Environment Ireland’s BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND · landscape and its flora and fauna.2 Biodiversity, which is the now ... These earth science sites, many of ... also form an integral

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCYPO Box 3000, Johnstown Castle Estate, Co. Wexford, Ireland.

Telephone: +353 53 60600 Fax: +353 53 60699Email: [email protected] Website: www.epa.ie

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCYAn Ghníomhaireacht um Chaomhnú Comhshaoil

BIODIVERSITY IN IRELANDA Review of Habitats and Species

July 2001

John Lucey and Yvonne Doris

EnvironmentIreland’s

B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N I R E L A N D

P A G E I I

CO N T E N T S

LIST OF BOXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

HABITATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Forests and Woodland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Hedgerows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Fen and Bog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Turloughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Freshwater Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Coastal and Marine Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

SPECIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Flora (Plants) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Fauna (Animals) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

POSTSCRIPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

APPENDIX 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

A R E V I E W O F H A B I T A T S & S P E C I E S

P A G E I I I

L I S T O F BO X E S

1 IRISH GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL AND SEMI-NATURAL WOODLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 BOGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 TURLOUGHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

5 COASTAL / MARINE HABITATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

6 MAËRL COMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

7 LOWER PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

8 VASCULAR PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

9 KERRY SLUG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

10 FRESHWATER INVERTEBRATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

11 MARSH FRITILLARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

12 LAND SNAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

13 SOME RECENT INSECT AND MITE INTRODUCTIONS TO IRELAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

14 FISHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

15 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

16A GREENLAND WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

16B BIRDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

17 MAMMALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

18 CETACEANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

19 ANIMAL EXTINCTIONS AND INTRODUCTIONS DURING THE PAST MILLENNIUM . . . . . . . 23

20 OVERGRAZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

21 GENETIC RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

22 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

23 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30


P A G E I V

L I S T O F F I G U R E S

1 FRAMEWORK FOR THE DESIGNATION OF NATURA 2000 SITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 A SELECTION OF MAJOR AREAS DESIGNATED FOR CONSERVATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF PEATLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 DISTRIBUTION OF KILLARNEY FERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

BOX 7 DISTRIBUTION OF FOXTAIL STONEWORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 DISTRIBUTION OF GIANT HOGWEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

BOX 10 DISTRIBUTION OF PEARL MUSSEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

6 DISTRIBUTION OF LARGE HEATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

BOX 14 DISTRIBUTION OF ARCTIC CHARR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

BOX 16a GREENLAND WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE NUMBERS 1983-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7 DISTRIBUTION OF PINE MARTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

8 DISTRIBUTION OF RED DEER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

9 SOME EXAMPLES OF INTRODUCTIONS AND EXTINCTIONS OF SPECIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

L I S T O F TA B L E S

1 INTERNATIONAL ACTION ON BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 ESTIMATED OR KNOWN NUMBER OF SPECIES OF INSECTS, VERTEBRATES AND

VASCULAR PLANTS IN IRELAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4A VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES LISTED IN THE FLORA PROTECTION ORDER (1999) . . . . . . . . . . 11

4B NON-VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES LISTED IN THE FLORA PROTECTION ORDER (1999) . . . . . 12

5 CORNCRAKE NUMBERS IN CERTAIN AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6 DAMAGING ACTIVITIES IN COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28


P A G E V

This report represents an

extended version of

Chapter 12 of Ireland’s

Environment. A Millennium

Report (eds. L. Stapleton,

M. Lehane and P. Toner),

Environmental Protection

Agency (Wexford, 2000).

AC K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

The Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, and

its heritage service Dúchas, as well as the Heritage Council are the

lead authorities in the conservation of the natural environment in

Ireland and their assistance in compiling the report is gratefully

acknowledged.

Individuals who supplied specific information are acknowledged

by the citing of personal communication (pers. comm.) after their

names.

Photographs used in the report were supplied by John Early, Eddie

Dunne, John Lucey, Simon Berrow, Felix Zaska and Matthew

Parkes.


P A G E 1

INTRODUCTION

This report sets out to give someaccount of the state of Ireland’sbiodiversity, or put more simply itsnatural heritage, at the dawn of thenew millennium.

The natural heritage can be describedas the inheritance of the naturalenvironment in all its forms (Luceyand Nolan, 1996), including thegeological legacy (See Box 1). Irelandowes its natural distinctiveness to itsunique geology more than anythingelse (Feehan, 1997). Yet despite thisuniqueness the island can boast justone natural World Heritage Site1: theGiant’s Causeway in Co. Antrimwhich is an outstanding geologicalsite and prime example of the earth’sevolutionary history during Tertiarytimes some 50-60 million years ago.

Ireland has many examples from thevarious epochs in its geological heritagebut the most recent, the Quaternaryera - with its Pleistocene glaciationsand the post-glacial Holocene - is theone that has shaped the presentlandscape and its flora and fauna.2

Biodiversity, which is the nowcommon abbreviation used forbiological diversity, may be definedas: the variability among livingorganisms from all sourcesincluding, inter alia, terrestrial,marine and other aquatic ecosystemsand the ecological complexes ofwhich they are part; this includesdiversity within species, betweenspecies and of ecosystems.3 Biological

diversity covers all plant and animalspecies, as well as micro-organisms,genetic diversity within species and

the ecosystems/habitats of whichthey are part.

Thus, Ireland’s natural heritage orbiodiversity may be convenientlydiscussed under two main headings:habitats and species. Havingdescribed the legislative frameworkthe report will then give a briefportrait of some of Ireland’s more‘important’ habitats as well aselements of her flora and fauna.After a discussion of, inter alia, themain threats to biodiversity, thereport will conclude by attemptingto assess the state of the naturalenvironment in Ireland and howefforts to safeguard the naturalheritage are progressing.

Box 1 Irish Geological Heritage

Ireland has a rich earth heritage. For asmall country it has a wide diversity ofrock successions covering large spans ofearth history, e.g. fossil and minerallocalities, volcanic and deep igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic evidenceof changing environments and especiallythe highly visible results of glaciations inthe Ice Ages or Quaternary Period.These earth science sites, many ofinternational importance, had no legalprotection. This is now being redressedthrough the Irish Geological Heritage (IGH) Programme.

The Programme is a partnership between the Geological Survey of Ireland(GSI) and Dúchas - the Heritage Service, which since 1998 is undertaking theappraisal of geological and geomorphological sites by theme, in order toselect, on strict scientific criteria, those which should be designated asNatural Heritage Areas (NHAs). Sites will be evaluated on a nation-wide,thematic network basis and a list of sites will be selected to represent thediversity and range of earth science features as currently understood. Apartfrom the NHA selection, the programme aims to establish County GeologicalSites, without statutory protection, which will be incorporated into CountyDevelopment Plans.

The IGH site selection process is based upon geological themes with the firsttwo completed being Karst and Precambrian to Devonian Palaeontology.The Karst theme will protect some key areas, of the Burren for example,that fall outside existing designated areas or National Parks.

One particular site from the Palaeontology theme stands out as a specialcase: a fossil trackway on Valentia Island in Co. Kerry. In conjunction withthe Valentia Heritage Society, GSI drew up a plan, adopted by Dúchas, andthe site, which was discovered in 1993, was purchased by the State. The siteis of international importance and has been dated at older than 385 millionyears; probably second oldest in the world. About 200 prints represent thepassage of a tetrapod, a primitive four-legged vertebrate, across the softsediment of a large river floodplain in Devonian times. It is a key record ofthe important evolutionary step of vertebrates leaving aquaticenvironments and breathing air on land.

(Sources: M. Parkes, Geological Survey of Ireland; Parkes and Morris, 1999)


P A G E 2

LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

Policy regarding conservation ofIreland’s habitats and species isformulated by the Department ofArts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and theIslands and implemented by Dúchas -The Heritage Service; through theWildlife Act of 1976, FloraProtection Orders, the WhaleFisheries Act of 1937 and EuropeanUnion Directives. The long awaitedAct to amend many of the provisionsof the Wildlife Act, 1976 was signedinto law in December 2000. Themain objectives of the Wildlife Act,2000, are:

• to provide a mechanism to givestatutory protection to NaturalHeritage Areas (NHAs);

• to provide statutory protection forimportant geological andgeomorphological sites, includingfossil sites;

• to enhance the conservation ofwildlife species and their habitats;

• to enhance a number of controlson hunting and to regulatecommercial shoot operators;

• to ensure or strengthen compliancewith international agreements and,in particular;

• to increase substantially the level offines for contravention of theWildlife Act and to allow for theimposition of prison sentences;

• to allow the Minister to actindependently of forestrylegislation;

• to strengthen the protective regimefor Special Areas of Conservation(SACs);

• to give specific recognition to theresponsibilities of the Minister inregard to promoting theconservation of biological diversity.

Ireland has ratified or signed a numberof regional or international legalinstruments (e.g. CITES and AEWA)directly concerned with biodiversityand these are listed in Table 1.

The most important piece oflegislation regarding natureconservation within the EuropeanUnion4 is the ‘Council Directive onthe conservation of natural habitatsand of wild fauna and flora’ (CEC,1992), more commonly known asthe ‘Habitats Directive’. Because itrequires areas to be designated, asindeed does the Birds Directive(CEC, 1979), it has been describedas representing the first intrusion byBrussels into the control of land usewithin EU member states (Grist,

1997). The Directive was transposedinto Irish law on 26 February 1997,by the European Communities(Natural Habitats) Regulations (S.I.No. 94 of 1997).

The Habitats Directive provides forthe establishment of a coherentecological network of protected areasacross the 15 member states, to beknown as NATURA 2000. This isthe EU’s contribution to theConvention on Biodiversity whichwas ratified by Ireland in 1996 (SeeTable 1). The Directive makesprovision for a three stage procedureleading to the creation of theNATURA 2000 network of sites,which are known as Special Areas ofConservation (SACs).5 SpecialProtection Areas (SPAs), designatedunder the Birds Directive, also forman integral part of NATURA 2000(See Fig. 1 for schematicrepresentation of the process).

Title Signed RatifiedBern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 1979 1982Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979 1983Agreement on Conservation of Bats in Europe (Bonn Convention) 1993 1995Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 1971 1984International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1946 1985Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 1996Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 1974 Awaits commencement orders

under Wildlife Amendment Act, 2000

Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory 1996 Awaits commencement orders Waterbirds (AEWA) (Bonn Convention) under Wildlife Amendment

Act, 2000International Tropical Timber Agreement 1994 1996 Ratification expected shortlyPan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy - Endorsed 1995*Biodiversity-related Conventions, Agreements or Processes that Ireland has ratified, signed or is a party to (from Buckley, 1998).

Table 1 International Action on Biodiversity*

▲

▲

▲

▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Habitats Directive Birds Directive

Special ProtectionAreas

Annex IHabitat types

Annex IISpecies

National listof sites

List of Sites ofCommunityImportance

SpecialAreasofConservation

NATURA2000

June 1995 June 1998 June 2004

Fig 1 Framework for the designation of NATURA 2000 sites with dates by whicheach stage was to be completed (from Grist, 1997)


P A G E 3

Stage One - the selection of nationallists of sites - was due forcompletion by June 1995 but nomember states had finalised theprocess some two years after thatdate (Grist, 1997).

Stage Two - the establishment of alist of Sites of CommunityImportance (SCIs) - was to havebeen completed between June 1995and June 1998 but had not.

Stage Three - the formal designationby member states of the adopted listof SCIs as SACs - was originallyscheduled for the period June 1998to June 2004 (Grist, 1997).

The European Commission’sevaluation of Ireland’s classificationof sites (as of 31 January 2001)under the Birds Directive andHabitats Directive, for NATURA2000, was assessed as ‘Incomplete’for SPA classification and‘Notably insufficient’ for list ofSCIs.6

The different categories of protectedareas in Ireland are given in Table 2together with details of the objectivefor their designation, area covered,number of sites and protectionafforded. A selection of the areasproposed as NHAs, SPAs and SACsare shown in Fig. 2.

Table 2 Categories of Protected Areas

Designated Refuge for Fauna

Ramsar Sites

Nature Reserves

Wildfowl Sanctuaries

National Parks

Special Protection Areas

Special Areas of Conservation

Proposed Natural Heritage Areas

Fig 2 A Selection of Major Areas Designated for Conservation (Source: Dúchas)

Category Objectives Area covered Number Protective(ha) of sites measures

Nature Reserves Conservation of flora, fauna 18,095 78 Statutory protection; and habitats generally State ownership

Special Protection Conservation of bird species and 230,000 109 Statutory protection; Areas (SPAs) habitats of European importance to prevent habitat damage

Special Areas of Conservation of flora, fauna and ~650,000 400 Statutory protection; Conservation (SACs) habitats of European importance to prevent habitat damage

Natural Heritage Protection of flora, fauna, habitats ~750,000 1,100+ At present: grant assessment,Areas (NHAs) and geological sites of financial incentive;

national importance planning laws

National Parks Nature conservation and public 56,987 6 Non-statutory protection; use and appreciation State-owned

Wildfowl Sanctuaries Hunting of wild birds prohibited N/A 68 Statutory enforcement of hunting controls

Refuges for Fauna Conservation of the habitat of N/A 7 Statutory protection fornamed species of animals named species

Sources: Buckley, 1998; Dúchas


P A G E 4

HABITATS

Of the priority habitats listed in theHabitats Directive, 16 are found inIreland (See Appendix 1). Obviouslynot all can be treated in a shortdiscourse such as this and examples ofgeneral habitats as well as somepriority types will be given below.

Forests and Woodland

Forests would naturally cover thegreater part of the island but the longhistory of forest decline over the last6,000 years, due mainly to clearanceby man, has led to the presentsituation where native forest cover isless than one per cent of the land area(Cross, 1998). Of the estimated100,000 hectares of Ireland’sbroadleaved woodland, not morethan 6,000 are protected forconservation through ownershipand/or legislation in National Parksand Nature Reserves (O’Sullivan, 1999).

The number of native and naturalisedtree species in Ireland has been givenas around 30 (e.g. Nelson and Walsh,1993) of which there are threecherries (including blackthorn), threeconifers (juniper, yew and Scotspine), two birches, alder, hazel, thetwo oaks, as well as six species ofwhitebeam (including the rowan ormountain ash), hawthorn orwhitethorn, ash, the Wych elm, holly,spindle, buckthorn and alderbuckthorn, elder, arbutus, crab apple,aspen and willow.

Woodland habitats can be dividedinto several categories ranging fromdry woods to swamp woodland.Amongst these, three divisions arerecognised: woods mostly on acidsoils of which oak is the principal treein deciduous woods; woods onlimestone of which ash-elm-hazel arethe principal native components; andthe third category is scrub comprisingopen, fragmented woods andhedgerow. Although there have beenno extinctions, nine of the 16 speciesin the third category are thought tobe vulnerable, i.e. will becomeendangered in the near future if thecausal factors continue operating(Curtis and McGough, 1988).

The woodland flora would appear,prima facie, to be the least threatenedgroup but extensive scrub clearance isa feature of large parts of the westand it is expected that several specieswill move into the threatenedcategory, as a result, in the nearfuture (Curtis and McGough, 1988).

Road schemes have threatened partsof some native woodlands. Acelebrated long-standing protest tothe cutting of trees in the Glen of theDowns Nature Reserve, in Co.Wicklow, was ended by a SupremeCourt decision in December 1999.

A distinction must be made betweennative and modern forests and thelatter cannot be regarded as part ofthe natural heritage. The area underforest plantations is currentlyincreasing by about 20,000 hectaresper year, one of the highest rates ofafforestation in Europe. Most ofIreland’s 570,000 hectares of forest isplantation. Although plantations arepoor substitutes for native woodland,they provide niches for a number ofthe more common mammal and birdspecies, some invertebrates and fungi.

