Environmental Conservation and Forestry

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND

FORESTRY

GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR

Formulation and Operationalization of National Action

Plan for Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development through

Agriculture (NAPA)

Working Paper - 5

Yangon, June 2016

5.

Ministry of Agriculture,

Livestock and Irrigation

7.

MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA)

Working Paper 5: Environmental conservation and forestry

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... iii 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1 2. BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................. 2

2.1. The land and forests ......................................................................................................................... 3 2.2. Forest cover and forest degradation ................................................................................................. 5 2.3. Forest management .......................................................................................................................... 8 2.4. Shifting cultivation ........................................................................................................................ 10 2.5. Contribution of forests to the GDP ................................................................................................ 10

3. SPECIFIC AREAS/ASPECTS OF THE THEMATIC AREA UNDER REVIEW ........................ 10 3.1. Rural development perspective ...................................................................................................... 11 3.2. Forestry sector policies, legislations and community forestry instructions ................................... 11 3.3. Linkages and gaps on forest policy, forest law and community forestry instruction ..................... 12 3.4. Forest policy and people’s participation ........................................................................................ 12 3.5. State of the forests ......................................................................................................................... 12 3.6. Deforestation ................................................................................................................................. 13 3.7. Community forestry ....................................................................................................................... 15 3.8. Agroforestry .................................................................................................................................. 15 3.9. Research and development ............................................................................................................ 16 3.10. Traditional knowledge and practices ........................................................................................... 16 3.11. Environmental conservation and climate change ........................................................................ 16

4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................ 18 4.1. Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry ................................................................. 18 4.2. Summary of laws and policy governing forests ............................................................................. 19 4.3. Forest management ........................................................................................................................ 19 4.4. Forest research, education and training ......................................................................................... 20 4.5. Community forestry ....................................................................................................................... 21 4.6. Shifting cultivation ........................................................................................................................ 22 4.7. National energy policy and forestry sector .................................................................................... 22 4.8. International cooperation ............................................................................................................... 22

5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT 23

5.1. Lessons learned............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2. Imperatives of the forestry sector ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.3. Constraints of forestry sector .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.4. Research, training and capacity building ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.5. Human and other resources ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.6. Security of tenure of shifting cultivators ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS ............................................................................. 28 6.1. Poverty and food security .............................................................................................................. 28 6.2. Landholdings, access and insecure tenure ..................................................................................... 29 6.3. Forests are the last refuge of the poorest ....................................................................................... 29 6.4. Rural development and poverty reduction plan and activities ....................................................... 29 6.5. Gender equality.............................................................................................................................. 30 6.6. Inclusiveness .................................................................................................................................. 30

7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT ................................... 31 7.1. Restoration of degraded forest ....................................................................................................... 31 7.2. Promotion of community forestry.................................................................................................. 31 7.3. Promotion of agroforestry.............................................................................................................. 31 7.4. Management of shifting cultivation areas ...................................................................................... 31 7.5. Afforestation in CDZ areas ............................................................................................................ 31 7.6. Establishment of bamboo-based enterprises .................................................................................. 31 7.7. Salvage logging ............................................................................................................................. 32



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7.8. Suggested techniques and species.................................................................................................. 32 7.9. Suggested agroforestry model ....................................................................................................... 32 7.10. Promotion of community forestry................................................................................................ 33 7.11. Capacity building ......................................................................................................................... 34 7.12. Harmonizing the policies of different sectors .............................................................................. 35 7.13. Important species that can be promoted/used: ............................................................................. 35 7.14. Institutions and research .............................................................................................................. 35

8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS ............................................................................... 36 8.1. Support to agriculture .................................................................................................................... 36 8.2. Fodder for the livestock sector ...................................................................................................... 36 8.3. Habitat for fisheries ....................................................................................................................... 36 8.4. Foundation for soil and water conservation ................................................................................... 36 8.5. Bedrock of rural health .................................................................................................................. 37 8.6. Role in environmental conservation and climate change mitigation ............................................. 37

ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 38 Annex 2: INTERVENTION DESCRIPTIONS AND INVESTMENT PROFILES ........................... 40

Intervention 1: Sustainable management of shifting cultivation areas ................................................. 41 Intervention 2: Development of agroforestry on private lands ............................................................. 43 Intervention 3: Development of community forestry ........................................................................... 49 Intervention 4: Establishment of bamboo-based enterprises and marketing set up .............................. 53 Intervention 5: Afforestation in the CDZ ............................................................................................. 55 Intervention 6: Salvage logging, tending and restoration of degraded moist deciduous forests ........... 59 Intervention 7: Restoration of degraded forest ..................................................................................... 61



iii

ACRONYMS

AFoCo ASEAN-Korea Forest Cooperation

CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere

CF Community Forestry

CFI Community Forestry Instruction

CFUG Community Forestry User Group

DFO District Forest Officer

DZGCP Dry Zone Greening Comprehensive Plan

DZGD Dry Zone Greening Department

ECCID Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FD Forest Department

FRA Forest Resource Assessment

FRI Forest Research Institute

GEF Global Environment Facility

GHG Greenhouse Gas

ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization

IUCN World Conservation Union

JFM Joint Forest Management

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

JIFPRO Japanese International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation

KOICA Korea International Cooperation Agency

LIFT Livelihood and Food Security Trust Fund

MFF Mangroves for the Future

MOAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

MOECAF Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

MSS Myanmar Selection System

NAPA National Action Plan for Agriculture

NCEA National Commission for Environmental Affairs

NFMP National Forestry Master Plan

NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

NWFP Non-wood Forest Product

PA Protected Area

PFE Permanent Forest Estate

PPF Protected Public Forest

REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

RDD Rural Development Department

RECOFTC The Center for People and Forests

RF Reserve Forest

Sida Swedish International Development Cooperation

SLRD Survey and Land Records Department



iv

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

WFP World Food Programme



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1. INTRODUCTION

The focus of NAPA is poverty reduction and rural development. This report covers the

environmental conservation and forestry perspective. Forests play a prominent role in the

livelihoods of rural people in Myanmar and contribute from 10 to 70 percent of their income.

This role of forests, as it is not monetized, is not recognized in the computation of national

GDP. The ecological role of the forest in protection of soil, regulating water flow and

amelioration of the environment, among other things, is enormous and it needs to be

recognized and appreciated. It is on the bedrock of forests, products and services that

agriculture, livestock, fisheries, horticulture and rural livelihoods stand supported.

The mission in Myanmar was undertaken from 5 October to 5 November, 2014, with able

assistance and help from Ms Zin Myo Thu, the National Consultant on Environmental

Conservation and Forestry. We undertook field visits spread over 15 days in Yedashe,

Taungoo, Nyaung Oo, Nyaung She, Kalaw and Bogalay townships and visited moist

deciduous forests, the Dry Zone, Inle Lake conservation area, the Shan Plateau and mangrove

forests.

During our field visits we interacted with forest officers and staff, rural development officers

and village communities on the community forestry perspective, rural development, poverty-

related issues and the role of the Forest Department in addressing their livelihoods.

I gratefully acknowledge the help, guidance and support provided by FAO Myanmar; the

CTA NAPA and their teams; the Forest Department; and Rural Development Department. I

would particularly like to place on record my grateful thanks to Ms Lan Bui Thi, FAO

Myanmar; Dr Dilip Kumar, CTA NAPA; Dr Aung Swe, FAO Myanmar; Dr Le Le Win,

National Project Consultant, NAPA; Ms Zin Myo Thu, National Consultant; and the

international and national consultants for agriculture, soils, livestock, fisheries and the coastal

zone for sharing their knowledge and helping me.

The views expressed in this report and suggestions made belong entirely to the author and

should not be construed to belong to any organization.



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2. BACKGROUND

The role of forests in the economy of Myanmar needs to be looked at from two main angles:

the goods that become available in the forests and the services that they provide. Some of

these are tangible benefits such as, inter alia, collection of wood, medicinal plants, minerals

and varieties of food while others are intangible, such as support to soil systems, quality and

quantity of water, influence on rainfall and its distribution, moderating effect on temperature,

pollination services and so forth. The tangible benefits are sometime monetized when they

enter the market economy, but if they are availed at household levels or in the rural markets,

they are not monetized. What needs to be appreciated is the enormous welfare role that

forests have for rural people as well as their contribution to their income.

Myanmar is a well-endowed country. Nature has been very generous regarding climate,

rainfall, soil, river systems and so forth. Nearly half of the country is covered with forests.

The country covers an area of 6 77 577 square kilometers; the northern, eastern and western

parts are mainly highlands (elevation more than 1 000 feet above sea level), the central part is

flat and the southern part is coastal. One-third of the country border forms an uninterrupted

coastline. The provisional results of a 2014 population census showed that Myanmar has a

population of 51.42 million people. Most of the population lives in rural areas, and people

depend on forests for food, fodder, fuel and shelter.

The contribution of the forestry sector to the poverty reduction and rural development

planning process is not adequately recognized. About 70 percent of the population lives in the

rural areas and 10 to 70 percent of the livelihoods of the population that lives in the forest or

its vicinity, is met from the forest. Depending on the economic status of the households, the

forest provides:

Food;

Fodder for their livestock;

Medicines for household use and livestock;

Material for construction of dwelling units and for livestock sheds;

Products for use or sale in the market;

Material for supporting agriculture, such as fencing material or for agricultural

implements;

Fuelwood and timber for own use and sometimes for sale to generate income;

Bamboo and rattan for own use or sale or for manufacturing items for sale in the

market; and

Fruits and flowers, honey and wax etc.

