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Table 1.1Science As a Way of Knowing
Scientists collaborate Many people often work on different aspects of a problem. Creativity, insight, aesthetics and even luck play roles in
scientific research.Scientific Design
Reproducibility Experiments must be designed and recorded so they can be
reproduced exactly by other researchers. Controlled Studies
Comparisons are made between experimental and control
populations.- Every variable except the one being studied is held
constant.Scientific Design
Blind Experiment Conducted so investigators do not know which is the control
and which is the experimental group, until after data havebeen gathered and analyzed.
Double-Blind Neither the subject nor the investigators know which
participants are receiving an experimental treatment.Reasoning
Deductive Reasoned conclusion Starting with a general principle and deriving a testable predication
about a specific case. Premise: All dogs have four legs. Premise: Rover is a dog, Conclusion: Rover has four legs.
Reasoning Inductive
Specific examples are examined to locate patterns and derive generalexplanations from collected observations.
Reasoning from particular instances to a general conclusion
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if all the people you've ever met from a particular town have been very strange, you might then say "all theresidents of this town are strange"
Hypotheses and Theories Hypothesis
Conditional explanation that can be tested by further
observation or experiment.- Logically, an hypothesis is based on inductive reasoning,
can be shown to be wrong, but can almost never be shownto be unquestionably true.Evidence is always provisional.
Scientific TheoryScientific Method
Modeling and Natural Experiments
In some areas, historic evidence can be examined for supportor contradiction of an idea.
Another method of investigation is using a model simulating thephenomenon under study. Models represents researchers assumptions about how a
system works.- Can produce contradictory results.
Statistics and Probability
Probability An attempt to measure and predict the likelihood of an event.
Sample Size A critical experimental variable is the number of observations
necessary in order to have a reliable representation of apopulation.
Paradigms and Scientific Consensus Paradigms
Overarching model of the world that guides ourinterpretations of events.
- Tend to guide the types of questions asked byinvestigators.
Paradigm shifts occur when a majority of scientists agree theolder general explanations no longer fit the observations.
Approaches to Knowledge and Thinking
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Analytical Thinking How can I break this problem into parts ?
Creative Thinking How can I approach this differently ?
Logical Thinking How can deductive reasoning help ?
Critical Thinking What am I trying to do ?
Reflective Thinking What does it all mean ?
Steps in Critical Thinking Identify and evaluate premises and conclusions in an argument.
Acknowledge and clarify uncertainties, vagueness,equivocation, and contradictions.
Distinguish between facts and values. Recognize and assess assumptions. Distinguish source reliability or unreliability. Recognize and understand conceptual frameworks.
History of Conservation and Environmentalism Four Distinct Stages:
Pragmatic Resource Conservation Moral and Aesthetic Nature Preservation Modern Environmentalism Global Environmental Citizenship
Pragmatic Resource Conservation President Theodore Roosevelt and his chief conservation
advisor, Gifford Pinchot, believed in utilitarian conservation. Forests should be saved so they can be used to provide
homes and jobs.- Should be used for the greatest good for the greatest
number, for the longest time.Moral and Aesthetic Nature Preservation
John Muir, first president of the Sierra Club, opposed Pinchotsutilitarian policies. Biocentric Preservation
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- Emphasizes the fundamental right of all organisms topursue their own interests.
Modern Environmentalism Rachel Carson, Silent Spring.
Awakened the public to threats of pollution and toxicchemicals to humans as well as other species.
- Modern environmentalism extends concerns to includeboth natural resources and environmental pollution.
Global Concerns Increased travel and communication enables people to know
about daily events in places unknown in previous generations. Common environment shared on a global scale.