The decline in the natural forestcover of Ireland was a slow processstarting in Neolithic times, withcutting, burning and grazing and wasalmost complete, due to the heavyexport of timber, by Tudor times(Freeman, 1950). It has beensuccessive government policy to

increase the area of afforestation.There has been a nine-fold increase inthe forest cover of the Republic ofIreland, 72 per cent of which isowned and managed by Coillte,7 this

Box 2 Conservation of Naturaland Semi-Natural Woodlands

Only very small areas of thewoodlands, which represent themixed deciduous forest whichdominated the earlier post-glacial landscape, remain todayin Ireland. It is not surprisingtherefore that the largest Irishherbivore, the red deer (Cervuselaphus), has been reduced to asingle native herd in Kerry andthe largest carnivore, the wolf(Canis lupus), has long beeneliminated. The conservation ofthese relict woodlands, with theircomplex ecological systems, is ofprimary concern. Ideally,conservation begins with a surveyof the woodlands and only whenmanagement control has beenobtained by purchase oragreement, is managementbased on scientific researchcautiously introduced to securethe long-term survival of thesystem and to permit use of theforest for education, amenity andsport. Anticipating the WildlifeAct of 1976 by several years thethen Forest and Wildlife Service[now Dúchas] undertook a surveyand scientific investigation of thesemi-natural woodlands andother vegetative types in Stateforests. Conservationmanagement, based on thatwork, has since that time beenapplied in woodland sites wherethe priority has been to securethe effective regeneration ofwoodland threatened by invasivenon-native woody species andthe depredations of sika deer(Cervus nippon).

(Source: O'Carroll, 1984)


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century. Not everyone, however,would agree with all aspects of theclaim, by Coillte (Carey, 1999), that‘the use of exotic tree species in therestoration of Ireland’s forest coverhas been a remarkable success storythis century’. At present 63 per centof Coillte’s forests comprise sitkaspruce. The continued planting ofthis exotic species (Picea sitchensis),from the Pacific coast of NorthAmerica, interspersed with amoderate and balanced use of otherminor coniferous and broadleafspecies, subject to site suitability, isseen by Coillte as the way forward. InNorthern Ireland the tree cover hasincreased from just one per cent tosix per cent since the beginning ofthe century due mainly to theplanting of sitka spruce on marginalagricultural land (Beatty, 1999). InMay 1999 Coillte published astrategy document, Coillte’s Forests:A Vital Resource, wherein itundertakes to maintain biodiversity;this will include, it says, some forestsnot being developed for timberproduction. The initiative alsopromises more extensive water andsoil impact assessment in the future.Following consultations with a widerange of relevant parties, the ForestService (2000) has produced forestbiodiversity guidelines in an effort toget forest owners to undertake allwork in a way which is compatiblewith the protection of theenvironment. The guidelines describea range of measures intended to coverall situations relating to forestry andbiodiversity.

The Heritage Council8 commissionedan independent report into theimpact of current forestry policy onaspects of Ireland’s heritage. As wellas making recommendations to theCouncil, including ways of increasingbiodiversity in plantations, the reportidentified the following areas ofconcern (Heritage Council, 1998):

• The Forest Strategy [i.e. the planfor development of the forestrysector in Ireland published by theDepartment of Agriculture, Foodand Forestry (1996)] is likely tolead to increased planting onmarginal agricultural land and isunlikely to involve significantdiversity of species, age or type ofplanting. This means that muchof the new planting will be oflittle biodiversity or landscapevalue and, in some cases, of lessvalue than current land use.

• Areas proposed for European ornational designation must begiven formal protection as soon as

possible and consideration shouldbe given to protecting other areasof conservation value.

• Better baseline information isneeded on land use and soils,native species and the biodiversityof habitats, and hydrology and theaquatic environment. Withoutthis information, a consistentstrategic approach to managingthe environmental implications ofafforestation on different types ofland is impossible.

Hedgerows

Field boundaries, mainly hedgerows,are a particularly prominent featureof the Irish countryside. Ireland’sabundant hedgerows, which havebecome ‘naturalised’ over the last fewcenturies, act as linear strips of nativewoodland, providing niches for anumber of common woodland plantand animal species. Hedgerows areespecially important, given the smallamount of remaining woodland inthe country, and they act as linkingcorridors between habitat patches.Hedgerows forming townlandboundaries (and roadside hedgerows)are likely to be particularly importantfrom an ecological and culturalviewpoint. Hedgerows have sufferedsignificant losses, largely due toremoval for agricultural purposes.The removal of hedgerows hasimpacted negatively on biodiversityin the wider countryside and it hasalso affected the cultural heritage andaltered the visual landscape. Thehabitat quality of many remaininghedgerows may be adversely affectedby ‘maintenance’ operations


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undertaken by local authorities andother bodies, as well as by privatelandowners. Hedgerows are mostoften removed in arable areas, and areregularly cleared in small amountsfrom farms throughout the country.Currently there is a number ofcontrols in place which contribute tomitigating negative impacts onhedgerows. For example, the WildlifeAct prevents the cutting ordestruction of hedgerows or othervegetation between the 1st Marchand 31st August, and there is alsoguidance to ensure that theimportance of roadside hedgerows forwildlife is taken into account.

Fen and Bog

While the commercial forests, withtheir plantations of exotics, areexpanding the bogs are diminishing.As well as creating distinctive uplandand lowland landscapes, bogscontribute to the stability and generalwell-being of the environment,conserving biodiversity, providingclean water and preventing flooding(Aalen et al., 1997). Fens are alkalinewith a pH of 7-8 while bogs are acidwith a pH of 3.2-4.2 owing to thefact that the water supply for theformer is from mineral-richgroundwater and the latter from rain-water (Foss and O’Connell, 1998).

The Irish Peatland ConservationCouncil (IPCC) has identified thefollowing important protected bogand fen sites that are already damagedor threatened by development (IPCC,1998):

• All Saints Bog, Co. Offaly - Mosspeat extraction

• Clara Bog, Co. Offaly - Turbaryrights and private peat extraction

• Clonfinane, Co. Tipperary - Mosspeat extraction

• Ballykenny, Co. Longford -Drainage and moss peatextraction

• Barnesmore, Co. Donegal -Wind turbines and roaddevelopment

• Scragh, Co. Donegal - Dam androad development

• Pollardstown Fen, Co. Kildare -Road development.

All 32 raised, 47 blanket bog and 39fen sites considered to be of primeecological importance have beenproposed as candidate SACs. TheIPCC had recommended that all2,000 hectares of the surviving fenarea considered to have conservationvalue should be conserved. Ofparticular concern, to conservationistsand others, had been the increase ofturf cutting on bogs of ecologicalimportance despite some having

Box 3 Bogs

Active raised bogs, once commonin the Irish midlands, are nowrelatively rare habitats.Vegetation is dominated bySphagnum mosses with somevascular plants such as heathers,sedges and grasses. Red DataBook species include the bogorchid (Hammarbya paludosa).This small orchid grows in wet,acid, spongy bogs and is difficultto detect. It has an erraticflowering habit and can beabundant in some years. It hasbeen recorded from more than 50sites in the past but recentlyconfirmed at single sites in just sixcounties. The apparent declinemay be associated with the loss ofits peatland habitat. An updateon its current status will appear inthe new flora atlas from theBotanical Society of the BritishIsles (BSBI) later in the year.

Blanket bogs are situated inupland areas such as the Wicklowand Slieve Bloom Mountains aswell as in the lowlands of thewestern counties of Donegal,Sligo, Mayo, Galway and Kerry.Among the Red Data Bookspecies are slender cottongrass(Eriophorum gracile) andMackay’s heath (Ericamackaiana). Blanket bogsundergo a range of deleteriouseffects from grazing andtrampling by excessive sheepstocking, peat extraction,afforestation and agriculturalreclamation. More recently thepossibility of localised erosionassociated with theinfrastructural elements of windenergy and telecommunicationinstallations has been ofincreasing concern.

Both of these habitat types, activeraised and blanket bogs, arepriority habitats under the HabitatsDirective (See Appendix 1).

(Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988;Douglas, 1998; Foss and O’Connell, 1998;Department of Arts, Gaeltacht, Heritageand Islands, 1999)


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NHA status but not legal protectiondue to the delay in enacting therelevant legislation (WildlifeAmendment Act, 2000). Because ofthe impact on these ecosystems it hasbeen recommended that all peatlanddevelopment, as well as beingpreceded by an environmental impactassessment (EIA), should be requiredto submit a specific professional planfor rehabilitation (Feehan andO’Donovan, 1996). Killaun is anexample of a regenerating cutawaybog; it is managed by St. Brendan’sCommunity School Birr in Co.Offaly and is used as an educationalresource as well as a popular spot forlocal walkers and wildlife enthusiasts.It is also one of the known sites ofthe tiny land snail Vertigo geyeri, anAnnex II species under the HabitatsDirective (See Box 12), the mainthreat to which is loss of habitat. Aclassic habitat in Ireland, favoured byV. geyeri, were the lagg zones of raisedbogs which have all but vanishedbecause of drainage and turf cuttingat the margins (Anon., 1999a).

Calcareous fens occur in limestoneareas subject to a permanently highwater table where the vegetationtypically consists of a complex ofsedge communities (Ó Críodáin andDoyle, 1997) dominated by theblack bog rush (Schoenus nigricans)and purple moor grass (Molinacaerulea).

The distribution of the remainingpeatlands in Ireland is delineated inFig. 3.

Turloughs

Turloughs have been identified aspriority habitats under the HabitatsDirective and 43 of these have beenproposed as Special Areas ofConservation (SACs). The chiefthreats to turloughs are land drainageand pollution. Drainage in the 19thcentury eliminated many of the greatturloughs of east Galway and morerecent schemes have also had effects,e.g. seven sites of importance forGreenland white-fronted geese andBewick and whooper swans weredrastically affected (Reynolds, 1996).

Two turloughs are designated asSpecial Protection Areas, one isprotected in a Nature Reserve in Co.Galway (Department of Arts,

Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,1999) and all the more importantones are listed as candidate SpecialAreas of Conservation.

Box 4 Turloughs

The name turlough is derived from the Irish word tuarloch meaning drylake. Turloughs are temporary water bodies on Carboniferous limestone inthe western third of Ireland. Although analogous in some ways to vernalpools found elsewhere they are peculiar to Ireland and have been recordedfrom 11 counties but are most continuously developed in the part of thelowland stretching from central Clare into central Galway. They are typicallyassociated with swallow-holes or slugaire through which they fill and emptyvia the local groundwater system. They are not ecosystems except in atemporary sense and are transition zones between aquatic and terrestrialsystems. One of the best known is Rahasane turlough (275 ha) in eastGalway which is unusual in that it has a river flowing through it; the area isone of the most important wildfowl wetlands in Ireland and was the site offirst discovery of the shrimp Tanymastix stagnalis in the British Isles. Amongthe characteristic flora of turloughs the black moss Cinclidotus fontinaloidesmay be seen on rocks or boulders. Because of their features turloughs leadto a characteristic vegetation but sparse and unpredictable aquatic faunalcommunities. Their conservation requires sensitive management of theregional catchment both surface and underground.

(Sources: Freeman, 1950; An Foras Forbartha, 1981; Reynolds, 1996)

Blanket Bog

Raised Bog

Fen

Fig 3 Present Distribution of Peatlands (Source: IPCC)


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Freshwater Habitats

Ireland has over 4,000 lakes andponds, which account for about twoper cent of the area of the country.Many Irish lakes are still capable ofsupporting salmonids (Salmo salarand Salmo trutta). The salmon (‘onlyin freshwater’) is listed in theHabitats Directive and thereforeIreland was required to propose sitesfor its protection. Ireland is, de facto,one of the two most importantmember states in the EU for salmonrivers and for this reason there hasbeen pressure to increase the numberof proposed sites.

Some smaller lakes and ponds havedisappeared due to drainage. Certainsalmonid lakes in poorly-buffered,upland areas in west Galway andMayo have been affected byacidification from commercial coniferplantations. Artificial acidification,attributed to afforestation, has beenmeasured, by the EPA, in a feederstream to Glendalough Lake Upperin Co. Wicklow (Bowman andBracken, 1993; Lucey et al., 1999).In part of a study of forestedcatchments in Ireland it was foundthat 24 of the 46 sites sampled in theWicklow region had mean labilemonomeric aluminiumconcentrations in excess of the levelrecommended for salmonid waters;all of these sites were afforested tovarying degrees and associated withlow pH/buffering capacity and

absence of fish (Kelly-Quinn et al.,1997). While the overall evidencefrom the study carried out in theMunster region was that no broad-scale detrimental effects on streamwater quality were apparent, adverseeffects on a local scale were recordedat catchment afforestation levelsabove 50 per cent (Giller et al.,1997). In the Galway-Mayo regionthe study concluded that forestrydoes increase the acid status ofstreams in poorly bufferedcatchments (Allott et al., 1997).

Red Data Book plants of freshwaterhabitats include Irish hydrilla(Hydrilla verticillata), found in onlyone lake in Connemara, slender naiad(Najas flexilis) and pillwort (Pilulariaglobulifera). The survival of sea troutis of particular concern in nutrient-poor, peaty, western lakes. Lakes arevitally important for breeding andwintering wildfowl, including Red

Data Book species such as garganey,gadwall, pintail, shoveler andpochard. Organic pollution,especially from diffuse agriculturalsources, is the main threat.

Twenty eight lakes, covering roughly75,000 hectares, almost half the totalarea of Irish lakes, are waterfowl sitesdesignated as SPAs. A number ofother lakes are listed as candidateSACs. Two lakes in Kerry, the habitatof the endangered natterjack toad, areNature Reserves and some additionallakes are conserved in National Parks(Department of Arts, Heritage,Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).

The canal system, built in the 18thand 19th centuries, providesimportant habitats for some plants,coarse fishes and birds and has aidedthe dispersal of many species ofinvertebrates. The two main canals,Grand and Royal, have beendelineated as proposed NHAs.

Coastal and Marine Habitats

Irish sand dunes are species-richhabitats for plants and invertebratesand 168 sand systems have beencatalogued (Department of Arts,Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,1999). In south Kerry, dune pools andmargins are important spawning andfeeding areas for the natterjack toad.Vulnerable Red Data Book plantsinclude seaside centaury (Centauriumlittorale) and lesser centaury (C.pulchellum). Machair (sandy calcareousplain inland of dunes) is a rare habitatrestricted to the north and west coasts.It is a mosaic of dunes, grassland and


P A G E 9

wetland, grazed by sheep and cattle andis an important habitat for three RedData Book bird species: corncrake,dunlin and red-necked phalarope.

Machair is a priority habitat underthe Habitats Directive and is foundonly on the west coast betweenGalway Bay and Malin Head. In1996 a survey was undertaken ofmachair sites with the followingobjectives (Crawford et al., 1998a;Crawford et al., 1998b):

• To assess these sites according totheir potential suitability forselection as SACs;

• To make an inventory of Annex Ihabitats and Annex II plantspecies recorded at each site;

• To make an inventory of thevegetation types occurring at each site;

• To describe the maingeomorphological characteristicsof each site;

• To comment on currentmanagement practices at each siteand prescribe future management.

Sand dunes and machair are highlyvulnerable to development for golfcourses, caravan parks, footballpitches, beach houses, agriculturalintensification, and sand quarrying.Few pristine examples of sand dunesand machair currently exist, becauseso many have been degraded. Anumber of important sites is currentlyunder threat. Since 1997, the bestexamples have been listed ascandidate SACs. Four sand dunesystems are protected in NatureReserves, covering 1,352 hectares(Department of Arts, HeritageGaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).

A brief account of Ireland’s coastalhabitats and the measures forprotecting them has been outlinedrecently (Marine Institute, 1999).

The number and variety ofdesignated habitats clearlydemonstrates the high ecologicalvalue of Ireland’s coastal zone.

The BioMar project (Coastal zonemanagement: identification,description and mapping of biotypes)was carried out in the 1992-1996period, by the then National Parksand Wildlife Service (now Dúchas)and Trinity College Dublin withthree European partners, as part of anEU Life Programme. Included in theproject work was an extensive surveyof benthic marine habitats and theircommunities (biotypes) in theintertidal and shallow subtidal areasof the Irish coast (Marine Institute,1999). The development of aninshore marine biotype classificationsystem led to the criteria for selectionof marine SACs.

Box 5 Coastal/Marine Habitats

Coastal ecosystems may be divided into five major habitats: estuaries, sand-dunes, salt-marsh, sea-cliffs and shingle beaches. With a coastline of some7,100 km, including estuaries and offshore islands, Ireland is well endowedwith such habitats. With regard to vascular plants the sand-dunes are, due tohuman pressure, considered the most threatened with as many as 26 in thatcategory with three probably extinct, one endangered and six vulnerable.

Habitats of international importance include the west coast maërl beds (seeBox 6) and limestone pavements with the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus.Only one marine locality, Lough Hyne, has been designated as a NationalNature Reserve.

Surveys carried out in the littoral and sublittoral of Northern Ireland haveprovided a useful database for establishing the range and importance ofthe various habitats. With regard to the data available for the island as awhole, however, it is difficult to establish the importance of the habitats.

(Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; Wilson and Lawler, 1996)

Box 6 Maërl Communities

These deposits of calcareous redalgae (maërl) form a rare habitatwith a rich associated fauna.Seven free-living maërl species(Phymatolithon calcareum,Lithothamnion coralliodes,Lithothamnion glaciale,Lithophyllum hibernicum,Mesophyllum lichenoides,Lithophyllum dentatum andLithophyllum fasciculatum) areknown to occur in Irish marinewaters with some speciesforming deep deposits (maërlbeds) that are harvested foragricultural and horticultural use.

The faunal richness of maërl bedshas recently been assessed, byAquatic Services Unit from NUIGalway, as part of a widerproject studying theirdistribution and extractionpotential. More than 70 per centof the species recorded werecrustaceans; of which over 85species have been identified,illustrating the taxonomicrichness of this biotype. Somerarely recorded isopods, such asMunna cf petiti which is onlyknown with certainty from threelocations in the Mediterraneanand Cymodoce spp., wereidentified among the Crustacea.

(Source: Marine Institute, 1999)


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Shingle beaches (including the strandline) are rare, and are significantinvertebrate habitats. Characteristicplant species of vegetated sites includecouch (Elymus spp.), spear-leavedorache (Atriplex prostrata), seaMayweed (Tripleurospermummaritimum), curled dock (Rumexcrispus), sea milkwort (Glauxmaritima) and sea beet (Betavulgaris). Red Data Book plantspecies include the sea pea (Lathyrusjaponicus) and oysterplant (Mertensiamaritma); another species, the purplespurge (Euphorbia peplis) is nowextinct in Ireland. Sandy beaches canbe important feeding areas for wadersbecause of the productive invertebratepopulations. Tern species nest androost on shingle beaches (e.g. littletern) while common seals and greyseals haul up on remote sandy beachesin southern and western areas. Themain threat to this habitat is thewidespread and often illegal removalof shingle and sand for building(Department of the Arts, Heritage,Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).

Coastal lagoons are also identified aspriority habitats in the HabitatsDirective and a survey was carried outin 1996 of the 56 sites in the nationalinventory. The sites are mainlysituated on the south and west coasts,from Wexford to Donegal, and 20 ofthese were selected for more intensive

study. It appears, from the study, thataquatic flora and fauna is richcompared with other regions ofwestern Europe (Healy and Oliver,1998). Among the biota, charophytes(Stoneworts) and insects in particularwere well represented. Overall 53species of plants, 220 species ofaquatic fauna (invertebrates and fish)and 209 Carabidae and Staphylinidae(Coleoptera) were recorded fromlagoon shores. Charophytes werepresent at 11 of the sites intensivelysampled for aquatic vegetation andChara baltica (Baltic stonewort) a newIrish record, was found to be commonat one of these, Lough Aconeera inCo. Galway while two other Red DataBook species Lamprothamniumpapulosum (Foxtail stonewort) andChara canescens (Bearded stonewort)were found at new locations (Hatchand Healy, 1998).

As well as erosion, threats to thequality of Ireland’s coastal zoneinclude litter, sewage, builder’s rubbleand plastic fishing gear, among

others, according to CoastwatchEurope (Dubsky et al., 1998). Theseand other impacts will be discussedlater.

Recently a report outlining aframework for an action plan, onmarine biodiversity in Ireland, hasbeen published (Costello, 2000). Thereport found that despite theeconomic benefits arising from andlegal obligations to protect marinebiodiversity, its management is stillcompromised by insufficientinformation on what is there, how itchanges in time, and why it changesin space and time. It concludes thatthere is an urgent need to improveunderstanding and develop theory onmarine biodiversity to supportmanagement and conservation ofmarine biological resources and makesrecommendations on issues of policy,management, monitoring and research.

SPECIES

A prerequisite to any conservationpolicy or strategy is to establish thenumber of species occurring andthence find out their status. Whilethe number of species for all groupsin Ireland has not been establishedthe known figures or estimates havebeen computed for some and theseare listed in Table 3. Unlike habitatsno Irish species have been givenpriority designation under theHabitats Directive (See Appendix 1).

Flora (Plants)

The flora of Europe contains some11,000 species of vascular plants ofwhich 1,500 are deemed threatenedthroughout their range across thecontinent (Curtis and McGough,1988). The isolation of Ireland fromBritain and mainland Europe,following the retreat of the ice afterthe last glaciation, has resulted in a

Insects Amphibians Reptiles Freshwater Birds Mammals Vascularfish plants

~16,000 3 2* 27 140-168** 31(42)*** 1341

*Including slow-worm **Represents resident, passage migrant, summer visitor and winter visitor species which occur regularly ***Including regularly occurring marine species (See text for other groups)

Table 3 Estimated or known number of species of insects, vertebrates and vascular plantsin Ireland (from Webb et al., 1996; Ashe et al., 1998; Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).


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reduced flora: some 1,000 species offlowering plants and ferns are nativeto Ireland compared with about1,500 species in Britain (Scannelland Synnott, 1987). The totalvascular flora, including wellestablished introductions, accordingto a count made by Curtis andMcGough (1988) is 1,309. In thelatest edition of An Irish Flora thereare 1,341 vascular plant species andhybrids covered (Webb et al., 1996).In reviewing the species diversity inthe Irish flora, Neff (1996)concluded that one overriding factwas apparent:

That the number of taxa in Irelandfor any given group of plants is low incomparison to our neighbours, but insome groups it is clearly rich, e.g.bryophytes and stoneworts.

Under the Wildlife Act, 1976(Section 21) and, more recently, theHeritage (Transfer of Departmental

Administration and MinisterialFunctions) Order, 1994 (S.I. No.443 of 1994), particular plants canbe protected under a FloraProtection Order the most recentbeing the Flora (Protection) Order,1999 (S.I. No. 94 of 1999) whichrevoked the Flora (Protection)Order, 1987 (S.I. No. 274 of 1987).Under such an Order it becomes anoffence to cut, uproot or damagethese plants unless licensed to do soby the Minister for Arts, Heritage,Gaeltacht and the Islands. The sameOrder protects the habitats of theseplants, 68 of which are vascular (SeeTable 4a).

The omission of certain species fromthe list of plants in the Order has ledto criticism from some quarters. Forexample, O’Mahony (2000) haslisted, with reasons, the followingdozen species which, in his opinion,

are deemed worthy of legal protectionwithin the Republic of Ireland:

Alchemilla alpina L. (Alpine Lady’s-mantle)Asplenium onopteris L. (Irish spleenwort)Crambe maritima L. (Sea-kale)Lepidium latifolium L. (Dittander)Rumex pulcher L. (Fiddle Dock)Salvia verbenaca L. (Wild Clary)Euphorbia amygdaloides L. (Wood Spurge)Geranium purpureum Villars (Little Robin)Sedum dasyphyllum L. (Thick-leavedStonecrop)Orobanche rapum-genistae Thuill. (GreaterBroomrape)Ranunculus parviflorus L. (Small-floweredButtercup)Alchemilla glaucescens Wallr. (GlaucousLady’s-mantle)

The Atlas of the British Flora, has, sinceits publication in the early 1960s(Perring and Walters, 1962) remainedthe general standard work on thedistribution of vascular plants in Britainand Ireland. Since that time the

Scientific Name Common NameAcinos arvensis Basil ThymeAllium schoenoprasum ChivesAlopecurus aequalis Orange FoxtailArenaria ciliata Fringed SandwortArthrocnemum perenne

(Salicornia perennis) Perennial GlasswortAsparagus officinalis Wild AsparagusAsplenium obovatum subsp.

lanceolatum (A. billotii) Lanceolate SpleenwortAsplenium septentrionale Forked SpleenwortAstragalus danicus Purple Milk VetchCalamagrostis epigejos Wood Small-reedCallitriche truncata Short-leaved Water-StarwortCardamine impatiens Narrow-leaved Bitter CressCardaminopsis petraea Northern RockcressCarex depauperata Starved Wood SedgeCarex divisa Divided Sedge Centaurium pulchellum Lesser CentauryCephalanthera longifolia Narrow-leaved HelleborineColchicum autumnale Autumn CrocusCryptogramma crispa Parsley FernDeschampsia setacea Bog Hair GrassEpilobium alsinifolium Chickweed Willow HerbEquisetum X moorei Moore’s HorsetailEriophorum gracile Slender Cotton GrassGaleopsis angustifolia Red Hemp NettleGroenlandia densa

(Potamogeton densus) Opposite-leaved PondweedGymnocarpium robertianum

(Thelypteris robertiana) Limestone FernHammarbya paludosa

(Maxalis paludosa) Bog OrchidHelianthemum nummularium Common RockroseHordeum secalinum Meadow BarleyHydrilla verticillata Irish HydrillaHypericum canadense Canadian St. John’s WortHypericum hirsutum Hairy St. John’s WortInula salicina Irish FleabaneLathyrus japonicus Sea PeaLimosella aquatica Mudwort

Scientific Name Common NameLogfia minima (Filago minima) Slender CudweedLotus subbiflorus (L. hispidus) Hairy Birdsfoot TrefoilLycopodiella inundata

(Lycopodium inundatum) Marsh ClubmossMentha pulegium Penny RoyalMertensia maritima Oyster PlantMinuartia recurva Recurved SandwortMisopates orontium Lesser SnapdragonNajas flexilis Slender NaiadOmalotheca sylvatica

(Gnaphalium sylvaticum) Wood CudweedOtanthus maritimus

(Diotis maritima) CottonweedPapaver hybridum Round Prickly-headed PoppyPilularia globulifera PillwortPolygonum viviparum Alpine BistortPseudorchis albida

(Leucorchis albida) Small-white OrchidPuccinellia fasciculata Tufted Salt-marsh GrassPyrola rotundifolia ssp. maritima Round-leaved WintergreenSanguisorba officinalis Great BurnetSaxifraga granulata Meadow SaxifrageSaxifraga hartii Hart’s SaxifrageSaxifraga hirculus Yellow Marsh SaxifrageSaxifraga nivalis Alpine SaxifrageScirpus triqueter

(Schoenoplectus triqueter) Triangular Club RushScleranthus annuus Annual KnawelSimethis planifolia Kerry LilySpiranthes romanzoffiana Drooping Lady’s Tresses*Stachys officinalis

(Betonica officinalis) BetonyTrichomanes speciosum Killarney FernTrifolium glomeratum Clustered CloverTrifolium subterraneum Subterranean CloverTrollius europaeus Globe FlowerVicia orobus Bitter VetchViola hirta Hairy VioletViola lactea Pale Heath Violet

Table 4a Vascular plant species, including ferns, listed in the Flora Protection Order (1999)

*This orchid, also known as Irish Lady’s Tresses, is said to have been first introduced into the British Isles, from the eastern seaboard ofNorthern America, by the Greenland White-fronted goose (Heslop-Harrison, 1953).


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distribution of many species has altered as a result of changes inagricultural practice (particularlyintensification of farming) and land-use (e.g. afforestation and buildingdevelopment) while many alien species,previously unknown, have becomewidespread in the countryside.

A new initiative, to update that work, the Atlas 2000 project, waslaunched in April 1996. Theobjective of the exercise, which isorganised by the Botanical Society ofthe British Isles (BSBI) with Irishfunding coming from Dúchas(Republic of Ireland) and theEnvironment and Heritage Service(Northern Ireland), is to map theknown distribution of all vascularplants in the British Isles for themillennium. The scheme ran for thefour-year period to autumn 1999during which the fieldwork for theproject was undertaken. Data on all4129 taxa, included in the scheme,have been used to producebiodiversity maps. The Atlas is due tobe published later in 2001 andshould serve as an accurate update onthe status of the Irish vascular flora.

Ferns and their allies, thePteridophytes, are the most primitiveof the higher plants. Although theypossess vascular systems and produceroots they do not produce flowersand fruit: they are spore-producingvascular plants. The clubmosses(Lycopodium spp.) are listed in theIrish Habitats Regulations.

Ireland, because of its moist climate,has a flora rich in mosses andliverworts. These bryophytes do notpossess vascular systems nor roots andare classed among the so-called lower

plants. The only bryophytes listed inthe Irish Habitats Regulations areLeucobryum glaucum and Sphagnumspecies (peat mosses). Although someparts of the country have been wellstudied, such as Killarney and BenBulben, the full Irish bryological floradistribution is imperfectly

understood.9 Dr Neil Lockhart ofDúchas discovered a relict mossspecies (Paludella squarrasa), new toIreland in 1998 (Anon., 1999b). Twodays of fieldwork in Fermanagh,after a meeting of the EuropeanCommittee for the Conservation ofBryophytes (ECCB) in Belfast,yielded a long list of species for thecounty, three of which, all mosses,were new to Ireland (Hodgetts andHallingbäck, 1994). In a study of thebryophytes of Foynes Island and theadjacent Co. Limerick mainland, 76moss and 18 liverwort species wererecorded (Wiltshire, 1995). Thenumber of species recorded forIreland is 533 mosses and 226liverworts which representsrespectively six per cent and three percent of the known bryophytes world-wide (Department of Arts, Heritage,Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).

Under the Flora (Protection) Order,1999, 14 mosses, four liverworts,including Petalophyllum ralfsii, twostoneworts and one lichen areprotected (Table 4b).

Fungi (e.g. mushrooms, moulds, rustsand yeasts) are simply-organized plantslacking green colouring matter(chlorophyll) and thence unable tophotosynthesise. They, asheterotrophs, need organic material togrow and are normally found on

Table 4b Non-Vascular plant species listed in the Flora Protection Order (1999)

Scientific Name Common Name

MossesBryum calophyllum -Bryum marratii -Catoscopium nigritum -Drepanocladus vernicosus -Leptobarbula berica -Orthrotrichum pallens -Orthrotrichum sprucei -Orthrotrichum stramineum -Paludella squarrosa -


Pottia wilsonii -Tetraplodon angustatus -Tortella inclinata -Weissia longifolia -Weissia rostellata -

Liverworts -Leiocolea gillmanii -(Lophozia gillmanii) -Leiocolea rutheana Fen Flapwort(Lophozia rutheana) -


Petalophyllum ralfsii -Plagiochila atlantica -

LichensFulgensia fulgens -

StonewortsLamprothamnium papulosum

Foxtail StonewortNitella gracilis Slender Stonewort

Pre 1970

Post 1970

Killarney fern (Trichomanes speciosum)This beautiful small fern occurs in dark, shelteredplaces with a humid atmosphere such as nearwaterfalls. In Britain it is extremely rare and justone site in England remains. Collecting, chiefly inthe 19th century, has been responsible for itsdecline in some areas such as in south-west Ireland.Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988;Merryweather and Hill, 1992

Fig 4 Distribution of Killarney Fern

Based on presencein 10 km squares


P A G E 1 3

decaying matter. As a group the fungiare apparently a neglected area forstudy in Ireland and while some 3,500species have been recorded it isbelieved that the true figure is closer to7,800; the latter estimate would giveIreland about 0.5 per cent of theworld’s fungal flora (Department ofArts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and theIslands, 1999). What is known of Irishfungal diversity is largely due to workundertaken, in the 1980s, to cataloguethe species (e.g. Muskett and Malone,

1985; Ing and McHugh, 1988).Because of their simple structure andtheir importance in brewing, baking,as antibiotics as well as plant andanimal diseases some fungi havebecome ‘honorary microbes’ to themicrobiologist (Postgate, 1992).Others live in association with specialalgae forming lichens.

Several rare European lichens arefound in Ireland. Research carried outon the lichen flora of the Burren and

Arran Islands, for more than a quarterof a century, has yielded 424 species17 of which have their only Irishstations within that region (McCarthy,1987). A total of 1,050 taxa has beenrecorded of which 34 are believed tobe threatened European species(Seaward, 1994; Department of Arts,Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,1999). Ireland has 30 per cent of thetotal number of European taxa which,compared with other flora groups, is arelatively high proportion and isprobably attributable to the reasonablygood air quality. The only lichen listedin the Irish Habitats Regulations is the‘reindeer moss’ (Cladonia subgenusCladina) while Fulgensia fulgens is theonly one on the Flora (Protection)Order (Table 4b).