In this way the forestry sector of Myanmar significantly contributes to the national economy

by supporting the livelihoods of a large section of the rural population and by stabilizing the

environment and water resources, which ensures viable agriculture on which the economy of

the country is based. Assuming that 70 percent of the population lives in rural areas and on

average 40 percent of their livelihoods depend on the forests, then taking the current

population of 52 million people in the country and considering US$300 per annum income

for basic needs per capita, the contribution of forests to the livelihoods of the people would

come to US$2 184 million per annum. This may amount to approximately 4 percent of the

current GDP. This is the tangible but non-monetized contribution of forests to the GDP of

Myanmar.

Over the years the forests have become much degraded and degradation of forest cover

continues. About 1 percent of forest land has been degrading every year since 1980.



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Declining forest cover and degraded land contribute to rural food insecurity and present

challenges for long-term community development and poverty alleviation.

2.1. The land and forests

Myanmar can be roughly divided into the western hill, central valley and eastern hill regions.

There are undulating mountain ranges, hills and valleys extending from north to south. The

country has four main ecological zones: the delta, coastal, central dry and mountainous zones.

The delta area is Myanmar’s rice basket and has the highest human population density. The

Central Dry Zone (CDZ) has the second highest population density. The average annual

rainfall in the country ranges between 500 and 5 000 mm. In the CDZ the climate is severe,

temperatures are high, rainfall is low and the soils are deteriorating. It comprises 12 districts

in Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway regions, covering an area of 80 000 square kilometres and

11.8 percent of the country’s area; 28.72 percent of the area is under forests and 57 percent

under agriculture. Due to varied topography and different climatic conditions, Myanmar has

diverse ecosystems, which are habitats for numerous species of flora and fauna. There are six

major forest types with more than 11 800 plant species. There are 97 species of bamboo and

36 species of rattan.

The vegetation consists of tropical lowland evergreen rain forest, primarily in the south;

tropical hill evergreen rain forest and temperate evergreen rain forest above 900 metres in the

east, north and west; semi-evergreen rain forest in a narrow belt bordering an arid central

plain; mixed deciduous forest with Tectona grandis (teak) and dry dipterocarp forest

centrally; and coniferous forest in Shan and Chin states. Pinus khasya occurs between 1 200

and 2 500 metres on dry slopes, oak and rhododendron forests on wetter slopes, dry forest

and scrub formations where rainfall is below 1 000 mm, including ‘Than-Dahat forest’ with

Terminalia oliveri and Tectona hamiltoniana, thorn scrub forest on lateritic soil, with Shorea

siamensis and Shorea obtusa. Additionally, large tracts of bamboo forests are scattered

throughout the country. Distribution of the main forest types of Myanmar is hown in Figure

1.



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Figure 1: Forest types of Myanmar

There are 15 genera, 97 species and four varieties of bamboo recorded in Myanmar. The two

genera that prevail are Bambusa (26 species) and Dendrocalamus (15 species). Economically

the four most important species are Melocanna bambusoides, Bambusa polymorpha,

Cephalostachyum pergracile and Dendrocalamus strictus. Bamboo-brakes are also reported

in Myanmar. Melocanna bambusoides is a monopodial bamboo and grows in Yakhine Yoma

as pure stands. Decline of this species possibly may be due to less harvesting, and good

access to markets. On the other hand, increase in Bambusa polymorpha, Cephalostachyum

pergracile, and Dendrocalamus strictus is probably due to the degradation of forest cover in

Bago Yoma area, which is their habitat.

The composition and distribution of Myanmar’s land resources in 2010 were: forests (46.9

percent), other wooded lands (29.3 percent), other land (20.5 percent) and inland waterbodies

(2.81 percent) (FAO 2010) (Table 1).

Table 1: Land cover status of Myanmar in 2010

Land cover category Area (′000 ha) Percent of total land area

Forest 31 773 46.96

Other wooded land 20 113 29.73

Other land 13 869 20.50

Inland waterbodies 1 903 2.81

Total 67 658 100.00



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Based on the Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) in 2010, about 46.96 percent of the total

land area was covered with forests. Forest area by forest type is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Forest area by forest type in Myanmar

Forest type Area

(′000 ha)

Percent of

total forest area

Mangrove forest 467.33 1.47

Tropical evergreen forest 5 470.60 17.22

Mixed deciduous forest 12 157.30 38.26

Dry forest 3 114.71 9.80

Deciduous Indaing (dipterocarp) forest 1 321.87 4.16

Hill and temperate evergreen forest 8 541.19 26.88

Scrubland 700.00 2.21

Total 31 773.00 100.00

Proportional to the country’s geographical area, scrublands and mangrove forests constitute 1

percent each, dipterocarp forest 2 percent, tropical dry forests 5 percent, tropical evergreen

forests 8 percent, highland temperate evergreen forests 13 percent and mixed deciduous

forests 18 percent. Approximately 25 percent of the land is classified as arable.