- Global EnvironmentalismCURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Causes of Environmental Degradation More than 6 billion people now occupy the earth, and we add
about 85 million more each year.- Most growth will be in poorer countries where present
populations already strain resources and services.Human Dimensions of Environmental Science
A small fraction of the worlds population live in increasingluxury, while a more than 1.3 billion people live in acute poverty. Seventy percent are women and children. Often meet short-term survival needs at the cost of long-term
sustainability. Cycle of poverty, illness and limited opportunities become
cyclic.Fig. 1.15
Rich and Poor Countries About 20% of the worlds population lives in the twenty richest
countries. Average per capita income above $25,000.
Other 80% live in middle or low-income countries. Ten poorest countries each have average per capita income
of less than $200.00.
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Richest 200 people in the world have have a combined wealthof $1 trillion. More than total owned by poorest half of the world population
(3 billion).
Table 1.4
Sustainability Sustainable Development
Meeting the needs of the present without compromising theability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Indigenous Peoples Indigenous peoples are generally among the least powerful,
most neglected groups. In many countries, traditional caste systems, discriminatory
laws, economics, or prejudices repress indigenous peoples. In many places, indigenous people in traditional homelands
guard undisturbed habitats and rare species.- Recognizing native land rights may safeguard ecological
processes.
Summary: Environmental Science Science As a Way of Knowing
Scientific Design Reasoning Scientific Theory
Approaches to Thinking History of Environmentalism Human Dimensions
Rich and Poor Countries
Energy, Matter and LifeChapter 2
Matter
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Matter Conservation of Matter
Atoms Sub-atomic particles
Atomic number Atomic mass
Ions
Chemical Bonding Covalent
Ionic
Molecule
Compound
Compounds Inorganic
CO2, O2, N2, H2O
Organic
Chemical Reactions Oxidation Reduction
Hydration
Reaction with Acid or base
pHEnergy
Potential
Kinetic Heat
Specific Heat amount of heat to warm 1 kg 1oC.
Energy Transfers =Thermodynamics First Law of Thermodynamics = energy is conserved, neither created
or destroyed, transferred or transformed Second Law of Thermodynamics = with each successive energy
transfer or transformation in a system, less energy is available to do
work
Life Cell
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Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Organelles Metabolism- enzymatic reactions
Cell Wall
Water of Life 60 to 70 of organisms by weight
Salt and other compounds dissolve easily Electrolytes
Water molecules are cohesive Capillary action Surface tension
Exists as liquid over a wide temperature range
Expands when crystallizes = solid
Has high specific heat absorbs or loses a great deal of energy as it changestemperature.
Energy of Life The Sun
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Metabolism Chemistry Photosynthesis - captures
6 H2O + 6 CO2+ solar energyC6H12O6+ 6 O2
Cellular respiration releasesC6H12O6+ 6 O26 H2O + 6 CO2+energy released
Biogeochemical Cycles Hydrologic cycle = Water Cycle
Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Nitrites NO2-1
Nitrates NO3-1
Ammonia NH3 Ammonium NH4
+1
Denitrifying bacteria
Mineral cycles Phosphorus
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Sulfur
Ecosystem Ecological System
Biological Community
Populations
Species
Energy of an ecosystem Open system exchange of energy, matter across boundaries
Closed system
Trophic Level Primary producers
Consumers
Herbivores Carnivores
Omnivores
Detritivores
Decomposers
Food Chain
Food Web
Energy exchange in Ecosystems
Ecological pyramidsEnergy pyramid related to biomass period
Populations, Communities and Species InteractionChapter 3
Principle of Limiting Factors Tolerance limits
Minimum limits
Maximum limits Limiting factors in Mineral cycles
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Evolution Natural Selection
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Selection pressure Physiological stress
Predation Competition
Luck
Adaptation
Speciation
Modes of Evolution Divergent evolution
Convergent evolution
Speciation Geographic isolation
Reproductive isolation - divergence
Naming of things Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Ecological Niche A species way of life or functional role in the ecosystem = occupation
Range of tolerance
Types of resources used
How it interacts in the ecosystem
How it affects the flow of energy
Habitat = location where a species lives
Generalist species = Eurytopic species Specialist species = Stenotopic species
Resource Partitioning
Species interactions
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Interspecific competition = competition among species overlap of
fundamental niches
Predator Prey Relationship
Native Species Non-native species
Exotic species Alien species
Killer bees
Zebra mussels
Kudzo
Indicator species
Early warning that ecosystem is being damaged Keystone species
Role of species is important for ecosystem health. Sea otters
Symbiosis Sym = together
Bios = life
An intimate and mutually advantageous partnership of dissimilar
organisms.