Although not all algae are aquatic,they are a diverse group found largely in freshwater and marinehabitats. Some are unicellular butmany, such as seaweeds and pondweeds, are multicellular plants. Todate a total of 524 species of macro-algae and 181 species ofphytoplankton has been recordedfrom the Irish marine environment(Department of Arts, Heritage,Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999).Algae can cause problems in bothfreshwater and seawater. The groupformerly known as blue-green algaeare now classed among the bacteria(Cyanobacteria). Seaweeds have longbeen used to aid soil fertility,particularly along the westernseaboard, and are collected also foruse as food and medicine. A mappingand assessment survey of theexploited seaweed resources(Ascophyllum nodosum and Laminariaspp.) along the west coast has beenundertaken and their sustainable

Box 7 Lower Plants

Petalwort (Petalophyllum ralfsii) is a small thallose (i.e. leafless plant)liverwort found in coastal dune slacks and machairs. It is listed in Appendix Iof the Bern Convention and in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It occursin scattered localities along the western seaboard, from Kerry to Donegal, aswell as some dune sites in Dublin. Its sites were re-surveyed in 1997-98 whenat least four of its 13 former stations have been lost: two to agriculturalintensification, one to golf course development and the only known inlandsite to competition from vascular plants in a disused quarry. Many of theolder records, including a small population in Kerry not seen since 1890,were re-found during the survey. Nine new localities were also discoveredand it now appears that its most important sites in Ireland are the machairsof Galway and Mayo; these machairs support what are believed to be thelargest populations of this species in the world. All 18 populations in theRepublic are within proposed NHAs. (Source: Neil Lockhart, pers. comm.)

Stoneworts: The stoneworts are a separate class, Characeae, of the greenalgae (Chlorophyta) of which a total of 33 species have been recorded forBritain and Ireland. Many stonewort species prefer calcium-rich but nutrient-poor situations and parts of the Grand and Royal canals provide suchconditions; the Curragh Aquifer provides highly calcareous water for theformer while Lough Owel does the same for the latter. Canal maintenanceand heavy boat traffic in the canals can be threats to these plants. Stonewortsare deemed to be so important and vulnerable that they are the subject of aRed Data Book for Britain and Ireland. Ten species are listed as beingendangered in Ireland and one, Tolypella prolifera, has already become extinctduring this century. The contraction of the Characeae flora was a feature ofthe eutrophication effects of Lough Sheelin. Recent surveys of lagoons andcoastal lakes have identified one species new to Ireland and rediscoveredanother, Chara muscosa, which wasbelieved to have become extinct. (Sources: Stewart and Church, 1992; Champ,1998; Roden, 2000)

Foxtail stonewort (Lamprothamniumpapulosum): This stonewort grows inbrackish lagoons with salinities in therange 1-3 per cent. It is protectedunder the Flora Order (1999). Havingrecently been recorded from two newsites, both high salinity lagoons, it isnow known from five locations. Itssaline lagoon habitat is threatened,inter alia, by land reclamation, waterpollution and changes in salinity; thelatter occurs at one of its sites, Lady'sIsland Lake in Co. Wexford, from theregular cutting of the sand bar whichseparates the lake from the sea.

(Sources: Stewart and Church, 1992; Hatch andHealy, 1998)

Foxtail stonewort (Lamprothamnium papulosum)



P A G E 1 4

potential yield gauged (Hession et al.,1998). An atlas of the seaweeds ofBritain and Ireland is due to bepublished later in 2001. There are anestimated 700-1,000 species offreshwater desmids and 25 knownIrish stoneworts; the latter figure isequivalent to about 10 per cent of theknown species world-wide.Stoneworts (See Box 7) are oftenmistaken for higher plants. Underthe Flora (Protection) Order, 1999,68 vascular plants are listed asprotected (Table 4a). There are noflowering plants listed in the IrishHabitats Regulations but the twospecies (Najas flexilis and Saxifragahirculus) listed in the HabitatsDirective are among those in theabove Order.

Among the rare and threatenedaquatic plants some examples areworth mentioning. The river water-crowfoot (Ranunculus fluitans) has todate not been found in the Republicbut is recorded for one river in Co.Antrim in Northern Ireland(Hackney, 1992). Up until 1988 thethree-lobed crowfoot (Ranunculustripartitus), whose habitat is generallyacidic or oligotrophic lakes, had beenrecorded from five sites in the south-west (Curtis and Harrington, 1987;Curtis and McGough, 1988) but hasin the mean time become extinct(Preston and Croft, 1997). On theplus side within the same period,however, the soft hornwort(Ceratophyllum submersum) has beenadded to the Irish flora after beingfirst found in 1989 (Smith andWolfe-Murphy, 1991) and thefloating water-plantain (Luronium

natans)10 has been rediscovered (Richet al., 1995); neither species is listedin the Flora Protection Order (1999)but the latter is on Appendix I of theBern Convention as well as AnnexesII and IV of the Habitats Directive.

Other species, such as the opposite-leaved pondweed (Groenlandia densa)and the slender naiad (Najas flexilis),which is vulnerable to eutrophication(Preston and Croft, 1997), have beendiscovered at new localities. Two ofthese species, L. natans and N. flexilis,are protected under the BernConvention (Appendix I) and theHabitats Directive (Annex II and IV);because they are listed in theDirective as Annex II species, a seriesof protected areas must be designatedfor their conservation. Anotherprotected species, the triangular club-rush (Schoenoplectus triqueter), whichis known from only two vice-comitaldivisions, Clare and Limerick, wasrecently confirmed living in theestuary of the River Maigue(Reynolds, 1997a).

Box 8 Vascular Plants

Meadow Saffron: The decline of this wetland species, also known as theautumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale) because of its August-Octoberflowering habit, is apparently a result of loss of habitat due to intensiveagriculture and drainage. Found on basic or neutral soils in damp meadowsand woods in Britain and parts of Europe where its occurrence is local butsometimes in quantity it is now regarded as one of the most endangeredspecies of wild flora in Ireland. It was once locally common in the Norevalley, where it occurred in old damp meadows and on river banks, outsideof which its only other recently recorded sites were in one area of CountyLimerick as well as County Armagh where it has become naturalised. It waslast recorded at the Limerick site, formerly an old pasture, in 1995 but hasnot been seen since then; ownership of the site changed hands and the landwas subsequently ploughed. The remaining County Kilkenny habitats, atThomastown and Inistioge, on either side of the River Nore are threatenedby the construction of a bypass for the former through which a proposedroute would pass.

It contains a toxin, known as colchicine, and there have been occasionalinstances of fatalities to livestock although it is generally avoided byanimals. Despite its toxicity it has long been used as a treatment for goutand is still considered an important plant from a pharmaceutical point ofview. This aspect together with its rarity and threatened status should makeits conservation a major objective.

(Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; Stace, 1995; Anon., 1999c; C. Ó Críodáin, pers. comm.; S. Reynolds, pers. comm.)

Oyster Plant: Also known as the shore-wort, the oyster plant (Mertensiamaritima) is a perennial of shingle beaches and gravelly seashores. It waspreviously recorded from eight counties on the north and east coasts butunderwent a gradual decrease in range over the past century and hasrecently been confirmed from only three of these, viz. Donegal, Antrim andDown. Climatic factors are obviously important to a species on the edge ofits north-western range in Ireland and are usually given as the reason for itsdecline. However, other factors may also be implicated and shingle removal,particularly at one site, is seen as the greatest threat with grazing by sheepreported in the past from all extant sites. It is a protected species throughthe Flora Protection Order 1999 (Republic of Ireland) and the Wildlife Order1985 (Northern Ireland).

(Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; Farrell and Randall, 1992)


P A G E 1 5

Among the aliens Japanese knotweed(Reynoutria japonica), Indian balsam(Impatiens glandulifera) and gianthogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum)are, because of their large size andinvasive habit, most easily recognised.Many others, however, for a variety ofreasons go largely unnoticed. Surveyscarried out at two major ports,Dublin and Foynes, recorded 66 and41 species respectively of established

and casual alien plants (Reynolds,1997b). The alien aquatic fern(Azolla filiculoides) is occasionallyrecorded in Ireland but any spread isusually checked by colder winters andit is unlikely to become a pest speciesunless, as is being predicted, a warmingof the climate with concomitantincreases in winter temperaturesoccurred (Lucey, 1998). A minorAzolla bloom occurred on the RiverBarrow, at and upstream ofGraiguenamanagh, in the autumn of1999 (Lucey, 1999a) and again in 2000indicating successful over-wintering.

Fauna (Animals)

Ireland’s entire fauna, fromprotozoans and sponges to mammals,has been estimated at 14,616 species(Purcell, 1996). While this figureobviously falls a long way short of thetrue faunal diversity it has beenderived from the only way possible,i.e. based on actual recordings.11 Theelements of the country’s fauna thatremain to be discovered chieflycomprise invertebrate animals which,with the exception of perhaps four orfive species, attract less attention.

Invertebrates do not have a highprofile when it comes toconservation. The Irish invertebratespecies listed in the HabitatsDirective are: the freshwater pearlmussel (Margaritifera margaritifera)and the white-clawed crayfish(Austropotamobius pallipes); the Kerryor spotted slug (Geomalacusmaculosus) as well as three land snails(Vertigo spp.); and one butterfly, themarsh fritillary (Euphydryas aurinia).


Giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum)Introduced in the 19th century, as a gardenornamental, it has become naturalized in manyplaces particularly along the banks of rivers.Because of its photoxicity it can be a healthhazard and can also cause environmentalproblems. Such is the cause for concern in somequarters that a nationally co-ordinated control,and ultimate eradication, strategy has beenrecommended for this invasive alien. Sources: Wyse Jackson, 1989; Lucey, 1994;Wade et al., 1997; Caffrey, 1999.

Fig 5 Distribution of Giant Hogweed

Box 9 Kerry Slug

The presence of this Lusitanianspecies, which occurs elsewhereonly on the Iberian peninsula, is anold biogeographical puzzle:whether Geomalacus maculosus isa preglacial survival in an ice-freerefugium, a natural postglacialimmigrant, or a relatively recent,accidental introduction has notbeen established although opinionis now veering towards the last ofthese hypotheses (Kerney, 1999).The species is common over aconsiderable area in the south-west where it lives among rocks, ofOld Red Sandstone, in heathermoorland and rough pasture ormore rarely in oak woods on moss-covered timber. There is noevidence that it is declining (Plattsand Speight, 1988)


P A G E 1 6

The crayfish, pearl mussel and Kerryslug are large invertebrates which areprotected in Ireland through nationaland international law. Of the threespecies the mussel is most vulnerable.The spotted slug is restricted in itsdistribution to the south-west cornerwhile the introduced crayfish is stillexpanding its range.

Although Ireland’s insect fauna isattenuated compared with that ofmainland Europe and Britain, it is asurprisingly rich one containing some16,000 species of which 1,499 arerecorded as aquatic (Ashe et al., 1998).

A survey of butterflies took place inthe summer months between 1995

Box 10 Freshwater Invertebrates

Freshwater Crayfish and Pearl Mussel:These two species, the pearl musselMargaritifera margaritifera and thewhite-clawed crayfishAustropotamobius pallipes, are, withthe swan mussel Anodonta cygnea(Lucey, 1995), the largest freshwaterinvertebrates occurring in Ireland.Both are protected by Irish law(Wildlife Act, 1976) and are listed inthe EU ‘Habitats Directive’ as well asin the Council of Europe's BernConvention. Apart from some Irishfluvial sites, these two species appearnot to share the same habitat; theformer is classed as calcifuge,preferring base-poor conditions, andthe latter as calciphile, generallybeing restricted to calcareous waters.

Owing to pollution, habitatdestruction and overfishing for itspearls, the mussel is a decliningspecies and the hard-water formwhich occurred in the main channelsof the Suir and Barrow (Lucey, 1993)up until relatively recently is nowrestricted to a 10 km stretch of theNore (Moorkens et al., 1992;Moorkens and Costello, 1994). Thetype found in the Nore and referredto as Margaritifera durrovensis but asa synonym of M. margaritifera, hasbeen included in Annex V in amodification to the HabitatsDirective (CEC, 1997a).

The crayfish, which is not native to Ireland (Lucey, 1999b), is relativelycommon and widely distributed in limestone rivers and lakes but is underthreat from a lethal fungus (Aphanomyces astaci) disease which hasdevastated stocks throughout Britain and Europe and which may have beenresponsible for the collapse of some Irish lake populations (Matthews andReynolds, 1990). The Irish crayfish populations, however, probably constitutethe largest reservoir of the species in Europe (Lucey and Nolan, 1996).

Pre 1965

Post 1965

Pearl Mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera)

Source: Kerney, 1999Based on presencein 10 km squares


Large heath (Coenonympha tullia)Between 1995 and 1999 it was recorded from27 of the 820 squares searched. It hassuffered major habitat loss due to theexploitation of our raised and blanket bogs.Source: D. Nash, Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club

Fig 6 Distribution of Large Heath

Unlike many other molluscs this musselrequires clean, cool, well-oxygenated waterfree from mud and suspended matter. Alsounusual for a mollusc, especially one thatbuilds two heavy shells, it is found chiefly insoft water. It is a declining speciesthroughout Europe and has become extinctin some places in Ireland. The causes arevarious and include destruction by pearlfishers (photo), physical changes to thehabitat and pollution. The species isparticularly vulnerable because of its unusuallongevity (one hundred years or more) andslow reproduction (Lucey, 1993; Kerney,1999).

Box 11 Marsh FritillaryThe status of the marsh fritillary(Euphydryas aurinia), which isregarded as an internationallythreatened butterfly and is alisted species (Annex II) in theHabitats Directive, was re-assessedin 1993 based on a comparisonbetween pre and post 1980distribution data. It wasconcluded that while it could notbe regarded as a threatenedspecies in Ireland the man-induced habitat loss and habitatmodification which have causedits decrease elsewhere in Europewere occurring in Ireland. Thespecies is associated with certaintypes of old pasture in Irelandand it has been recommendedthat consideration be given toprotection of the few Irish sitessupporting very large populations.Dúchas has proposed five SACs forthe protection of this species.(Source: Lavery, 1993)


P A G E 1 7

and 1999 with the findings recentlypublished in the Millennium Atlas ofButterflies in Britain and Ireland(Asher et al., 2001). The survey wasundertaken as a joint effort betweenButterfly Conservation in Britain andthe Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club.In order to get an accurate truerepresentation of butterfly numbers,monitoring needs to be carried outfor several years as some species areaffected by weather conditions: lowerthan normal numbers of the smalltortoiseshell (Aglais urticae) werefound in the summer of 1999. TheAtlas includes photographs of the 28species which occur in Ireland as wellas information on their distributionand status (See Box 11 and Fig 6).Loss of habitat and farming practicesare thought to be causing a decline inbutterfly numbers in Ireland (D.Nash, pers. comm.).

As well as the known residentbutterfly species, three more migrantspecies usually arrive from abroad

each year. Of the resident species, sixmay be considered vulnerable due totheir very limited and fragmentedgeographical distribution and/ordependence on restricted specialisedhabitats. The indications, fromsurveys carried out in 1998 and 1999 by the Dublin Naturalists’ FieldClub, are that the six species (thelarge heath Coenonympha tullia, thepearl bordered fritillary Bolariaeuphrosyne, the marsh fritillaryEurodryas aurina, the brownhairstreak Thecla betulae, the dingyskipper Erynnis tages and the smallblue Cupido minimus) are, as is thecase elsewhere in Europe, underthreat from changes and trends inland use (B. Aldwell, pers. comm.).These changes include loss oftraditional meadows, major drainageof bogs and wetlands, intensive sheepgrazing, loss of habitats such as sanddunes to a variety of human uses, theremoval or severe cutting of fieldhedges and scrub and the use ofchemicals in agriculture.

Pest invertebrate species recentlyintroduced include the New Zealandflatworm (Artioposthia triangulata)which may pose a threat to Irishagriculture. The source andsubsequent widespread distribution inIreland (Hogan and Dunne, 1996) ofthis predator of earthworms wasapparently the plant trade. Otherinvertebrate pests, chiefly insect andmite species, have also gained entry inthe same way (See Box 13).

Over the last 10,000 years, themillennium just ended has seen thelargest increase in the diversity ofIreland’s vertebrates with 30 new

Box 12 Land snails

Vertiginidae: Four species, Vertigo angustior, V. genesii, V. geyeri and V.moulinsiana, of this family of tiny land snails, which show strong affinitiesfor wetlands or marshy ground, are listed in the Habitats Directive (Annex II).

Three of these occur in Ireland: V. genesii became extinct in Ireland in the latePostglacial period and is only known as fossil occurrences. In Britain it has beenrecorded at just three localities, one in England and the others in Scotland.

The narrow-mouthed whorl snail V. angustior is a declining species and isconsidered vulnerable in Ireland. It is restricted to moist places which areaffected neither by periodic desiccation nor by flooding. It requires openhabitat conditions quickly warmed by the sun as in short vegetation of grasses,mosses or low herbs and has been found in maritime turf. Its sites may easilybe destroyed by drainage, afforestation or other changes in land use.