The permanent forest estate (PFE) of the country consists of reserved forests (RF), protected

public forests (PPF) and protected areas (PA), which together cover about 20 million ha

(30.55 percent) of the country’s area (Table 3). The government’s policy is to increase RF to

30 percent and PAs to 10 percent of the national land area. There are an additional 18 million

ha of ‘unclassified natural forest’ outside the PFE which will be used to achieve the 40

percent target for PFE. The Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

(MOECAF) manages natural and plantation forests within the PFE.

Table 3: Status of permanent forest estate in Myanmar

Category Number Area (ha) Percent of land

area Reserved forests 812 12 045 472 17.80

Protected public forests 326 4 731 669 7.00

Protected areas 39 3 891 535 5.75

Permanent forest estate 20 668 676 30.55

2.2. Forest cover and forest degradation

Forest cover during 1990, 2000, 2005 and 2010 was 39.2, 34.9, 33.3 and 31.8 million ha.

Between 1990 and 2010 the annual loss of forest was 372 000 ha. The most serious

deforestation occurred in Magway, Kayah, Kachin, Bago, Sagaing, Ayeyarwaddy and

Mandalay. According to the FD, the main threats to forest resources in Myanmar are due to a

combination of factors namely: encroachment of land for agriculture; shifting cultivation or

Taungya; overexploitation of forests, removal of fuelwood, poles and posts, illegal logging,

illegal trade of timber, forest fires, mining, hydropower projects, urbanization, infrastructure

development and lack of awareness among the people about the importance of forests.

According to recent Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)

reports, subsistence and commercial agriculture account for nearly 70 percent of annual

deforestation in Myanmar (Figure 2).



6

75

65.8

57.2 56

52.150.2

45.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1931 1925 1958 1990 2000 2005 2010

% o

f to

tal

lan

d a

rea

Fig 2- Forest Area as Percent of land: from 75% in 1925 to 45.6% in 2010

Figure 2: Forest area as percent of land

The FRA (2010) conducted by FAO in collaboration with Myanmar’s FD estimated forest

cover as 46.96 percent forest and 29.73 percent other wooded land. Closely looking at the

reduction of dense forest cover estimates and the reduction in growing stock of important

timber species between 1990 and 2010 it is revealed that dense forest cover decreased from

45 percent to 20 percent of the country’s land area. Similarly, the contribution of 10 primary

timber species to the total harvested volume declined from 48 to 20 percent. (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Reduction in timber volume of 10 important species



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During the same period domestic consumption of teak logs doubled and other hardwoods

increased five-fold, while export of teak logs was more or less the same but export of other

hardwoods increased six-fold. Both availability and quality of teak logs dropped steeply.

Over 5 million ha of forests were cleared during the 1990s. In 2010 Myanmar’s forests

covered 31 773 000 ha, 22 percent less than 20 years ago. Opening of the border for trade,

around 1990, with neighbouring countries in the north and west led to accelerated logging

and smuggling of timber. The rate of forest loss was 1.2 percent between 1980 and 2000 and

it was around 0.9 percent between 2000 and 2010 (Figure 4). The Asia-Pacific Forestry

Sector Outlook Study II for Myanmar (2009) showed that between 1996 and 2000 the Annual

Allowable Cut (extent of removal prescribed for sustainable harvest) was exceeded by 25

percent; by 40 percent between 2001 and 2003; by 60 percent between 2003 and 2005 and by

nearly 50 percent during 2005 to 2006. Moreover, the FD is short of staff so illegal logging is

a severe problem. There is substantial smuggling/illegal timber trade across the border. In one

case it was reported to be five to six times the figure for recorded removal.

Figure 4: Deforestation trend: 1990-2010

A significant area of Myanmar’s mangrove forests has also been lost. In 1980, Myanmar had

approximately 704 000 ha of mangroves. By 2002, this had been reduced to 284 000 ha (a

loss of 59.7 percent in 22 years) (Figure 5). Loss of mangroves has serious implications for

fish hatcheries, marine farming management and for the physical stability of estuary river

banks. As witnessed during the catastrophic Cyclone Nargis of 2008, mangroves serve as an

effective barrier during cyclonic events.