MutualismCommensalism
Benefits one species
Neither harms or helps the other species Epiphyte plants Air plants
Defensive Mechanisms Batesian mimicry look like a dangerous predator
Mullerian mimicry two dangerous organisms look alike so bothbenefit
Exponential Growth
Carrying Capacity (K) The number of individuals of a given species that can be sustained indefinitely
in a given space (area or volume)
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Often in populations it is the number of organisms that the environment will sustain.
When will a population of 5 million organisms reach its carrying capacity if the
population doubles every 10 years, the environmental increase of food
production is 1 million individuals able to be feed per year, and the initial
environment can sustain a population of 10 million?
Logistic Growth
Fig. 3.18
Logistic growth
Fig. 3.19
Population density controls Density-independent population controls
Floods, hurricanes, severe drought Not dependent on the density of the population
Density-dependent population controls Competition for resources, predation, parasitism or disease. Density plays a part in how these affect the population
Potential epidemics, Bubonic plague
Environmental resistance
Reproductive Strategies
Table 3.2
Primary Productivity The rate of biomass production or the conversion of solar energy into
chemical energy stored in living (or once-living) organisms.
Net primary productivity = after respiration
Fig. 3.21
Fig. 3.22
Boundaries of communities
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Ecotones boundary between adjacent communities
Edge effect environmental and biotic conditions on the edges
Fig. 3.26
Fig. 3.23Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
Fig. 3.28
Climax community End of succession?
Old age forests?
Stable climax
Environmental Science
Test 1 Review Sheet
This Review sheet is produced as a study aid. This sheet may or may not be all inclusive of thematerial you are held responsible for the test. If the material was covered in class and/or it is in
your textbook you should know it.Chapter 1
Terms to know:
Environment, Environmental Science, science, hypothesis, theory, controlled study, deductivereasoning, inductive reasoning, blind experiment, significant numbers, reproducibility, model,
probability, paradigm, analytical thinking, creative thinking, critical thinking, reflective thinking,
environmentalism, utilitarian conservation, biocentric preservation, modern environmentalism,global environmentalism, environmental degradation, sustainability, resources, indigenous
people
Concepts and questions to know:
1. What is the problems with rich and poor countries as they deal with environmental
science.
2. Why do we need to live sustainable as well as have sustainable development?3. Who are these people of Environmental Science? Rachel Carson, John Muir, Gifford
Pinchot, Pierre Poivre, Theodore Roosevelt, David Brower, Barry Commoner, and
Marshall McLuhan.
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4. What are the steps in critical thinking?
5. How can you detect the Baloney of science?
6. What advantages does modeling have for environmental science?7. Within a scientific investigation a scientist will follow what series of logical steps to
investigate a problem?
8. Compare and contrast deductive reasoning from inductive reasoning.9. Why is it important that scientific studies be reproducible?