The rare V. moulinsiana is restricted to old calcareous wetlands usuallyadjacent to lowland rivers and lakes. It is at the northern limit of itsEuropean range in the British Isles.

The glacial relict V. geyeri has long been known from a few sites in centralIreland but has recently been found in the north-west. It is an endangeredspecies and several of its sites have been lost by drainage in recent years. Ithas been cited in the controversy regarding Pollardstown Fen, a designatedSpecial Area of Conservation, outside Kildare town in relation to a plan forthe construction of a bypass. Conservationists, including An Taisce, wereconcerned about the impact on the fen.

V. lilljeborgi is quite a rare species in Ireland but is not listed in the HabitatsDirective. Postglacial fossils show that it was formerly more widely distributed.Today the main threat to the species comes from agricultural drainage due toits being restricted to sites with saturated decaying vegetation.

The Vertigo species, because they are restricted to fens and other wetlands, maybe more isolated than in the past due to drainage reducing the size of theirhabitat. Twenty three SACs are being proposed for these species by Dúchas.

(Sources: Kerney, 1976; Cawley, 1996; Kerney, 1999; O’Sullivan, 1999)

Box 13 Some recent insect andmite introductions to Ireland

It is not surprising that modernworld-wide plant materialmovement has resulted in theintroduction and establishmentof several exotic phytophagousinsect pests to Ireland. Themovement of honeybees has alsoled to the establishment of theparasite Verroa jacobsoni. Thesepest species have mainly beenintroduced from other EUcountries, where they havebecome established, not fromtheir native areas.

Harmful organisms and damagedplant material found onimported produce are routinelyidentified at Teagasc’s KinsealyResearch Centre for theDepartment of Agriculture’sPlant Health Service (EnforcingEU plant health directive77/93/EEC of 21 December 1976).The following is a list ofphytophagous insect and miteintroductions encountered inrecent years:

Liriomyza trifolii – the serpentineor Florida leafminer

Liriomyza huidobrensis – theSouth American leafminer

Frankliniella occidentalis – thewestern flower thrips

Bemisia tabaci – the sweetpotato whitefly

Macrosiphum albifrons – thelupin aphid

Leptinotarsa decemlineata – theColorado beetle

Varroa jacobsoni – a honeybeeparasite

(Source: R. Dunne, Teagasc)


P A G E 1 8

Box 14 Fishes

Arctic Charr: A declining species in Ireland and the rest ofEurope, Salvelinus alpinus vanished from Lough Allua, inthe River Lee catchment, as early as the 1830s due tohuman and pike predation. In the same or followingdecade it disappeared from Lough Neagh in NorthernIreland and Lough Leven in Scotland. Most recently itsloss from Lough Conn together with the collapse ofpopulations in Loughs Corrib and Leane appears to berelated to nutrient enrichment. Its current distribution isshown opposite. The main threats to charr areeutrophication, acidification and over-fishing. Amongthe conservation measures that have been proposed forcharr are control of water pollution (primarily fromagriculture and forestry) as well as the possible banningof smolt-rearing and cage-rearing of other salmonids intheir waters. This fish is an indigenous species which wasformerly widespread and abundant but has become rarein most places. It represents an arctic-alpine element inthe Irish fauna and is restricted to cool, stony,oligotrophic lakes. Although considered to beendangered in Europe it is not listed in the EU HabitatsDirective. The distribution map presented here is largelythe result of questionnaires sent to fishery authoritiesand others to gauge the current status of the charr. TheIrish Char Conservation Group is now in operation andinformation on this relict species can be obtained athttp://www.charr.org.(Sources: Went, 1945; Whilde, 1993; Champ, 1998; McGarrigle andChamp, 1999)

Lampreys are survivors of the most primitive group ofvertebrates which are classed among the jawless fish orAgnatha. Three species of lamprey occur in Irish waters:the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), the river lamprey(Lampetra fluviatilis) and the brook lamprey (Lampetraplaneri). All three species are known to still spawn in Irishrivers or streams and are listed in the Habitats Directivewhile the river lamprey or lampern is listed in the IrishHabitats Regulations. Lampreys were once widespread inEurope but stocks have declined in recent years althoughthis has not been quantified for Irish populations. Waterquality is implicated in the demise of populations as well as the impediment to upstream and downstream migration byweirs and dams. Nevertheless, Irish populations appear to be still widespread and like other protected aquatic species,such as the crayfish and pearl mussel, are in a position to make an important contribution to the conservation ofEuropean stocks. To conserve Irish lamprey populations, however, the known spawning grounds and larval (ammocoete)habitats need to be protected and maintained. Nine SACs have been proposed, by Dúchas, for these species.(Source: Kurz and Costello, 1999)

Basking Shark: This shark species Cetorhinus maximus,measuring from 11-12m and weighing up to 3.5 tonnes, is thesecond largest fish in the world. It has been exploitedthroughout its range (e.g. Portugal, Peru, Equador, China,Japan and New Zealand) but most intensively off Scotland,Norway and California. It was hunted off the Irish coast forhundreds of years and its oil was used for public lighting inDublin, Cork and Waterford as early as 1742. The fishery wasan important subsistence industry for many communities onthe western seaboard, e.g. in the period between 1947 and1975 some 12,400 were killed in the basking shark fishery offAchill Island and thousands (4,442 in 1984) were taken byNorwegian shark fishermen off the south-east coast duringthe 1980s. The Achill fishery closed in 1975 after annualcatches had dropped to less than 100. A national survey,carried out in 1993, showed little sign of recovery of stocks inthese heavily fished areas. The most recent shark sighting surveys show, from records of beached or stranded fish, thatthe basking shark occurs in Irish waters off the following coasts: Antrim, Dublin, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Galway, Mayoand Donegal. Since 1998 basking sharks in UK waters have been given full protection under the Wildlife andCountryside Act (1981). The recently established Irish Elasmobranch Group (IEG) is proposing to the Irish Governmentthat similar protection should be afforded to the species in Irish territorial waters.

(Sources: Berrow and Heardman, 1994; Berrow and Heardman, 1995; S. Berrow, pers. comm.)

TayDan

GlendaloughLickeenInchiquin

Fin

Conn

Castlebar

Corrib

Derryclare

Erne

Egish

Gartan

Mentiaghs

Keel

Finn

Derg

Glenawough

Oorid

Acoose

Iskanamacteery Allua

Ennell

Owel

Gowna

Cornagall

FadFad

Sessiagh

Bunaveela

MaskNafooey

FeeMuck

KylemoreBallynahinch

{ ShanakeelaDerryneen

ShindillaGlenicmurrin

Gortglass

Cloonsnaghta

CurraneCloonee Inchiquin

Naback

Kindrum

Glen

GreenanBeagh

NeaghNalughraman

Easke

Melvin

Talt

Doolough

AnascaulCaragh

Leane/MuckrossCloon

Coomasaharn

ComeraghLakes

Glendollagh

Inagh

Believed Extinct

Pre - 1930

Post - 1930 / Pre 1990

Recent (Post 1990)

Sources: Whilde, 1993; Quigley, 1997;G. Alexander, University of Glasgow;R. Rosell, Department of AgricultureNorthern Ireland; P. Fitzmaurice,Central Fisheries Board; M. Kennedy,Western Fisheries Board; J. Conneely,North-Western Fisheries Board; B.Maguire, Northern Fisheries Board; A.McGurdy, Eastern Fisheries Board; M.Ó Cinnéide, Southern Fisheries Board;B. Purcell, South-Western FisheriesBoard; E. Cusack, Shannon FisheriesBoard

Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus)


P A G E 1 9

species becoming established in thattime (Hayden, 1999); examplesinclude the rabbit brought by theNormans and various fish species,such as pike, introduced subsequently(See Fig. 9).

The fish species listed in the Irish‘Habitats Regulations’ are:

• Lampern or river lamprey(Lampetra fluviatilis)

• Pollan (Coregonus autumnalis)• Allis shad (Alosa alosa)• Twaite shad (Alosa fallax)• Salmon (Salmo salar) in fresh water

Another fish species, the arctic charr(Salvelinus alpinus) has becomeextinct in some lakes in Ireland sincethe beginning of the 20th centurywith the most recent extirpation,from Lough Conn in County Mayo(See Box 14), confirmed in the lastdecade.

Lough Melvin, which straddles theborder counties of Leitrim andFermanagh, is, according to someIrish ichthyologists, home to threeunique ‘species’ of trout which havebeen separated by theirmorphological and biochemicalcharacteristics (Ferguson, 1986):sonaghen (Salmo nigripinnis), gillaroo

(Salmo stomachius) and ferox (Salmoferox). Further genetic studies, usingmitochondrial DNA techniqueswhich provide greater resolution thanprotein electrophoresis, mightestablish with more certainty if theseare indeed separate species, subspeciesor just varieties of the brown trout(Salmo trutta). In any event thesesalmonid fishes, because they havebeen around for some 10,000 years,are amongst the most native andunique components of the Irishfauna.

In a review of threatened Irish fish,Maitland (1996) concluded thatactive conservation management wasneeded for Allis shad, twaite shad,arctic charr, pollan and smelt.

Two amphibian species, thenatterjack toad (Bufo calamita) andthe common frog (Rana temporaria),are listed in the Irish ‘HabitatsRegulations’ (1997).

There are no bird species listed in theIrish ‘Habitats Regulations’ (1997)but all species are afforded protectionunder the Wildlife Act. Certain Irishspecies are also protected under theBirds Directive. Conservationprojects, over the past decade and

Box 16a Greenland White-fronted Goose

This bird breeds in the low arcticfringe of west Greenland andmigrates south through west andsouth Iceland during September/October to winter exclusively inIreland and Britain. Much of itswinter range is associated with alandscape characterised bypeatlands and low intensityfarmland. These wintering areasare often remote and the flocksrelatively small and difficult tolocate. Reported populationdeclines in the 1970s led to ahunting moratorium in Irelandand protection in Britain.Synchronised counts throughoutthe wintering range in Irelandand Britain were made from1983 onwards. These showedthat the overall populationincreased by five per cent perannum from 16,541 in spring1983 to 33,106 in spring 1997.The Irish population wasestimated in 1997 to be 13,539.The species is listed in the wildbirds Directive and 35 SPAs havebeen designated to date on thebasis of Greenland white-frontedgoose use.

(Source: J. Wilson, pers. comm.)

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

1996

/97

1995

/96

1994

/95

1993

/94

1992

/93

1991

/92

1990

/91

1989

/90

1988

/89

1987

/88

1986

/87

1985

/86

1984

/85

1983

/84

1982

/83

Year

Nu

mb

er

Greenland White-fronted Goosenumbers 1983-1997

Box 15 Amphibians and Reptiles

The smooth newt (Triturus vulgaris) is the only urodele (tailed amphibian)found in Ireland and has received less attention in the past than the twoanurans the common frog (Rana temporaria) and the natterjack toad (Bufocalamita). Unlike these other two amphibian species, whose origins in Irelandare unclear, the newt is considered an old native.

A detailed survey, carried out between 1993 and 1995 from the Department ofZoology at Trinity College in Dublin, has, for the first time, given a goodoverall impression of the distribution of this elusive amphibian. The results ofthe study showed a widespread distribution although it was not found inDonegal, Fermanagh or Tyrone and except for a location near Bantry in Co.Cork was apparently absent from the south-west. Newts appear to bewidespread but uncommon in Ireland and require suitable ponds as well asundisturbed terrestrial habitats for their continued survival.

(Sources: Wilson, 1986; Marnell, 1996; 1998a; 1998b)

The two reptile species, the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara) and slow-worm(Anguis fragilis), occurring in Ireland have been little studied and detailsregarding their status are lacking. From anecdotal evidence it would appear thatthe lizard is less common than previously. The slow-worm, which is a leglesslizard, appears to have been introduced into the Burren in Co. Clare relativelyrecently where it was first recorded in the 1970s but it is not known if it hasbecome established in other areas or how successfully it has become naturalised.Another species the green lizard (Lacerta viridis), which occurs naturally insouthern Europe and the Channel Islands, was introduced also to the Burren in1958; eight males and seven females were released and one was found in 1962.It appears to have died out thereafter and has not been seen since.

(Sources: Cabot, 1965; McCarthy, 1977; F. Marnell, pers. comm.)


P A G E 2 0

which are continuing, have boostedpopulation numbers of rare speciessuch as the roseate tern (Sternadougalli) and stabilised numbers ofcorncrake (Crex crex). In the west thenumbers of merlin (Falcocolumbarius) and hen harrier (Circuscyaneus) are thought to have beenadversely affected by overgrazing ofhabitats by sheep. Recent surveys

have also shown a decrease in certainlocal populations of wetland species,e.g. redshank, snipe and curlew butmost particularly, and unexpectedly,the lapwing. When the Irish WildbirdConservancy (now BirdWatchIreland) surveyed the area along theShannon and Brosna callows in 1987it found a very large mixed breedingwader population. In 1997, when

the area was again surveyed, a massivedrop in lapwing numbers wasrecorded. This collapse, which it hasbeen speculated may have beencaused by four consecutive years ofApril flooding, has highlighted theneed for annual monitoring ofvulnerable species. Nonetheless, thechief factors implicated in overallwader population declines are the lossof wetlands and nest predation (D. Norriss, pers. comm.). D’Arcy (1999) includes, as well aswaders, the following species amongthe threatened avifauna: corn buntingand corncrake; partridge, quail andgrouse; roseate and little terns; twiteand chough; barn owl and nightjar;merlin and hen harrier. Following aquantitative and qualitative review ofall available information on thedistribution, abundance andpopulation trends of regularlyoccurring birds a series of criteria weredeveloped, by the Birds ofConservation Concern project inIreland (BoCCI),12 to identify speciesof high (red list), medium (amber list)and low (green list) conservationpriority. The new Irish red listcomprises 18 species: black-neckedgrebe, common scoter, hen harrier, redgrouse, grey partridge, quail, corncrake, lapwing, curlew, red-neckedphalarope, roseate tern, barn owl,nightjar, ring ouzel, chough, twite,yellowhammer and corn bunting.These species are typically breedingbirds which have been in rapid declineover the last 25 years or whosepopulations are much reduced overrecent historical times (the past 100years). Conservation action plans arebeing prepared for these species and,where feasible, action undertaken to

Box 16b Birds

Grey Partridge: The native grey partridge (Perdix perdix) is now an extremelyrare species which has been recorded from eight counties (Galway, Kildare,Longford, Louth, Offaly, Tipperary, Wexford and Wicklow) in recent times. Theremaining birds, however, appear to be split between two populations, one atBoora in Co. Offaly and the other at Lullymore in Co. Kildare. Since 1995partridge have declined in most parts of their range in Europe and the 1998breeding season was one of the worst on record in the UK. The decline in Irishpopulations is part of a world-wide trend the specific reasons for which are notexactly known. It is believed, however, that the removal of hedgerows togetherwith the use of insecticides and herbicides, which have reduced the abundanceof insects and weed species, are responsible for lower chick survival. While thedecline in mixed farming may be a factor it is also possible that climatic factorscould, directly or indirectly, be implicated as the grey partridge is at the edge ofits range in Ireland. In its grey partridge project, which is partially funded by theEU, Dúchas has introduced a conservation strategy which involves predatorreduction in the core area, habitat improvement by the creation of suitablenesting and brood rearing cover as well as monitoring the species response tothe habitat measures.

(Sources: Whilde, 1993; O’Gorman, 1998; B. Kavanagh, pers. comm.)

Corn Bunting: The corn bunting (Miliaria calandra) was classed, in the Red DataBook of 1993, as a rare and endangered resident species breeding at only ahandful of sites mostly on the west coast. Since then a survey of its status wascommissioned, by the Heritage Council, to determine the precise populationnumbers and to make recommendations for its conservation. No birds werelocated during the survey and it has been concluded that the likelihood is that itbecame extinct, as a breeding species, during the early 1990s. A single specimenwas seen in north Donegal in the summer of 1999.

(Sources: Whilde, 1993; O. Merne, pers. comm.)

Corncrake: Corncrakes are now regarded as globally endangered chiefly due tointensification of farmland management; in Ireland there had been a long-termdecline in the summering population. They require cover throughout thebreeding season, from April to September, and not just from May to July whentall grass is plentiful. The Corncrake Grant Scheme (CGS), whereby landownerswere paid to delay grass mowing and encouraged to centre-out cutting, wasfirst introduced in 1992. The aim of the programme is to conserve corncrakes inthe Shannon Callows (between Athlone and Portumna), north-west Mayo andparts of the north Donegal coast and islands where mowing was already fairlylate. The scheme has apparently arrested and reversed the long-term decline innumbers. The number of calling males has increased or stabilised in all the areaswith Inishbofin and Tory Islands doing particularly well (See Table 5).