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Figure 5: Reduction of mangrove forests in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta over 86 years

2.3. Forest management

The forests in Myanmar underpin the development of a range of socio-economic sectors and

local livelihoods. The forestry sector provides forest products and services. In Myanmar,

most of the rural people depend on forest resources for their basic needs. Commercially

important forests of Myanmar have been managed under the Myanmar Selection System

(MSS) for a long time. The MSS has not been able to keep the forests in good condition, due

to variety of factors including excessive logging. In order to cope with the current situation

the National Forestry Master Plan (NFMP) and Dry Zone Greening Comprehensive Plan

(DZGCP) have been formulated to ensure supply of tangible and intangible benefits from the

forests for present and future generations. The Bago Yoma Greening Project was started in

2004 as a special programme to conserve the world famous teak forests and to halt their

alarming rate of degradation. The project has plans to cover an area of 5 million ha. The main

activities are sustainable management, enrichment planting, natural regeneration, water

resource development, forest conservation, plantations, watershed development and people’s

participation. As indicated by a local range forest officer, a large extent of area in each Range

is taken up for natural regeneration; tier protection, climber cutting, pruning and so forth are

also carried out. Similarly, 300 acres are used for enrichment planting in each Range; around

70 seedlings are planted per acre, 40 to 70 feet apart, and normal follow-up operations are

carried out. A nationwide tree-planting programme was launched in 1977. Since 2008 every

household is expected to plant three teak and 20 eucalyptus seedlings, and each village has to

create 1 acre of plantation.

The Forest Rules of 1995 place emphasis on formation and protection of RF and PPF, sharing

of management responsibility with local communities, plantation of fast growing species,

soil, water and biodiversity conservation, and harvesting of timber and other forest produce in

environmentally sound practices. The Community Forestry Instructions (CFI) 1995 marked a

significant development in participation and decentralization of forest management. It grants

local communities tree and forest land tenurial rights for an initial period of 30 years. The

CFI allows local people to become involved in protection, conservation and restoration of

forests, particularly in the vicinity of their settlements.



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The National Forestry Master Plan is a roadmap for effective and efficient conservation of

forest resources. The objectives are ecological conservation; sustainable utilization of forest

products; access to basic forest products by rural people; promotion of public awareness and

peoples’ participation in environmental conservation and forest management; development of

the wood-based industry sector; sustainable natural forest management; establishment of

forest plantations; community forests and agroforestry; promotion of bioenergy and non-

wood forest products (NWFPs); human resource development; research; and forestry

extension services. The DZGCP has emphasis on the Dry Zone and on protection of natural

forests, establishment of forest plantations, promoting the use of energy-efficient stoves and

development of water resources.

Establishment of teak plantations using the Taungya (a special type of agroforestry) method

was started in 1869. Success led to widespread planting of teak, Xylia xylocarpa and Acacia

catechu. For national socio-economic development, the FD has been establishing four types

of plantations since the 1980s: commercial, industrial, village-wood supply, and watershed

development plantations.

The FD and the Dry Zone Greening Department (DZGD) annually planted around 30 000 ha

during the period 1990-2010, while the annual rate of recorded degradation was 372 000 ha.

At the end of 2010, the total area of various forest plantations was 593 815 ha. Commercial

plantations constituted 56 percent of the total planted area and teak constituted 43.9 percent

of all the planted species (FD 2011). In 2008, the government started granting long-term

leases to private individuals, and companies to establish forest plantations. This resulted in

creation of 13 000 ha of teak and 16 000 ha of other species plantations by 2010.

Ecosystem services, biological resources and social benefits can be attained through

biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity conservation is being carried out by the FD. So far 39

PAs which cover 5.75 percent of the total land area have been established for conserving

natural ecosystems. The goal is to bring 10 percent of the country’s area under PAs.

Environmental education is also provided to the local communities surrounding the PAs to

get their participation in conservation. Biodiversity conservation is also being attempted with

the collaboration of countries like Norway, Germany, Japan, Republic of Korea and the

Wildlife Conservation Society.

Mangroves for the Future is an initiative for an overall approach to coastal management and

mangrove development. It is led by IUCN and UNDP; institutional partners are CARE, FAO,

UNEP and Wetlands International; financial support comes from NORAD and SIDA. The

main focus of the programme is capacity development, civil society engagement and to

support local livelihoods.

Watershed management: Increasing food requirements call for progressive development of

agriculture for which one of the most important inputs is water. Under natural conditions the

quantity and quality of water flow is largely regulated by forests. The condition of the forest

in the catchment area determines retention of water and its gradual release over time.

Augmenting natural regeneration of forests and planting or both, are beneficial for water

yield. Restoration of watershed areas of important reservoirs started in the early 1980s.

Excessive removal of vegetative cover, Taungya and its shortened fallow period, and

overgrazing are major factors causing watershed degradation. With a view to conserving

watershed areas of reservoirs, lakes and springs, a total 182 178 ha of watershed plantations

were established by the FD and DZGD between 1981 and 2014. Moreover, conservation of

natural forests and soil conservation activities are also being carried out in watershed areas.