10. Compare and contrast controlled studies to blind experiments to double-blind design.
11. What is the interaction of the various disciplines that are involved in environmentalscience?
12. What is environmental science?
Chapter 2
Terms to know:
Ecology, matter, energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, heat, thermodynamics, atom, atomic
number, atomic mass, proton, neutron, electron, ion, cation, anion, isotope, metal, nonmetal,metalloid, molecule, compound, ionic bond, covalent bond, chemical reaction, acid, base, pH,
organic compound, inorganic compound, cell, metabolism, wavelength, photosynthesis, cellularrespiration, population, biological community, ecosystem, productivity, biomass, autotrophs,
primary producers, consumers, heterotrophs, food web, trophic level, herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores, detritivores, decomposers, ecological pyramid, biogeochemical cycle, chemical
cycle, carbon sink, nitrogen fixing, nitrite, nitrate, de-nitrification, ammonia, ammonium ion,
Concepts and questions to know:
1. What is the conservation of matter?2. Compare and contrast kinetic and potential energy.
3. How is heat involved in the two laws of thermodynamics studied in class?
4. Explain the first law of thermodynamics.5. Explain the second law of thermodynamics.
6. Compare and contrast oxidation and reduction chemical reactions.
7. What is the miracle of water?8. What are the four major classes of biologically important organic compounds?
9. What is the source of energy for life?
10. Explain the various types of electromagnetic radiation or spectrum.
11. Compare and contrast photosynthesis to cellular respiration.12. Compare and contrast a closed system versus an open system.
13. What are the basic components needed for a functioning ecosystem?
14. What are the various ways of observing the various ecological pyramids?15. Explain the hydrologic cycle
16. Explain the carbon cycle
17. Explain the nitrogen cycle.18. Explain the phosphorus cycle
19. Explain the sulfur cycle.
Chapter 3
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Terms to know:
Evolution, critical factors, tolerance limits, natural selection, adaptation, adapt, selectionpressure, habitat, ecological niche, competition, predation, predator, symbiosis, commensalisms,
mutualism, Batesian mimicry, Mullerian mimicry, keystone species, exponential growth, biotic
potential, carrying capacity, overhoots, dieback, primary productivity, diversity, resilience,stability, community structure, edge effect, ecotones, pioneer species, ecological development,
climax communities, community change
Concepts and questions to know:
1. Explain what the tolerance limits for species.
2. What are the factors that cause selection pressure?
3. Compare and contrast divergent evolution from convergent evolution.4. What are the major taxonomic categories naming organisms?
5. What is resource partitioning for organisms?
6. What are the types of species interactions?
7. What are the various types of defensive mechanisms for organisms?8. What is the function of keystone species?
9. What is the shape of an exponential growth curve versus logistical growth curve?10. What are some of the limiting factors for populations? How does environmental
resistance relate to limiting factors?
11. What are the characteristics of a r-adapted species?
12. What are the characteristics of a k-adapted species?13. What is the edge effects for environmental and biotic communities?
14. Explain primary succession for a community?
15. Explain secondary succession for a community?
Human PopulationBomb or Bust?
Chapter 4
Population Growth 4 to 5 children born every second
2 people die every second
Net growth 2.5 children per second 150 per minute
9000 per hour (11,250 in a class period)
Overpopulation? Resource depletion
Environmental degradation
World Population Growth and Doubling Times
What type of Growth?
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Logistic or Exponential?
Doubling Time Rule of 70
70 = doubling time in years
Percent growth
World Population and History
Malthusian Principle Reverend Thomas Malthus, 1798
An Essay on the Principle of Population Refute egalitarian principle of utopia (believing in human equality in a place of
ideal perfection)
Human population increasing at exponential or compound rate, food production
remained stable or increases only slowly. Human population will out strip food supply, collapse into starvation, crime,
and misery
Malthus vs. Karl MarxNeo-Malthusians
Malthusian view = we have reached the carrying capacity of the earth
David Pimentel 2100, 12 billion people, sick and dying
optimum 2 billion population at the beginning of WWII
Mohandas Gandhi There is enough for everyones need, but not enough for anyones greed
Can Technology save us? Advances in Agriculture has increase food production
Famines now are not natural but political
Availability of food based on easily acquired natural resources, cheap
fossil fuels. Alternative fuels or starvation?