(Source: Dúchas)

Area 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998Inishbofin Island 12 27 15 12 15-17Tory Island 8 12 21 18-20 19Donegal, Mayo, Shannon Callows 129* 174* 184* 148-150* 149-153*Total 149 213 220 178-182 183-189Based on counts in 1994-98 period

*Core area totals

Table 5 Corncrake Numbers in Certain Areas (Source: Dúchas)


P A G E 2 1

improve their status (Newton et al.,1999). The amber list of 77 speciescomprises those which have undergonemoderate declines in the last 25 years,rare breeding species and those forwhich Ireland holds an important partof the European or flyway population,or significant concentrations especiallyof breeding seabirds or winteringwildfowl and waders. The mostsignificant factor which the review, byBoCCI, has highlighted is thedownward trend in a number ofspecies associated with farmland.

Ireland, including its inshore waters, ishome to 42 mammals 31 of which areterrestrial species. Those included in theIrish Natural Habitats Regulations(1997) are the otter (Lutra lutra),cetacean species, bat species, pinemarten (Martes martes), Irish hare (Lepustimidus), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus)and common seal (Phoca vitulina). SeeAppendix 1 for the mammalian specieslisted in the Habitats Directive.Ireland contains internationally

Box 17 Mammals

Lesser Horseshoe Bat: Ireland has nine bat species with the most recent additionto the chiropteran fauna, Nathusius’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus nathusii), being firstrecorded in 1997. The rarest species is the lesser horseshoe (Rhinolophushipposideros) which is confined to an area along the west and south-west coasts.The Irish population is estimated to be 12,000 bats which is thought to exceedthe total known population from mainland Europe. It is already rare in much ofEurope, reduced by disturbance, loss of habitat and chemical treatment of rooftimbers. The largest maternity roost in Europe (428 counted in August 1998) isin an old building near Dromore Wood in Co. Clare which is a nature reserve inwhich the bats feed; when the disused building was about to come on themarket it was bought by the Heritage Council in order to preserve the importantroost and to establish a bat study centre. The loss of suitable summer sites anddisturbance during hibernation are the major threats facing this species. Dúchashas proposed 31 SACs for the protection of the lesser horseshoe bat.

(Sources: Whilde, 1993; McAney, 1994; O’Sullivan, 1994; McGuire, 1998)

Irish Hare: The mountain hare (Lepus timidus) is considered to be threatened inparts of mainland Europe and is listed in the Habitats Directive (Annex V).Because of Ireland’s geological history and relative isolation from Britain andcontinental Europe the type occurring here and another species, the stoat(Mustela erminea), which have been isolated in this country, are considered tobe sufficiently different to be accorded subspecific status. The Irish subspecies(Lepus timidus hibernicus) is apparently widespread and common. Hare coursingis a rural sport which is perceived by those involved as an integral part of theIrish greyhound indusry.

(Source: Whilde, 1993; Hayden, 1995)

Otter: The otter (Lutra lutra) is also listed among the mammalian species in theHabitats Directive (Annex II). Ireland has the densest population of otters inwestern Europe and these occur in freshwater and coastal habitats. Otters arewidespread throughout Ireland and appear to be thriving. Unlike in othercountries they live within city limits and an increase in numbers since a previoussurvey, in 1980-81, is evident for the Greater Dublin area. Dúchas has proposed37 SACs for the protection of otters. Hunting with hounds is still carried onalong the River Blackwater and its tributaries in County Cork.

(Sources: Whilde, 1993; Lunnon, 1996)


Pine marten (Martes martes)Believed to be an old native species thiscarnivore has suffered greatly at the hands ofman: it was hunted for its pelt in the 16th and17th centuries when the destruction of itshabitat, the natural forests, was alsooccurring. Its numbers are now increasing andits recent expansion in range has been suchthat it is considered to be secure particularlysince the laying of the poison strychnine hasbeen banned.

Sources: Whilde, 1993; Mitchell-Jones et al.,1999; T.J. Hayden, pers. comm.


Red deer (Cervus elaphus)One of three deer species occurring and the onlyone present before the last Glacial maximum butit may have become extinct and also have beenintroduced by man. It was relatively abundantand widespread in the middle ages but washunted almost to extinction by the middle of the19th century. Since then reintroduction toDonegal, from Britain, and escapes from deerparks have led to a number of distinctpopulations, which can be shown scientifically todiffer from a Co. Kerry wild population.

Sources: Mitchell-Jones et al., 1999; T.J. Hayden,pers. comm.

Fig 8 Distribution of Red Deer

Fig 7 Distribution of Pine Marten


P A G E 2 2

important populations of certainmammals such as the otter (See Box17) and badger. The latter species(Meles meles) with an estimated countof 250,000 individuals representsabout 40 per cent of the Europeanpopulation (Smal, 1993).

To date, 23 species of cetaceans havebeen recorded in Irish waters, 11 ofwhich are regularly sighted. Theseinclude harbour porpoise, commondolphin, striped dolphin, bottle-nosed dolphin, white-sided dolphin,

white-beaked dolphin, Risso’sdolphin, killer whale, pilot whale andminke whale.

Management of Ireland’s whale anddolphin sanctuary requires themonitoring of cetaceans within it andresearch into potential threats. Anational cetacean stranding andsighting scheme was established in1990 and is expanding annually.With the realisation that whales,dolphins and porpoises are found inIrish waters a whale-watchingindustry is now being activelydeveloped with an estimated 150,000people visiting Dingle, Co. Kerryannually to see and swim with a wild,sociable bottle-nosed dolphin. Whalewatching trips are now available atother locations, mainly around thesouth-west coast and in the Shannonestuary where there is a residentpopulation of bottle-nosed dolphins.This population is of internationalimportance, as there are only fiveknown resident populations inEurope. Whale watching was worthan estimated IR£1.25 million toIreland in 1998.

DISCUSSION

Having given a brief overview ofIreland’s natural habitats and species,a discussion of the chief factorsaffecting or threatening these willfollow. Since arriving in Ireland manhas played a large part in theextermination of some species directlyas well as indirectly through habitatalteration or destruction. He has alsobeen responsible for the introductionof many more and examples are givenin Fig. 9. No terrestrial landscape hasremained unaltered or unaffectedsince the arrival of man in Irelandalmost ten millenniums ago. Thephysical and biotic world has been so

strongly modified by human agencythat the resulting landscape is asynthesis of natural and culturalelements. Thus, natural landscapes,the product of geological, climaticand biological processes unaffected byhumans, are already rare, perhapsnon-existent (Aalen, 1997). Theexceptions, might include someremnants of intact peatland, the topsof some of the mountains as well assome of the wilder stretches ofcoastline but almost everywhere theland is man-modified or man-managed and has been so for a verylong time (Rochford, 1995). Thusour natural heritage is made uplargely of what may be termed semi-natural habitats.

Of the total land area ofapproximately seven million hectaresin the Republic of Ireland, almost fivemillion are used for agriculturalpurposes, including forestry (Lafferty,Commins and Walsh, 1999). Thus,it would follow, a priori, that thesewould have the greatest influences onthe natural heritage including theflora and fauna. With few exceptions,the bulk of the native terrestrial faunahas suffered range contraction andfragmentation due, in large measure,to habitat loss and to the impacts ofan increasingly mechanisedagricultural system (Purcell, 1996).

Only about nine per cent of Ireland ispresently under forestry, but theGovernment plans to increase this to17 per cent in the next 35 years.Almost 78 per cent of Irish forests aremade up of coniferous species. Thepolicy of largely monocultureplantations with non-native sitkaspruce has given rise to concernsabout impacts on landscapes andwater quality.

Box 18 Cetaceans

Harbour porpoise (Phocoenaphocoena): The harbour porpoiseis distributed throughout thenorth Atlantic to 10°N and thenorth Pacific to 30°N. It is by farthe most common cetaceanspecies in Irish waters and isusually found close inshore.Observed throughout the year,sightings peak in August-Octoberand this is thought to be due tofeeding movements. They feedmainly on pelagic fish, usuallyherring and whiting but alsosprat, sandeels, mackerel and cod.Porpoise breed in May/June whenfemales move offshore to calve;south-west Ireland is consideredto be a breeding ground.

Minke whale (Balaenopteraacutorostrata): Widelydistributed along the Atlanticseaboard of Ireland it is thewhale species most likely to beobserved from the land. It isfrequently recorded stranded onthe Irish coast, mainly along thewest but also on the east coast.All sightings are made in June-October which suggest that theyprobably migrate northwardstowards the Norwegian coast inthe summer before returningsouth in October.

(Sources: Berrow, 1990; Rogan andBerrow, 1995)


P A G E 2 3

In an aesthetic context, the argumentagainst the planting of sitka spruce in acash crop manner in Ireland has beenput by Feehan and O’Donovan (1996):

Sitka spruce may well be “one of themost beautiful of living objects” innature, but in the regimented short-rotation plantations to which it isconfined in Ireland it is never allowedto develop this majesty. Moreover, thefailure to plant in a way which showssensitivity to contour, landform andlocal ecological variation, or to scenicor aesthetic considerations, meansthat the woods themselves are notallowed to develop any kind oforganic relationship with thelandscapes in which they are planted.

Unlike modern forests the tree coverin former times was largely inlowland areas, notably along the greatriver valleys. By the beginning of the17th century, when destruction of

Box 19 Animal extinctions andintroductions during the past

millennium.

Extinctions can occur as a resultof changes in climatic conditions.For example, lemmings survivedin Ireland until about 10,000years ago while the giant Irishdeer (Megaloceros giganteus)and the reindeer (Rangifertarandus) had died out by about10,500 years ago when thewoolly mammoth and brownbear were long extinct. In therecent past, however, the handof man, directly or indirectly, canbe cited as the cause ofextirpations of species in mostcases. Some examples ofextinctions in the last millenniumare given in Fig. 9.

The magpie is an example of arelatively recent arrival bynatural means, in 1684 when asmall flock landed in Co.Wexford, which quickly becameestablished throughout thecountry. It is generally believedthat frogs were introducedsometime since the 12th centuryalthough the exact date is notknown. The approximate datefor the introduction, by artificialmeans, of other species,including plants, in the pastmillennium is chronicled in Fig. 9.

Fig 9 Some Examples of Introductions and Extinctions of Species

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

Introductions Extinctions

Wild Boar ?

Frog ?

Rabbit

Fallow Deer

Pike

Pheasant,Freshwater Crayfish

Carp, Tench,Medicinal Leech Red Squirrel

Wolf (1786),Capercaillie

Hedgehog ?, Common Rat,Scots Pine*(reintroduction),

European Larch,Rhododendron (reintroduction)

Red Squirrel (reintroduction),Sika Deer (1860), Minnow,Dace (1889), Roach, Bream

Rainbow Trout, Grey Squirrel(1911), Muskrat (1929), SlowWorm, Bank Vole (1940/50s),Mink (1950s), Green Lizard

(1958), Zebra Mussel (1990s)

Bittern, Great Auk,Medicinal Leech

Woodlark (1900), Marsh Harrier,Small Mountain Ringlet Butterfly,

White Tailed Eagle (1910/12),Golden Eagle** (1910/12),

Muskrat (1935)

*It is disputed whether Scots Pine diedout or not but it was introduced in the18th century for tree planting.

**The Golden Eagle has been very recentlyintroduced to Co. Donegal some 90 yearsafter its extinction


P A G E 2 4

woodland was continuing and theproportion of Ireland covered by treeswas down to about 12 per cent, thechief constituent was oak, with someash, a little elm and much hazel scrubon drier ground. At higher elevationsthe forests were mainly of oak andbirch (O’Carroll, 1984). Nowadaysriparian trees are regularly removedby angling interests thuscompromising the habitat of species,such as freshwater sponges and thepearl mussel, which show a preferencefor shaded sites (e.g. Lucey, 1993;Gittings et al., 1998). Under theRural Environment ProtectionScheme (REPS) planting of trees suchas oak, beech, willow, birch, ash,whitethorn, blackthorn and elder isrecommended for riparian zones butthe planting of conifers is prohibited(Department of Agriculture andFood, 1999).

The new Planning and DevelopmentAct (2000) will simplify theimplementation of a number of EUdirectives and planning codesparticularly in respect of the Directiveon Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA). Developments above a certainthreshold will, under the newlegislation, require an EIA; forestrydevelopments up to 70 hectares hadbeen exempt from the planning process.

While the deforestation of Ireland hasaffected the natural environment andconsequently the flora and fauna,other human influences, such as fireand grazing by livestock, havehelped to shape the landscape.Paradoxically this has been in part

responsible for creating one of thejewels in the Irish landscape, theBurren in Co. Clare, which wouldrevert to scrub if, in this case, the‘benign’ pressure of winter grazing bycattle of the pavements ceased(Nelson, 1991).

Not all grazing effects, however, havebenefited the Irish landscape andthose caused by sheep in some areascan be numbered among the mostserious threats and actual impacts inrecent times. Overgrazing, caused bythe gross overstocking of sheep, hasbeen identified as one of the mostimportant threats to habitats andhence biodiversity in Ireland. Theeffects of overgrazing have been mostmarked along the western seaboard,but no upland area has escaped.Sheep are inappropriate on the dwarfshrub communities in nearly allupland areas (R. Harrington, pers.comm.). The problem has arisen as adirect result of EU-funded livestock‘headage’ and ewe premiumpayments, paid on the basis ofnumbers carried, and serves toillustrate how well-meaning initiativesaimed at improving living standardsin rural areas can have a devastatingeffect on the landscape if not thoughtthrough properly. Sheep numbers hadincreased from 3.3 million to 8.9million between 1980 and 1992.Since then sheep numbers havedeclined slightly, probably throughmarket forces, and stood at 7.7million in 1996. The original REPSwas not successful in redressing theovergrazing problem. It is anticipatedthat the modifications to REPS

combined with the introduction ofthe SAC programme, initiated inMarch 1997, and the introduction offurther cross-compliance controls in1998 should greatly assist inalleviating the serious overgrazingproblem (Department of Arts,Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,1999).

The European Commission hasdecided to make an application to theEuropean Court of Justice againstIreland for non-respect of theEuropean Union's Wild BirdsDirective. The decision concerns thefailure to curb sheep overgrazing,particularly in the west of Ireland,

Box 20 Overgrazing

The total number of sheep in theState almost trebled (overallincrease of 170 per cent)between 1980 and 1991. Theproblem of overgrazing by sheepin the upland regions of the westof Ireland was first highlightedby the Salmon Research Agencyin 1990 when it reported damageto important game fisheries dueto excessive amounts of peat siltfrom eroding peatlands. It wasfound that there was littleremaining heather moorland inConnemara and the conclusionwas drawn that this, at least inpart, was due to the high grazingpressure in the region.

Although overgrazing cannegatively affect a number ofvegetation types most attentionhas focused on the damage doneto blanket bog and wet heathcommunities.

On heathlands overgrazingreduces the cover of heather andleads to increases in grass speciessuch as purple moorgrass (Molinacaerulea) and mat grass (Nardusstricta). Severe cases ofovergrazing lead to soil erosion,particularly in the winter months.

Overgrazing has had the greatestimpact on uplands, peatlands,heaths and coastal habitats andtheir flora and fauna particularlyin Counties Mayo, Galway,Donegal and Kerry.

(Sources: Lafferty, Commins and Walsh,1999; Heritage Council, 1999a)


P A G E 2 5

leading to serious damage to Ireland'slargest Special Protection Area, theOwenduff-Nephin Beg Complex inCounty Mayo, as well as wider loss ofhabitat of the red grouse (Lagopuslagopus hibernicus).

The wintering of cattle and the needto conserve fodder, particularly silage,and the change from hay to silagemaking has led to a loss of both plantand animal diversity from meadows.It has also led to water pollutionproblems. In the period between1960 and 1990, the production ofsilage had increased from 0.3 tonnesto more than 20 million tonnes peryear (Heritage Council, 1999a).

The most potent transforming forcein farm landscapes in the past 30years, has been agriculturalintensification through advancedtechnology which was vigorouslypromoted by national and EUpolicies to increase efficiency andproduction. As a result, biologicaldiversity and the long-term viabilityof small holdings have declined(Aalen et al., 1997).

