnedfor its sake; it is expected to form new habits inthe correct use of the foreign language
- the students should use the language and nottalk about it
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- grammatical explanations given to the studentsshould be brief and to the point
- grammar teaching should avoid excess of
abstract theory;
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- the problems beyond the students power ofassimilation should not be theoretically learned,but as structures to be learned by heart
- grammar should always be dealt with in relationto the text under study;
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- any grammatical item must not be explainedbefore the analysis of the text under study
- in teaching any problem of grammar; it isnecessary to establish the connection with thechapters previously learned by students
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- it is important to establish connections betweengrammar and phonetics, spelling, vocabularyand oral expression
- teaching of grammar should be very natural
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- the study of grammar should be turned into aninteresting and attractive activity in theclassroom
- the teacher should make use of tables, charts,schemes, drawings and other auxiliary materials
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- students must be encouraged to speak, offertheir own examples
- most of the time devoted to the study ofgrammar should be spent on the practicalapplication of theoretical knowledge
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- learning is from known to the unknown, fromthe simple to the complex, from proximate tomore distant
- the students interest must be kept alive duringthe whole lesson; this means the lesson mustbe dynamic
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- students must learn through performing tasksor group activities, so that they are using thelanguage as much as possible
- any classroom activity should be introduced bymeans of some brief comments
Classroom activities
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There are two waysthat lead to the
understanding of the phenomena of
grammar;inductionand deduction..
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The inductive approach
- offers various language forms to be practisedand
- lets the learner discover/induce rules andgeneralizations on their own.
Induction helps students to develop their ownjudgement; the rule or definition is arrived atlittle by little
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Induction is not sufficient; it must befollowed by deduction, that is the rulemust be applied in examples, must be
practised.
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So, we must choose the example which seemsto be the most suitable and write it on theblackboard; this becomes the attentionpointer, that calls the students attention to the
problem. A good example must illustrate andconfirm the structure unambiguously and musthave a familiar and simple vocabulary.
Stages in the organization of
grammar teaching
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I. Presentation
Aim: to get the students to perceive thestructure, its form and meaning in both
speech and writing and to take it intoshort-term memory
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When the structure is a very simple, easilyperceived one, the presentation text may be nomore than a sample sentence or two, whichserve as a model for immediate practice. In
such a case, the teacher gives the model ofutterance for each pattern with the appropriateintonation, stress and rhythm and the studentsrepeat it.
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In such a case, the teacher gives the model ofutterance for each pattern with the appropriateintonation, stress and rhythm and the studentsrepeat it.
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Some of the grammar presentation
techniquesmight include:
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1. using a song/poem text
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2. using a time line
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3. using a picture
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4. using realia
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5. personalising
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6. explaining directly
7. comparing L-1 and L-2
8 li i i
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8. eliciting
II I l ti d lifi ti
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II Isolation and exemplification-
Aim: students should understand the variousaspects of the structure.
W
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We
- move away from the context
- focus on the grammatical items themselves:their meaning, their function, the rules thatgovern them.
- By a careful process of questions and answers,inductively, the teacher helps the students toobserve and make the necessary generalis
III P ti
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III. Practice.
Aim: to cause the students to absorb the structurethoroughly and to transfer what they knowfrom short-term to long-term memory.
This is the most important stage.
The students are given the opportunity to use thepatterns with different vocabulary and to drawtheir attention away from the structure being
taught, so that its use become a matter ofconscious habit.
A t i t f i b d Th
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A great variety of exercisescan be used. Thereare several principles to be observed:
a) not too much time should be devoted to writtenexercises; most exercises should be oral
b) students should apply the rules
) t k f t b f
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c) we must make use of a great number ofexercises from colloquial speech
d) individual exercises should be chosen for thestudents with certain gaps and deficiencies
Th l t f ti iti th t
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There are several types of activitiesthat
students may make extensive use in the
classroom. Harmer considers that these
activities may be based either ondiscovery techniques, or o practice
techniques.
Di t h i
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Discovery techniques
students are given examples of
language and told to find out how they
work; they have to discover the grammar rules
rather than be told the rules
in order to do this, several procedures
can be used:
a) using conscious raising questions
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a) using conscious-raising questions
the teacher addresses concept questions inconnection with a certain language point, to
make sure they become aware of its form andmeaning;
students are helped by these questions tonotice/observe a new grammar point; this way,the teacher elicits the right answer and
explanation for it; this way, students areinvolved in their own learning
b) text study
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b) text study
students are asked to discover new grammar byconcentrating on its use in a text
c) matching techniques
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c) matching techniques
the students are asked to match parts of
sentences and phrases; this exercise
allows students to make choices, thusdiscovering correct grammar facts
d) rephrasing
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d) rephrasing
by complex transformations they make,students can prove a sound knowledge ofgrammar;
- by rephrasing, students show clearunderstanding of the sentence to be rephrasedand knowledge of the way in which languageworks.
Practice techniques
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Practice techniques
offer students the possibility to practisegrammar items.
Among such types of exercises there are:
drills
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- drills
interaction activitiesmake controlled
language more meaningful and
enjoyable; such exercises involve thestudents personality, help them interact
actively
According to different authors who recommend
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According to different authors who recommendthem , the exercises can be of different types:
a) Repetition
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a) Repetition
- the students repeat an utterance aloud as theyhave heard it, without looking at a printed text
b) inflexion
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b) inflexionone word in an utterance appears in another
form when repeated ( I lost that pencilI lostthose pencils)
c) simple substitution
d d i h
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one word or some words in the pattern areexchanged for others of the same class (a nouninstead of another noun; a verb, instead ofanother verb)
d) replacement
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d) replacementone word in an utterance is replaced by another.
It is made in any part of the sentence; thestudents listen carefully , determine where it
will fit in the sentence and then include it in theright place (Mary comes early/late - Marycomes late)
e) restatement
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e) restatement
the students rephrase the utterance andaddress it to someone else, according toinstruction (Tell him to open the book- Open
the book!)
f) completion
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f) completionthe students hear an utterance that is complete
except for one word, then repeat it incompleted form (Ill do my homework, youll
dohomeworkbecomes Ill do my homework,youll do your homework)
g) transformation
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g) transformationthe pattern given as stimulus is transformed into
another pattern in the response (presentpast; affirmativeinterrogative; active-
passive)
h) expansion /pyramid
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h) expansion /pyramid
starting with a short sentence, the studentsexpand it by adding additional units and makingthe necessary agreements (This new hat is
mine.- can become This new red hat is mine. -or This new hat on the table is mine.)
i) drilling position of adverbs of frequency
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i) drillingposition of adverbs of frequency
j) transposition
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j) transpositionwhen a word is added it takes a certain place in
the sentence (I am very busy now.canbecome So am I.)
k) contraction
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k) contrac