Human Demography Demography Greekdemos= peopleandgraphein= to write or tomeasure
Vital Statistics Birth
Deaths
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Where people live
World population distribution
World population distribution 2
Population Measures Crude birth rate = number of births in a year per 1000 persons
Crude because it is not adjusted for the number of women of reproductive age
Total fertility rate = the number of children born to an average woman
in the population during her entire reproductive life.
Zero population growth ZPG Chinas one-child-per-family policy
Fertility rate 1970 = 6
Fertility rate 1990 = 1.8
Human rights violation? Forced abortions
Forced sterilizations
Infanticide boys for the Family name sake Social/Cultural shift for China
Dr. As prediction = China will be transformed as Chinese women shortage brings back the
unwanted Chinese girls.
Adoption of Chinese girls to parents in other countries.
Crude death rate crude mortality rate = number of deaths per 1000 persons
Net population growth the difference between the crude birth rate and the
crude death rate.
What is the net population growth of country X which has a crude birth rate of
40/1000 and the crude death rate of 25/1000?
What is the percent growth rate for this population?
What is the doubling time for this population?
What is the net population growth of country X which has a crude birth
rate of 40/1000 and the crude death rate of 25/1000?
40 25 = 15/1000
What is the percent growth rate for this population?
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15/1000 = 0.015 x 100 = 1.5%
What is the doubling time for this population?
70/1.5 = 46.7 years
Life span = the oldest age to which a species is known to survive.
Life expectancy = the average age that a newborn infant can expect to attain in any givensociety. The average age at death.
Early societies = 35 to 40 years
U.S. Life Expectancy
Income and life expectancy
Age Structure
More population measures Dependency ratio = the number of non-working compared to working
individuals in a population Developing countries workers are supporting high numbers of children
Developed countries workers are supporting higher numbers of retired
persons If you retire at age 65, you will be retired 35 to 40 years.
Changing age structure of the world
Population Growth Opposing factors Pronatalist pressures factors that increase peoples desires to havebabies Joy of babies
Support for elderly parents
Children help the family, tend livestock, etc.
High infant mortality
Male pride big families (11 to 12 children)
Birth reduction pressure
Higher education
Personal freedom
Spend time, goods, money than children
Education and socioeconomic status inversely related to fertility in rich
countries
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Education and socioeconomic status in developing countries can increase
fertility because they can afford to have more children
U.S. Demographic Transition
Demographic Transition Optimistic View
Demographic transition already has occurred in developing countries. Population controls already happening
Factors to help stabilize populations Growing prosperity and social reforms
Technology
History of developed countries teach developing countries
Modern communications
Pessimistic View
Lester Brown, Worldwatch Institute Demographic trap prevents developing countries from escaping the middle phase of
transition Human demands exceed the sustainable yield of resources
Environmental deterioration, economic decline, political instability prevent
modernization Population grows until catastrophe intervenes
Need for birth control education and national encouragement for lower birth rates
Social Justice View
Fair share of social benefits for everyone
Enough resources for all, maldistribution of resources right now
Stressing overpopulation encourages racism and hatred of the poor
1994 International Conference on Population and
Development
180 participating countries To slow population growth
Responsible economic development
Education and empowerment of women
High-quality health care (including family-planning services) must be
accessible to everyone (this will lower infant mortality rate)
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Family planning Couples determine the number and spacing of their children, plan
when children are born.
Birth Control become essential part of family planning
Fertility Controls Traditional controls
Breast feeding 3 to 4 years suppresses ovulation, (does not suppress in well
fed women)
Taboos against intercourse while breast-feeding
Celibacy
Abortions
Infanticide
Current Fertility controls
Avoidance of intercourse during fertile periods Celibacy, rhythm method, body temperature, etc.
Mechanical barriers Condoms, spermicides, diaphragms, cervical caps, vaginal sponges
Surgical methods to prevent sperm and/or egg release Tubal ligation in females, vasectomies in males
Chemicals that prevent maturation or release of sperm or egg or prevent embryo
implantation in the uterus Estrogen plus progesterone for females, gossypol for males
Birth control pills RU486
The Patch progesterone released through the skin
What is being used?The future of the Human population
So do you even care? Should we be worried about population growth?