Existing conservation policies areheavily concerned with the protectionof individual features, not with thelandscape as a unified whole. This hasbeen attributed to the emphasis ofEU directives and has been termednegative protection as opposed toprotective management (Aalen andBohnsack, 1997). The exceptions areto be found in the marineenvironment with regard to reefs,large shallow bays and inlets (E.Sides, pers. comm.).

The 1990s have seen landscapeconservation move to the mainstreamof the conservation movement(Heritage Council, 1999b) with theformulation of a draft EuropeanConvention on Landscape whichrequires a consistent strategicapproach to landscape protection,management and planning.

Ecological corridors (which can varyfrom a five metre-wide roadside stripto a kilometre-wide landscape) havebeen recommended as a solution to

the fragmentation of Europeanhabitats and their potential forhabitat conservation in Ireland hasbeen reviewed (Good, 1998).Examples of man-made ecologicalcorridors are the canals and railwayswhich were completed in the 19th

century. Another man-madedevelopment which, it has beenargued, can benefit wildlife is the golfcourse. In general golf courses will beexcluded from SACs but retained inNHAs (C. Ó Críodáin, pers.comm.). New course developments,where they involve protected species’habitats, will be required to adhere tocertain criteria with regard to fertiliserand pesticide application.

The Heritage Council commissioneda report to examine the impact ofagriculture schemes and payments on

aspects of Ireland’s heritageparticularly with reference to thenatural heritage. The draft reportwas completed in February 1998,prior to the announcement of thedetailed Agenda 2000 proposals forfurther reform of the CommonAgricultural Policy (CAP), andupdated in May of the same year inthe light of those detailed proposals(Heritage Council, 1999a). Themain recommendations made in thereport were under the followingheadings: measures to harmoniseagricultural schemes and paymentswith the natural environment; sheeppayments; beef payments; arablepayments; rural environmentprotection scheme (REPS); earlyretirement from farming scheme;afforestation and premium scheme; a proposed new farm habitat


P A G E 2 6

management scheme; measures toreduce water pollution fromagriculture; the Burren; Ernecatchment nutrient managementscheme; corncrake conservationscheme; proposed changes underAgenda 2000.

Dúchas has initiated an inter-sectoralresource management project in whichthe various agencies, includingAgriculture, Forestry, Fisheries andTourism among others, are encouragedto demonstrate how they might bestoptimise their activities. Restorationecology and the reinstatement ofhabitats are important components ofthis initiative. Restoration ecologyprojects are underway to developeconomic alternatives to existingupland use and grazing problemsthrough the use of ancient cattle breedsand reinstatement of native woodlands.Extensive cattle grazing in particular theoverwintering of cattle on standingcrop vegetation are part of this initiative(R. Harrington, pers. comm.).

The Rural Environment ProtectionScheme (REPS) has provision forpayments to farmers and landownerswhere areas fall within NHAs, SACsor Commonages (Department ofAgriculture and Food, 1999).

The objectives of REPS are(Department of Agriculture andFood, 1999):• To establish farming practices and

production methods which reflectthe increasing concern forconservation, landscape protectionand wider environmental problems.

• To protect wildlife habitats andendangered species of flora andfauna.

• To produce quality food in anextensive and environmentallyfriendly manner.

The objective of the measure inREPS covering the natural heritage(Measure 4 - Retain WildlifeHabitats) is to retain certain listedhabitats and to curtail commercialfarming practices on these areas inthe interests of wildlife (flora andfauna) and conservation generally.The habitats to be retained are(Department of Agriculture andFood, 1999; Department ofAgriculture, Food and RuralDevelopment, 2000): callows;turloughs and other seasonallyflooded areas; marshes and swamps;peatlands (including raised bog, cut-over bog, blanket bog or moors andfens); sand-dunes, foreshore and sea-shore; machairs; eskers; natural orsemi-natural vegetation; woodlands;scrubland; lakes, ponds, rivers andstreams; field boundaries/margins,hedgerows and stonewalls (subject toconditions set out in Measure 5); oldbuildings inhabited by protectedspecies such as barn owls and bats;disused quarries and such workingswhich have become habitats.

Under the scheme the followingpractices cannot be carried out insuch areas:

• afforestation• land improvement works

including drainage

• ploughing and re-seeding• interference with the free-flow of

waters to “swallow holes” in turloughs• removal of sand and gravel from

foreshore and sea-shore• commercial turf cutting on

unexploited bog• burning of growing vegetation on

land between April 1st andAugust 30th.

Despite the loss of peatlands, Irelandremains unique in western Europe inhaving a complete range of bog typeswhich are of international importance(Aalen et al., 1997). Six of Ireland’sleading NGOs (non governmentalorganisations) have called on theGovernment to stop the continuingdamage to some of Ireland’s primeecological sites. They claim that 23such sites are either damaged or faceimmediate development includingsand dune systems, upland bogs andestuaries (IPCC, 1998).

In preparation for the enacting of thelong awaited amendment to theWildlife Act13, Dúchas, the HeritageService of the Department of Arts,Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islandshas selected some 1,100 sites ofecological importance and proposedthese for designation as NaturalHeritage Areas (pNHAs). These sitescover the majority of areas ofimportance to native wildlife faunaand flora species identified to date.Maps indicating the location of allthe pNHAs have been supplied to thelocal authorities who have beenrequested to provide Dúchas with theopportunity to submit reports and/ormake recommendations in respect ofdevelopments likely to have asignificant adverse impact on theecology of these sites.

There is a good case for at least onenatural World Heritage Site14

designation in the Republic ofIreland. Two prospective candidates,and possibly the only ones to haveany chance of attaining the status, arethe Burren in Co. Clare and ValentiaIsland in Co. Kerry. The Giant’sCauseway, in Northern Ireland hasachieved this international accolade.


P A G E 2 7

Ireland’s booming tourism industryposes a threat to the island’s naturalheritage and biodiversity. In 1999 the number of visitors was 6 millionwhich is some 1.6 times the residentpopulation of the Republic. Whatwere regarded as remote places havebecome accessible, to the tourist andtripper, in the past 50 years.

Matters of considerable concern arethe amount of litter15 and rubbish inpublic places and the habit ofdumping household items, such asold fridges and cookers, and evenabandoning cars in the countryside.

Poaching of fish and game has, itwould seem, always been a problemand is likely to be a legacy of ourcolonial past. Because of the wretchedconditions endured by the peasantryin past centuries poaching wasprobably a necessity for survival insome cases.

The impacts of commercial fishingon the Irish marine environment interms of target fish mortalities and

stock status, by-catches of marinemammals and birds and the effectson the benthos and seabed have beenreviewed by Boelens et al. (1999). Anumber of projects are focusing oninteractions between seals andfisheries in Irish coastal waters whichare attempting to quantify theamount and composition of fishtaken by seals.

The impact of the fishing industry on cetacean populations, bothdirectly through entanglement andfrom competition for resources, isone of the most sensitive issuesaffecting the management of acetacean sanctuary. Studies on by-catch are carried out with the full co-operation of the fishing industry.Observers working on bottom-set gillnets in the Celtic Sea (target speciesfor this fishery is hake) observed atotal of 43 harbour porpoises andfour common dolphins caught over aperiod of 328 days at sea; the numbercaught per trip ranged from 0 to 8with an average of 0.6. There isconcern within Europe that bottle-

nosed dolphin numbers have declinedconsiderably in the last few years andstudies have suggested that calves arebeing born infertile in the Irish Seadue to contamination withorganochlorines (Berrow, 1990;Rogan and Berrow, 1995).

A study of coastal sites, carried out onbehalf of the Heritage Council (Neff,in press), showed that not only weremany non-designated areas virtuallybeyond recovery but also that manyof the proposed designated areasshowed significant effects of impact.Table 6 shows the percentage of sitessubject to the 15 most commondamaging activities in coastal NHAs,SACs and SPAs as a whole.The study found that agriculturalpractices account for the mostsignificant impacts with grazingeffects the most significant on allthree site categories. Almost one-halfof all NHAs are subject to grazing ona level that is deemed detrimental tothe habitat, while almost three-quarters of coastal SACs are at risk.Other significant agricultural impactsare land ‘improvement’, and the useof agri-chemicals, either directly onthe site or on adjacent lands (drift).Next to agriculture comes illegaldumping which covers a wide rangeincluding domestic rubbish, domesticappliances, cars, farm machinery,farm refuse – old hay and silage bags.Littering is also a serious problem.Three of the top 15 impacts arerecreation or leisure related, e.g.caravanning/camping is listed as adamaging operation in 28 NHAs, 22SACs and three SPAs; the overallpercentages as a damaging operationare 16.5, 34 and 6.6 respectively foreach site category. However, if theyare taken as a percentage of the sitesin which they actually occur as a landuse, i.e. 31, 22 and 7 sitesrespectively, then their level of impactescalates to 90.3 per cent for NHAs,100 per cent in SACs and 42.8 percent in SPAs. Water pollutingactivities may be due to a number ofsources which could includeagriculture, fishing, industry, sewage– domestic or visitor related. Thecollection of shellfish, which isincluded under aquaculture for some


P A G E 2 8

sites, is a particularly harmful impactin those areas which are feedinggrounds for wading birds. Golf isrelatively low in the list of mostsignificant impacts in national termsbut taken prima facie is rathermisleading. As a damaging operationit is restricted to relatively few coastalsites on a national scale, i.e. as a landuse in 33 NHAs, 21 SACs and 10SPAs. Within these sites it is regardedas a damaging operation in 22NHAs, 19 SACs and eight SPAs(66%, 90% and 80% respectively).The threat level is also high; this isparticularly alarming because, unlike

many of the other impacts on coastalsites which might be quite localised,golf courses cover large areas andoften a whole coastal system isaffected (Neff, in press).

There can be no doubt that coastalhabitats in the (proposed) designatedconservation areas are subject notonly to current damaging practicesbut are also under threat from bothcontinuing – ongoing – impacts andnew ones.

There have been biodiversity successstories in the last decade such as,inter alia, the preservation ofpeatlands and the stabilisation ofcorncrake numbers. Yet in both ofthese examples of initiatives to save ahabitat and species respectively some,or all, of the monies had to comefrom outside of the Republic ofIreland.

Ongoing Dúchas projects andprogrammes include genetic researchto establish long-term conservationstrategies, restoration ecology,aquaculture in SPAs, deer,invertebrates, seabirds and a numberof individual species (Department ofArts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and theIslands, 1999). One of theGovernment’s millennium projectshas included the planting of a millionoak trees throughout the country.

This short overview of Ireland’snatural heritage and biodiversity has,so far, not included one importantcomponent in the latter’s definition,genetic diversity, which is thebiological variation, or capacity forvariation, within each species. Little isknown about genetic variation in thewild in Ireland. Thus, as is the caseelsewhere, genetic diversity below thespecies level has received littleattention (See Box 21). Theexceptions, of course, are in the plantand animal husbandry situations.Here species and varieties have beenchanged over the years to stimulateyield. This should not be confusedwith DNA manipulation.16 Thequestion of the effect of transgenicAtlantic salmon on ‘Irish wild stocks’has been reviewed by Cross andGalvin (1997). There is muchconcern among the public regardingGenetically Modified Organisms(GMOs). The side-effects of this latesttechnological revolution are largely, asyet, unknown and could have far-reaching consequences for wild floraand fauna.

Box 21 Genetic Resources

In March 1994 an Irish GeneticResources Conservation Trust(ICRCT) was established topromote the conservation of rareand threatened plant and animalspecies, breeds and varieties. Itseeks to achieve these aims bypromoting specific practicalconservation projects.

One project, which receivedfunding from the then NationalHeritage Council, was to establisha seedbank of ecotypes of rareand threatened native wild plantspecies.

Other projects underway includethe promotion of theestablishment of a referencecollection of Irish apple varietiesin conjunction with the Irish SeedSavers Association as well as aconservation strategy for a nativebreed of sheep, Galway sheep,which are currently in danger ofextinction.

(Source: Spillane, 1995)

Activity Impact (per cent)*NHA SAC SPA

Grazing 46.0 73.0 35.5Dumping 40.2 56.2 35.5Water polluting activities 28.9 37.5 42.0Littering 26.6 35.9 63.0Agricultural improvement 26.0 39.0 26.6Natural spread of unwanted species 25.4 32.8 42.2Building/Civil engineering 21.8 37.5 26.6Drainage 18.9 31.0 24.4Infill/Reclamation 18.3 21.8 44.4Fertiliser application/drift 17.0 29.0 11.1Camping/caravanning 16.5 34.0 6.6Other Recreation 16.5 29.0 15.5Removal of beach material 15.9 23.4 15.5Aquaculture 13.6 14.0 20.0Golf 13.0 29.0 17.7No observable impacts 5.9 1.5 0.0*Percentage of proposed designated coastal sites subject to impacts

Table 6 Damaging Activities in Coastal Protected Areas (Neff, in press)


P A G E 2 9

CONCLUSIONS

It has not, save in general terms, beenpossible to assess Ireland’s biodiversity.This is largely because, even as wearrive in the third millennium of theChristian era, we do not knowprecisely what it entails. In theRepublic of Ireland, unlike inNorthern Ireland where the Centrefor Environmental Data andRecording (CEDaR), located at theDepartment of Botany of the UlsterMuseum, acts as a biologicalrecording centre for all data(including terrestrial, marine andfreshwater material), there is noBiological Records Centre. Up untilits abolition in 1987, An ForasForbartha acted as such a centre.Dúchas, however, does act as arepository for records of certainspecies and the Natural HistoryMuseum (National Museum ofIreland) holds voucher specimens aswell as older recordings. The NationalBotanic Gardens, which comes withinthe ambit of Dúchas, maintains aliving collection of some 20,000 plantspecies and cultivars representing ahuge genetic reservoir. There is astrong case for a centrally co-ordinated approach to the collectionand collation of species records inIreland. This is particularly so forlower plant groups such as fungi andalgae (Neff, 1996). A properlyresourced central records database forall plant and animal taxonomicgroups is essential if species diversity isto be properly monitored.

The Department of Arts, Heritage,Gaeltacht and the Islands prepared aNational Report on theImplementation of the Conventionon Biological Diversity in 1998(Department of Arts, Heritage,Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). Adraft National Biodiversity Plan hasbeen prepared which reviews the stateof biological diversity in Ireland(habitat, species and genetic diversity)and outlines measures that arecurrently in place for theconservation and sustainable use ofbiological diversity. A report onIreland’s biodiversity, commissionedby the Department, concluded that

Box 22 Threats to Biodiversity - Summary

The natural heritage has probably been rescued from substantial decline byIreland’s commitments as a member of the European Union (EU). Natureconservation in Ireland has in the past received a low profile for a variety ofreasons including the fact that the landscape was largely unspoilt up to some25 years ago. Since that time, however, substantial loss and degradation hasoccurred due mainly, somewhat ironically, to the largescale intensification ofagriculture under the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Nowhere is thismore readily illustrated than in the case of the State's freshwater ecosystemwhere a loss in unpolluted status of some 20 per cent in the river system hasbeen recorded in that time with a concomitant degradation of lake quality(Lucey et al., 1999).

The major threats to biodiversity in Ireland are from modern agriculturalpractices, mechanised peat exploitation and eutrophication of rivers and lakes.Paradoxically the initial enrichment of Irish rivers can lead to an increase inspecies richness and a biotic index rather than a diversity index is employed inthe national river water quality monitoring programme. Landscapes have beenseriously affected by developments such as urban sprawl, inappropriate ruralhousing development, road construction and the growth of industry.

Land clearance and reclamation for agricultural purposes are becomingincreasingly widespread. Overgrazing, caused by the gross overstocking ofsheep, has been identified as one of the most important threats to habitats andhence biodiversity in Ireland. The effects of overgrazing have been mostmarked along the western seaboard. The problem arose as a direct result of EU-funded livestock headage payments, paid on the basis of numbers carried, andserves to illustrates how well-meaning initiatives aimed at improving livingstandards in rural areas can have a devastating effect on such areas if notthought through properly.

Policy in the commercial forestry field while improved of late is far fromsatisfactory with the share of broadleaf species in new plantations at just 20 percent up until recently (present target is 30 per cent). Although coniferous treesare generally antagonistic to biological diversity, such stands are essential forsurvival of some species. Apart from obvious problems caused by afforestationin the pre-planting and growing stages, the clear felling of the mature treesalso causes, as well as being aesthetically displeasing, problems for wildlife;fertiliser and pesticide application can also cause further damage to biota,particularly aquatic species. Scarification after felling and prior to new plantingis damaging to flora and fauna but probably no more so than ploughing afield.