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2.4. Shifting cultivation

Regeneration using Taungya in Myanmar started long ago and it is still in practice in forest

regeneration programmes. Ethnic minorities in Karen, Shan, Kachin and Chin states all

employ the system. Shifting cultivation involves the periodic cutting down of trees and other

vegetation and burning the cleared land to create clearings in which crops are cultivated for

several years until productivity becomes too low. The land is then left fallow and natural

regeneration of forest vegetation takes over. Traditionally, during the past, the land was left

fallow for 15 to 20 years before re-cultivation, but increased population pressure has led to a

reduction in fallow periods, often to as low as eight years. It is estimated that there are

approximately 2 million shifting cultivators within the forested mountains of Myanmar.

There is an estimated 6 million ha of land under shifting cultivation, with approximately 300

000 ha being cultivated annually. According to another estimate, the area under shifting

cultivation was claimed to be 22.82 percent of the land area. According to a 1989 assessment

the spread of shifting cultivation was over 15 438 900 ha and this was on ‘other land’ and not

on ‘closed’ and ‘degraded’ forests. This argument appears to be untenable as permanent

agriculture is found on forest lands. At the best it may have to be approximated to 40 percent

on forest land and 60 percent on ‘other land’. The Dry Zone also has 12 percent of its area

affected by shifting cultivation. FD data for the FRA 2010 showed that 47.9 million acres, i.e.

19.6 million ha amounting to 30 percent of the land area of the country was degraded forest

and Taungya land. Taking 1989 data as the base, a large portion of this land will be under

shifting cultivation. Assuming a fallow cycle of eight years, nearly 2.5 million ha will be

under shifting cultivation every year. When compared with the net area sown figure of 11.84

million ha the area under shifting cultivation will constitute nearly 17 percent of the area

under crops. Assuming only 50 percent of agricultural productivity on shifting cultivation

lands, still it would contribute to 8.5 percent of the GDP accounted by agriculture sector, i.e.

2.2 percent of the total GDP of the country. Livestock’s contribution from shifting cultivation

will be 1.36 percent of the total GDP of the country.

2.5. Contribution of forests to the GDP

It is really a travesty of econometrics that forests which cover 47 percent of the land area of

the country and support a large proportion of the 70 percent of the rural population, are

shown to be contributing only 0.4 percent to the GDP in Myanmar. As this analysis has

already shown the contribution of forests to the GDP is 7.96 percent. In fact, if the services

from forests are monetized, it will be much more than this.

3. SPECIFIC AREAS/ASPECTS OF THE THEMATIC AREA UNDER REVIEW

Poverty, unemployment, education and health are all related in an intricate way. In a basically

agrarian country like Myanmar where around 70 percent of people live in rural areas and

where dependence on domestic energy sources could be 100 percent (biomass fuel), poverty

and forest dependence issues are of paramount importance. Agriculture and forest

exploitation are the main sources of livelihood for rural people. Agriculture depends on

forests in several ways. The quantity and quality of water that flows from the forests is the

lifeline of agriculture. Livestock graze in the forests and sizeable forage supply comes from

forest areas. The significant role of vegetation in fish cultivation is also well known.

Many developing nations around the world have been promoting decentralization of natural

resource management with the hope that by providing secure tenure, people who depend on

natural resources for their livelihoods will seek to conserve them. As a result, worldwide the

extent of forest area administered by the state is shrinking, while areas reserved for



11

communities, private individuals or farms are increasing. The current scenario of forest

management in the world is heavily oriented towards restoration. The natural regeneration of

forest takes place when the factors which are detrimental to it are minimized and removed.

There are three main factors, all of which are anthropocentric, that cause failure of natural

regeneration. They are removals of the young regeneration and pole crops, grazing and fire.

Once these factors are removed or considerably mitigated the natural regeneration process

starts taking over and the forest can be regenerated. It is imperative to support the natural

regeneration process in the teak forests of Myanmar. There is an intrinsic belief that the rural

communities which have existed in the vicinity of forests, and have ecological links with it,

do not wantonly destroy them, albeit the aberrations by individuals. They only do so as a

desperate effort to meet their daily needs.

3.1. Rural development perspective

The main focus of the Department of Rural Development (DRD) is livelihoods. The DRD is

providing nearly 30 million kyat (US$1.00 = 1 176.75 kyat) per village as a revolving fund

during the current year, for 1 150 of the poorest villages. Technical assistance is also being

provided to villagers for their development. The government is also exploring the possibility

of providing credit to farmers who do not have a land certificate. The DRD’s approach to

rural development plan should be integrated and implemented by one organization, and it

should be area-specific; the plan should be helpful to poor people and the Township should

be the basis for planning. For the DRD in the forestry sector, use of energy-efficient wood

stoves and community forestry (CF) are the main areas of focus. From the perspective of the

FD, rural development activities comprise establishment of CF, agroforestry, plantations for

rural households and fuelwood, and distribution of seedlings.