Show the human population be controlled?
How does human population affect the worlds environments?The effect
If every person in the U.S. produced 1 cup of urine each day that
would have been on January 1, 2003 (U.S. population on Jan. 1 was
281,489,436 persons) a total of 17,593,090 gallons. This would be
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equivalent to filling a swimming pool the size of a football field to the
depth of 104 feet deep each day. This urine would weigh 281,489 tons
Biomes and BiodiversityChapter 5
Biome Life zones, environments with similar climatic, topographic, and soil
conditions, roughly comparable biological communities
Biomes and Climate conditions
Temperature vs. PrecipitationLatitude and Altitude on Climate/Biomes
DesertsGrasslands Tropical grasslands
Savanna
Grazing
Browsing
Temperate grasslands
Prairies
Tall-grass
Short-grass Pampas
Veldt
Steppes
Polar Grasslands
Arctic tundra
Permafrost
Climate and Plants Deserts succulent plants
Rain Forest Broadleaf Evergreen plants Areas with winter Broadleaf Deciduous plants
Areas with short summer Coniferous or Evergreen plants
Forests Tropical Rain Forest
Tropical Deciduous Forest
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Tropical monsoon forest
Tropical seasonal forest
Tropical Scrub forests Temperate Deciduous forests
Evergreen Coniferous Forests
Boreal Forests
Taigas
Evergreen Scrub Mediterranean
Chaparral thicket, California
Thorn scrub - Africa
Ocean life zones
Coastal Wetlands
Salt Marsh
BeachesSandy Beach Barrier Island
Reef
Freshwater Lakes
Freshwater Streams
Wetlands Ecosystem in which the land surface is saturated or covered with standing water
at least part of the year.
Swamps
Marshes
Biodiversity Genetic diversity measure of the variety of genes in a species
Species diversity number of different kinds of organisms
Ecological diversity richness and complexity of community
How many species are there?Biodiversity Hot Spots
How do we benefit from biodiversity? Food
Drugs and Medicines
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Ecological Benefits
Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits
Threat to Biodiversity Extinction
Causes of: Continental drift
Climate change
Catastrophes
Background extinction
Mass extinction Adaptive radiation
Human-caused reduction in Biodiversity
Habitat Destruction Fragmentation
Island Biogeography R.H. MacArthur
E.O. Wilson
Hunting and Fishing Passenger Pigeons
Commercial Products and Live Specimens Economic value
Predator and Pest Control Introduction of Exotic Species
Kudzu
Zebra mussels
Diseases Fungal blight American chestnut
Pollution
Genetic Assimilation Crossbreeding
Protecting Biodiversity Hunting and Fishing laws
Endangered Species Act World Conservation Union
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Endangered species
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Threatened species
Vulnerable species
Threatened Species of the world 34% of worlds fish
25% of amphibians 25% of mammals
20% of reptiles
13% of plants
11% of birds
Protecting Biodiversity Recovery plans
Reintroductions Minimum Viable population
Founder effect genetic diversity may not be viable
Demographic bottleneck genetic problems
Genetic drift
Inbreeding genetic diseases
Private land and Critical Habitat
Food and AgricultureWill there be enough nutritious food for everyone?
Chapter 7
Golden Rice Genetically modified organisms
Frankenfoods? Unnatural creations?