The Irish authorities have always operated an import policy that excludes allnon-native species and which has been relatively successful. This has, however,been undermined with the opening of the single market within the EU region,e.g. the free movement in trade of shellfish has already resulted in theintroduction of exotic pest species as well as diseases (e.g. Holmes and Minchin,1995). Thus, while this has led to an increase in biological diversity it does so atthe expense of native species.

Lack of resources, particularly inadequate staff numbers, has traditionally been amajor problem in most Irish public institutions and nature conservation has in thepast been under funded. There is little point in producing any national plan orstrategy unless it is going to be implemented. An adequate budget to enableremedial work to take place is essential to practical nature conservation policy.Compensation payments do appear to work as the example of the corncrake(Crex crex) would attest. This species has been brought back from the brink ofextinction by payments to farmers to delay the mowing of meadows, as well asother measures, until after nesting. The cost of the measures in grant paymentwas £100,000 in one year. It is sad but true that in some cases the saving ofspecies has to be achieved through monetary inducement and is completelyjustified in some cases. Farmers are being paid not to produce commodities whichare already in oversupply. By extension it is justifiable to compensate those whoselivelihoods are affected by conservation of a species or its habitat. The budgetalone for land acquisition to meet the requirements of the EU Habitats Directivewill be substantial. To supplement the State's funding the recommendation that alevy on the tourism and agri-food industries, the key sectors which exploitIreland's 'green image', should be investigated (Hickie, 1996).


P A G E 3 0

the following general threats affect allmembers of the fauna either directlyor indirectly: habitat loss, pollution,introduced species, disturbance andnoise (Purcell, 1996).

In the Irish countryside, landscapeshave been seriously affected bydevelopments such as urban sprawl,inappropriate rural housingdevelopment, road construction andthe growth of industry. The‘Environmental Impact Assessment’Directive (CEC, 1997b) imposes alegal requirement for developersengaged in major projects, such as theconstruction of motorways, tocommission and publish statementsconcerning the environmental impactsof the proposed work. The statementmust, inter alia, evaluate the potentialeffects on biodiversity, as well as widerimpacts on landscapes, water qualityand other physico-chemicalcomponents of the environment.

In a global context the mostimportant initiative in the realm ofnature conservation is the UnitedNations Convention on BiologicalDiversity of 1992 (Anderson et al.,1997) which was ratified by Irelandin 1996 (See Table 1). The HabitatsDirective has been the single mostimportant development in the EUregion of recent times. The nationalregulations implementing it inIreland are also of much significance.

The linkage between species and theirhabitats is vital: changing a habitatwill usually affect the diversity ofspecies contained within it, whileconversely a change in speciesnumber and composition may wellaffect the nature of the habitat.Biological diversity is one of themajor challenges that human beingshave to deal with in the newmillennium (Catizzone et al., 1998).Among the main problems faced byresearchers is how to measurebiological diversity. There is an urgentneed to define a commonmethodology to valuate and evaluatethe various forms of biodiversity.

The Heritage Council has beenendeavouring to develop a standardapproach to habitat classification in

Box 23 Climate Change and Biodiversity

Global warming, or the greenhouse effect, is considered to be the result ofhuman activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and the intensificationof agriculture, increasing the concentrations of the naturally occurringgreenhouse gases.

In an assessment of impacts and adaptations to climate change, carried outfor the European Union, it has been projected that winters currentlyclassified as cold (occurring 1 year in 10 during 1960-1990) will becomemuch rarer by the 2020s and disappear almost entirely by the 2080s. The lastdecade (1990-99) has been the warmest in the instrumental record, bothannually and for the winter and summer seasons. Most of Europe hasexperienced increases in surface air temperature during the 20th century,which averaged across the continent, amounts to about 0.80°C in annualtemperature. Similarly the 20th century has seen a warming of surfacewaters of several tenths of a degree Celsius around much of Europe.Increases in growing season length have also been observed in the colderparts of Europe with the evidence pointing to increases of about 10 days inthe average growing season length since the early 1960s.

Climate change is likely to result in faunal shifts affecting freshwater andmarine fish and shellfish biodiversity. Increasing temperature and carbondioxide (CO2) is expected to result in changing natural ecosystems,increasing the encroachment of trees and shrubs in northern tundra, andbroad-leaved trees in parts of northern European coniferous forests. Netproductivity in ecosystems will likely increase (also due to nitrogendeposition and increased CO2), but carbon storage may not. Diversity ofvegetation in some nature reserves is under threat from rapid change. Lossof some critical habitats (e.g. wetlands and tundra) would threaten somespecies (e.g. migratory birds). There is uncertainty concerning the likelyimpacts on Ireland of the enhanced greenhouse effect but the drying out ofpeatlands has been included among the possible scenarios.

The EPA has commissioned a large-scale research project titled ‘GreenhouseGas Emissions and Climate Change’ which includes sub-projects on the‘Assessment of the impacts of climate change in Ireland’ and the‘Establishment of indicators of climate change in Ireland’.

(Sources: McGettigan, 2000; Parry, 2000)


P A G E 3 1

Ireland. The absence of a standardapproach to habitat classification hasbeen identified as a key area forconcern in relation to co-ordination ofdata collection on wildlife and thenatural environment. Thus, theCouncil has set out to provide standardguidelines for recording, classifying anddescribing wildlife habitats in an Irishcontext (Fossitt, 2000).

Possibly one of the greatest challengesis to devise indicators of sustainabilityfor our vestiges of natural habitats.The problem is that the changes areoften very slow and the early stagescan be difficult to detect by whichtime it may be too late to takeremedial action. It is only when wehave a fuller understanding of thedesired status quo and the impacts ofpressure can we begin to look forindicators of sustainability (Rochford,1995). One area where biologicalindicators have been successful inchronicling the degradation of ournatural endowment is that of theIrish freshwater environment. This isparticularly so in the case of the riversand streams where a biotic indexdevised by Toner in 1970 (Flanaganand Toner, 1972) has been employedsince its inception, with only slightmodifications, in all national surveysof river quality. The use of thatscheme of river quality classificationhas shown, since then, a decline ofmore than 30 per cent in unpollutedriver channel of a baseline length inthe State (Lucey et al., 1999).

Two conferences on biodiversity inIreland have been held in the pastthree years. Opening ‘Biodiversity: theIrish Dimension’ in March 1998, theMinister for the Environment andLocal Government Mr Noel DempseyT.D., concluded his address bysaying: ‘Much remains to be done. Iam conscious that the EPA’s first Stateof the Environment Report judgedour record in protecting our naturalheritage over the past decade assatisfactory but with room forimprovement. We need to deliver thatimprovement’ (Rushton, 2000). Atthe conference and workshop‘Biodiversity – a Natural NationalResource’, organised by the

Environmental Sciences Associationof Ireland (ESAI), held in Dublin inNovember 2000, delegates identifiedthe need for a National BiodiversityForum as one of the key issues to beaddressed in relation to biodiversity inIreland (Ledwidge, 2000/2001).

The question as to how well Ireland’snatural environment is being managedhas to be broached. The protection ofthe natural heritage and biodiversity inIreland has been slow to progress andat times has seemed to be advancedunder duress, particularly under painof sanction from the EuropeanCommission.While it is easy tocriticise the authorities it is well toremember that what has been achievedin Ireland in the past has been donewith much less resources, pro rata,than in most other member states.Although it should have beenanticipated, an additional factorleading to delays, in for example thenotification of SACs to the EuropeanCommission, is the due process ofappeals. Thus any criticism levelledshould be tempered with this in mind.Perhaps the best barometer by whichto judge something is by the amountof monies expended. That a ‘seachange’ in attitude to natureconservation has occurred in Irelandwithin the past decade is obvious fromthe simple observation that directspending, by Dúchas, on natureconservation was under Ir£7m in1993 but by 1998 was estimated atalmost Ir£25m (Department of Arts,Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands,1999). While a large proportion of thebudget is currently used tocompensate landowners the increase inspending does reflect the seriousnesswith which the natural heritage andbiodiversity are now regarded.

Equally to be welcomed is the moretransparent approach of late beingtaken by the official guardians of thecountryside. There was a perception,and some would put it stronger, thatthe authorities had a very secretiveapproach to nature protection andwere reluctant to give information tothe general public. That attitude, itwould appear, has now changed and amore open approach, in which the

public is being better informed,seems to have come into place. Itcould therefore be tentativelyconcluded that the natural heritage is,at the beginning of this newmillennium, being better resourcedand thence, ipso facto, better servedthan hitherto. The non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs) have playedtheir part in bringing biodiversityissues to the fore in Ireland. Throughthe ‘war-of-position’ waged they haveraised societal learning to a stagewhere governments are listening topublic opinion. The EuropeanCommission takes heed of NGOsand involves them in discussionswhen formulating policy and lawwithin the European Union. There isno reason why this should not also bethe case at national level. Theproposed National BiodiversityForum could be one way ofincorporationg NGOs more fullyinto the decision-making process.

POSTSCRIPT

“We see in many cases in the

more recent tertiary formations,

that rarity precedes extinction;

and we know that this has been

the progress of events with

those animals which have been

exterminated, either locally or

wholly, through man’s

agency…..…to admit that

species generally become rare

before they become extinct – to

feel no surprise at the rarity of a

species, and yet to marvel

greatly when the species ceases

to exist, is much the same as to

admit that sickness in the

individual is the forerunner of

death – to feel no surprise at

sickness, but, when the sick man

dies, to wonder and to suspect

that he died by some deed of

violence.”

CHARLES DARWIN: The Origin of

Species (1859).


P A G E 3 2

NOTES

1 World Heritage Sites, which can benatural or cultural, are designated under aUNESCO (United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation)convention known as the ‘World HeritageConvention’ which was ratified by Irelandin 1992.

2 Scientific opinion is divided as to whetherthe entire flora and fauna was obliterated inthe last glaciations some 10-12,000 yearsago or if some elements represent relictpopulations which survived in unglaciatedareas or other refugia.

3 As defined by the ‘Convention onBiological Diversity (1992)’. TheConvention’s objectives are the conservationof biological diversity, the sustainable use ofits components and the fair and equitablesharing of the benefits arising out of theutilization of genetic resources.4 EU nature conservation policy is based onthree main pieces of legislation: the BirdsDirective, the Habitats Directive and theCITES Regulation.

5 Dúchas has transmitted 363 candidateSpecial Areas of Conservation (SACs) to theEuropean Commission as required underthe Habitats Directive.

6 For information on NATURA 2000 andthe barometer showing member states’progress, see the European Commissionweb site:http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/nature/barometer/barometernb.htm.

7 Coillte Teoranta is the State-ownedforestry company which was established in1989 when it was given ownership andstewardship of the public forests with a clearcommercial mandate by government.

8 The Heritage Council is an independentbody, established under the Heritage Act1995, which has a statutory responsibilityto propose policies and priorities for theidentification, protection, preservation andenhancement of the national heritageincluding flora, fauna, wildlife habitats andlandscapes.

9 The known bryophytes occurring inBritain and Ireland have been listed by Hillet al. (1992) and their distributiondocumented in Blockeel and Long (1998).

10 Although first recorded in Ireland in 1801there is some doubt, among some Irishbotanists, regarding its status as a nativespecies. However, a recent review of Britishand Irish populations of this endemicEuropean species, which is now rare andthreatened across most of its extant range,does not substantiate that view. Some of theolder records were regarded as probableerrors but it now seems likely that L. natans, although scarce, may be fairlywidely distributed in western Ireland, atleast from Killarney (where it was last seenin 1886) through Clare to Galway (Kay etal., 1999).

11 The insect component alone is thought tocomprise some 16,000 species (Ashe et al.,1998).

12 BirdWatch Ireland (BWI) in the Republicof Ireland and the Royal Society for the

Protection of Birds (RSPB) in NorthernIreland.

13 The Wildlife (Amendment) Act wassigned into law on 18 December 2000.

14 Newgrange in Co. Meath and SkelligMichael in Co. Kerry were designated ascultural sites, in the UNESCO WorldHeritage List, respectively in 1993 and1996.

15 As well as being aesthetically displeasinglitter can affect both wild and domesticanimals. Plastic bags block the windpipes ofsmall animals and stick in the gut of largerones while a yoghurt pot can kill anythingfrom a hedgehog to a sheep.

16 Genetic engineering may be defined asthe modification of a species by humanintervention by the insertion of geneticmaterial from another species. Geneticengineering has been used to produce ‘new’genetically modified species, such astomatoes and potatoes. Its use, however, ishighly contentious. Critics allege thatgenetic engineering interferes with the‘natural order’ and that geneticallyengineered food may be unsafe for humanconsumption. To date, ten field trials havebeen carried out in Ireland with geneticallymodified herbicide tolerant sugar-beetwhich were regulated by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) under theGenetically Modified OrganismsRegulations, 1994.


P A G E 3 3

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APPENDIX 1

Habitats and fauna/flora species occurringin Ireland which are listed in the CouncilDirective 92/431/EEC of 21 May 1992 onthe Conservation of Natural Habitats andof Wild Fauna and Flora (CEC, 1992),Annex I and Annex II, and which requirethe designation of Special Areas ofConservation (SACs).

Habitats - Priority LagoonsFixed "grey" dunesDecalcified fixed dunes with Empetrum nigrumEU - Atlantic decalcified fixed dunesMachairsTurloughsSemi-natural dry calcareous grasslands richin orchidsSpecies-rich siliceous Nardusgrasslands in mountain areasActive raised bogsActive blanket bogsCladium fensPetrifying springs with tufa formationLimestone pavementsBog WoodlandYew WoodlandResidual alluvial forests

Habitats - Non-Priority Submerged sandbanksEstuariesTidal mudflats and sandflatsReefsLarge shallow inlets and baysAnnual vegetation of coastal shingle drift linesPerennial vegetation of stony coastal banksVegetated sea cliffsSalicornia swardsSpartina swardsAtlantic salt meadowsMediterranean salt meadowsEmbryonic shifting dunesMarram white dunesDunes with creeping willowDunes with sea-buckthornHumid dune slacksLowland oligotrophic lakesUpland oligotrophic lakesHard oligo-mesotrophic lakes rich in stonewortsNaturally eutrophic lakesDystrophic (peat-stained) lakesLowland rivers rich in water crowfootPioneer river vegetation rich in annualsWet heathsDry heathsAlpine and sub-alpine heathsJuniper scrubGrasslands on soils with a high heavy metal contentSemi-natural dry calcareousgrasslands other than those rich in orchidsMolinia meadowsEutrophic tall herbsLowland hay meadows

Degraded raised bogs still capable ofnatural regenerationNon-active blanket bogsTransition mires and quaking bogsDepressions on peat substratesAlkaline fensSiliceous screeCalcareous screeVegetation of dry calcareous rocky slopesVegetation of dry siliceous rocky slopesPioneer vegetation of rock surfacesCaves not open to the publicSubmerged or partly submerged sea cavesOld oak woods in the British Isles

Fauna and Flora - MammalsRhinolophus hipposideros (Lesser horseshoe bat)Halichoerus grypus (Grey seal)Phoco vitulina (Common seal)Tursiops truncatus (Bottle-nosed dolphins) Phocoena phocoena (Porpoise)*Lutra lutra (Otter)

Fauna and Flora - FishLampetra fluviatilis (River lamprey)Lampetra planeri (Brook lamprey)Petromyzon marinus (Sea lamprey)Salmo salar (Salmon) - only in freshwaterAlosa spp. (Shad, including Killarney Shad)Acipenser sturio (Sturgeon)

Fauna and Flora - CrustaceansAustropotamobius pallipes (White-clawed crayfish)

Fauna and Flora - InsectsEuphydryas aurinia (Marsh fritillary)

Fauna and Flora - Molluscs*Geamalacus maculosus (Kerry slug)Vertigo angustior (Narrow-mouthed whorl snail)Vertigo geyeri (Unnamed whorl snail)Vertigo moulinsiano (Des Moulins’ whorl snail)Margaritifera margaritifera (Freshwater pearl mussel)

Fauna and Flora - Vascular PlantsNajas flexilis (Slender naiad)Saxifraga hirculus (Marsh saxifrage)Trichomanes speciosum (Killarney fern)

Fauna and Flora - BryophytesDrepanocladus vernicosus (Shining sicklemoss)Petalophyllum ralfsii (Petalwort)

*The otter and the Kerry slug are also listed,in Annex IV of the Directive, as species inneed of strict protection as is the natterjacktoad (Bufo calamita); the pine marten(Martes martes) and the Irish hare (Lepustimidus), as well as some of the above faunaare listed, in Annex V, as species whosetaking in the wild and exploitation may besubject to management measures.


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