The Strategic Framework for Rural Development as outlined by the Ministry of Livestock,

Fisheries and Rural Development in its Participatory Village Development Plan envisages

activities related to CF, village forests, renewable energy (including biogas), energy-saving

stoves, rural handicrafts, rural food processing, seasonal employment creation (food and

cash), development of watershed areas, agroforestry, biodiversity conservation, agriculture,

forestry extension etc. These are activities which interface with forestry and can be leveraged

for enhancing forest and agroforestry productivity and in enhancing rural livelihoods.

3.2. Forestry sector policies, legislations and community forestry instructions

The Myanmar Forest Policy, 1995 was issued to promote socio-economic development and

to safeguard ecological balance, environmental stability and forest resource sustainability.

The six imperatives of the policy are: protection of soil, water, biodiversity and the

environment; sustainability of forest resources for perpetual use; meeting the basic needs of

the people for fuelwood, shelter, food and recreation; efficiency in harnessing the full

potential of forest resources in a socio-environmentally friendly way; participation of the

people in conservation and utilization of forests; and creating public awareness about the vital

role of forests for the well-being and socio-economic development of the nation. The

National Environmental Policy was adopted in 1994, which stipulates that “Environmental

protection should always be the primary objective in seeking development”. The Forest Law

1992 focuses on forest reservation and protection, management of forest land, establishment

of forest plantations, extraction and removal of forest produce, establishment of wood-based

industries, administrative action, and offences/penalties. The law provides for peoples’

participation in forest management and private sector involvement in forest development. The

Protection of Wildlife and Protected Areas Law 1994 provides for the creation of nature

reserves, establishment of zoological and botanical gardens, protection of wildlife and wild

plants, regulations on hunting, administrative action, offences/penalties. The Environmental



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Conservation Law 2012 provides for environmental quality standards, provision to carry out

environmental impact assessment and social impact assessment, sustainable management of

natural resources and conservation of the environment. The Forest Rules, 1995 provide for

increased formation and protection of RF and PPF, sharing of forest management

responsibility with the local communities, establishment of fast growing species plantations

on degraded forest lands for environmental conservation and harvesting of timber and other

forest products in an environmentally friendly manner. The Community Forest Instruction

(CFI), 1995 has provision for public participation for meeting the basic needs of the section

of the community that organizes itself as a community forest user group (CFUG) for

managing the forest. The CFUGs can take forest land on lease for 30 years, which is

extendable; technical assistance for its development is provided by the FD in the form of

seed, seedlings and technical advice. The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was

developed in 2011. The multisector plan is a framework for sustainable conservation and

utilization of biodiversity.

3.3. Linkages and gaps on forest policy, forest law and community forestry instruction

Forest Policy, Forest Law and associated Forest Rules are interconnected legal instruments

which are promulgated by the state to guide sustainable forest management (SFM). The

Myanmar Forest Policy, 1995 is a comprehensive and progressive document. It stresses

significantly on community participation in forestry and emphasizes forestry for the people.

While the content of the policy clearly provides for a substantive basis for developing a

workable legislative framework and rules, it is silent on the following aspects: (a) the policy

does not recognize lack of community participation as a constraint in the protection,

management and utilization of forest resources; (b) the traditional rights to use forest

products by the users, free of royalty, but under an agreed management plan is not

highlighted; (c) community management/joint management of forest resources, following the

principles of decentralization, should have been emphasized. The Forest Law, 1992 is an

improvement over the previous legislations, but as it was enacted on an earlier date, therefore

there is need to suitably amend it in consonance with the Forest Policy, 1995, and provisions

of the CFI.

3.4. Forest policy and people’s participation

A special section on People’s Participation and Public Awareness has laid down objectives,

strategies and an action plan to mobilize people’s participation in forestry. The policy

document envisages that people’s participation will be secured in all aspects of forestry sector

development to ensure ‘people-based development’ and to create public awareness and

motivation for protection and conservation of forests.

3.5. State of the forests

3. A visit to forests of Bago District (home of teak in Bago Yoma) into the teak-

bearing areas revealed that more than 70 percent of the forests are in a degraded to severely

degraded state. These forests have been very heavily logged. Teak trees of more than two-

meter girth are exceptions. The main cause of forest degradation has been excessive

extraction of timber, illegal logging, heavy dependence of people on forests for their

subsistence needs (a local range forest officer reported that during the crunch period removal

of forest produce and its sale was the only livelihood source for very poor people), increased

removal for fuelwood, disproportional regeneration and replanting efforts, and changing

ecological conditions leading to lower natural regeneration. In their present state the forests

not only need rest from logging for at least 25-30 years, but they also need to be regenerated

and tended to get them back to their former healthy state, which is possible under the



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prevailing climatic and ecological conditions. The role of bamboo in protecting the soil of the

logged forest areas has been of great significance. Bamboo growth has staved off invasive

weeds like Eupatorium, which is said to have appeared in Myanmar during the First World

War period. It is said that bamboo growth has increased in Bago Yoma areas due to forest

degradation.