Overweight Overfed = Underweight - Underfed Lower life expectancy
Increased susceptibility to disease and illness Reduced productivity and life quality
Terms of nutrition Undernutrition = people who cannot grow or buy enough food to meet their
basic energy needs Proper amount of calories
Proper amounts of protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals
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Chronically undernourished less than 90% of minimum Caloric intake needed for
normal growth and development
Malnutrition nutritional imbalance, enough calories, lack of specific dietary
components
Nutrient-deficiency diseases mainly protein Marasmus to waste away, low calories and proteins
Thin and shriveled, tiny starving people
Kwashiorkor displaced child, protein deficiency, weaned children, enough calories, not
enough proteins Reddish-orange hair, puffy discolored skin, bloated belly
Overnutrition food energy intake exceeds energy use. Second leading cause of
premature death Obesity 30 lbs. Above normal weight
Poverty CycleSystems that provide us with food.
Croplands produce grain
Rangelands produce meat, livestock
Oceanic fisheries
What feeds us? 15 plants species
Main grain crops = wheat, rice, corn Annual species
8 terrestrial animal species Developed countries beef, pork, and chicken, eggs, milk, and cheese
domestic livestock
90% of our food.
Major types of food productionHigh-input agriculture
Industrialized agriculture
Large amounts of fossil fuels, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides Monoculture 25% of croplands Plantation agriculture
Bananas, coffee, cacao
Livestock farming feedlots
Traditional
Traditional subsistence agriculture Produce enough food for their own family
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Very little surplus
Traditional intensive agriculture More human and animal power input, more water and fertilizers
Farm to have surplus, mainly women labor
Food Production
Food Production
Food production - 2
Food outlooks We can provide the basic nutritional needs of every person on the
earth today. If distributed equally. Meatless subsistence
Principle cause of hunger is poverty
SoilsSoil Profile
Factors of Soils Soil porosity space between grains
Soil permeability ability of fluid to flow through it
Soil structure how soil particles are organized and clumped
Soil Types
Soil Erosion
Mechanical Erosion Sheet erosion
Rill erosion
Gully erosion
Soil erosion reduction
Gully reclamation Windbreaks
Shelterbelts
PAM polyacrylamide, added to irrigation water to reduce soil
erosion
Desertification
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Factors
Overgrazing
DeforestationSurface mining without reclamation
Irrigation techniques
Farming marginal soilsSoil compaction
Drought
FamineDeclining living standards
Increased refugees
Salt build up salinization waterlogging
Soil Conservation
Conventional-tillage farming Conservation-tillage farming Minimum-tillage
No-till farming
Terracing
Contour farming
Strip cropping
Ally cropping
Agrodiversity - interplanting Growing several crops on the same plot of land
Polyvarietal cultivation several varieties of the same crop
Intercropping two or more different crops grown
Agroforestry ally cropping crops and trees grow together, fruit trees and grains,fuelwood and other crops
Polyculture different plants which mature at different times are grown together. Year-
round plant cover to the soil
Soil Fertility Organic fertilizer
Animal manure
Green manure Compost
Commercial Inorganic fertilizers
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Crop Rotation
Agriculture Environmental impact Agriculture has a greater harmful impact on air, soil, water and
biodiversity resources than any other human activity.Not included in the cost of food
Major environmental effects from food production
Green Revolution Farm more land
Get higher yields per unit area Developing and planting monocultures, selectively breed or genetically
engineered 3 grains
Heavy fertilizer, pesticides, and water use
Increase intensity and frequency of cropping
Green Revolutions
Effects from the Green Revolution Soil erosion
Loss of fertility of the soil
Salination and waterlogging
Depletion of water resources groundwater and surface water
Increase of rapidly breeding pests, develop immunity to pesticides
Increasing crop yields Gene Revolution Crops that:
Are more resistant to insects and disease
Thrive on less fertilizer
Make their own nitrogen fertilizer
Do well in slightly salty soils
Can withstand drought
Use solar energy more efficiently during photosynthesis
Are you willing to eat? Genetically modified organisms?
New forms of vegetables?
Insects? Microlivestock
Mopani anyone? Emperor moth catepillars
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Sustainable approaches Sustainable Agriculture
Regenerative farming
Low-Input sustainable agriculture Less mechanized farming