Forest degradation is not adequately shown by the FRA, conducted only through remote

sensing, but the fact that the volume of the top 10 species was reduced between 1990 and

2010 by 58 percent is ample evidence of forest degradation. The degradation of the forest

ecosystems beyond the resilience of their tolerance limits results in loss of topsoil due to

erosion, and jeopardizes their inherent productive capacity, and as a result the future crops

will not reach the same dimensions as those of the past. Forests take about 500 years to build

an inch of soil, whereas up to 4 inches can be lost in a single year’s erosion event.

Role of teak and bamboo

From humble huts to mighty mansions use of teak has been ubiquitous; rightly so as it is the

king among the timbers and Myanmar has pride of place in its availability. It has played a

stellar role in the country’s economic health and development. So much so, that in reality it

has sacrificed itself on the altar of national needs and development. Now the teak forests are

in a depleted condition, and now they may only have 20-30 percent of their vitality compared

to what they had when the King of Burma declared teak to be the royal tree in 1752.

Similarly, bamboo, the tallest among grasses, has a highly significant presence in the culture

of the Myanma people. It is literally and figuratively interwoven with the culture of the land.

There are 97 species of bamboo, probably more than any other country in the world. From

food to fishing contraptions, mats to hats, barricading to housing, bamboo has a very intricate

role in the lives and livelihoods of the people. Big bamboo is used as a vessel for fetching

water and for storing products. In higher reaches bamboo and wood are used to make

appliances for hoeing the soil for cultivation. Hundreds of products are made out of bamboo.

Like teak it also stands depleted as a resource in some areas. Besides livelihood support, the

ecological role of bamboo has been enormous. It has played a major supportive role in

protecting the forest soil. In the logged areas it protects the soil from severe erosion. In

shifting cultivation areas, it protects the soil from further degradation, and helps sites to

recoup for future Taungya. Bamboo offers great scope for product development and value

addition. Nearly 40-50 different marketable products can be made out of bamboo. Bamboo

propagation and development is an area which needs immediate and serious attention.

3.6. Deforestation

Although Myanmar’s total forest area in 2010 stood at 31.7 million ha (about 47 percent of

the country’s area), between 2005 and 2010, forests were destroyed at a rate of 310 000 ha

(0.95 percent of the total forest area) per year. The ongoing forest cover analysis by the FD

revealed that forest degradation is continuing at the same rate. Forests provide food, fodder

fuelwood and shelter. Fuelwood and charcoal consumption is 76.41 percent of total energy

consumption in Myanmar. Thus deforestation is a critical issue for livelihood support and the

ecological security of Myanmar. The main drivers of deforestation in Myanmar are

production of fuelwood and charcoal, shifting cultivation, conversion of forest land into

agricultural land, commercial plantations like oil-palm and rubber, logging, illegal logging

and so forth. In addition, population growth and high resource demand; the logging ban

policy of neighbouring countries (thus creating pressure for smuggling across the border),

international demand for teak timber and agricultural commodity exports have been

contributors to deforestation in Myanmar. Some of the highest rates of deforestation are

occurring at the border areas and populated states and regions of the country. In order to



14

check the rate of deforestation, besides a drastic reduction in logging, participatory forest

management systems, agroforestry, effective law enforcement and land-use management

planning are necessary. Wildfire and anthropogenic fires are also causes of deforestation.

Deforestation is mainly anthropogenic. Increasing rural populations and expansion of

agricultural areas lead to increasing forest dependency as well as encroachment on forest

land. Thus, law enforcement to check encroachments and creating opportunities for income

generation for local communities in rural areas are necessary to reduce the rate of

deforestation. Up to 2013, altogether 743 748 ha of RF and PPF areas had been encroached

and converted into paddy land, shifting cultivation land, upland farms, horticultural land or

gardens. Some encroachers were prosecuted. In order to prevent encroachment into forest

estates, inventories on encroached paddy fields and shifting cultivation were conducted. In

addition, law enforcement, creating awareness among people about the role of the forests,

practice of CF, agroforestry, and private plantation are needed to prevent further

encroachment in forest areas.

The compounding effects of land degradation, overexploitation and unfavourable agricultural

practices are adversely impacting water supplies for domestic, agricultural and industrial use.

Degradation of vegetation cover and poor land management around Inle Lake, (Myanmar’s

largest lake) have caused severe soil erosion and sedimentation resulting in shrinking

waterbody and damage to the ecosystem of the lake.

Many people in Myanmar depend on shifting cultivation in forested areas. Shifting

cultivation is not only a subsistence practice for the landless poor living in and around the

forests, but it is also both a cultural practice and a way of life, evolved in consonance with the

physiographic set up. Shifting cultivation is the most common crop cultivation practice in

Myanmar. It predominates in the hilly areas, Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Chin and Shan states. In

the earlier days, shifting cultivators planted some valuable tree species together with crops.

This shows they had grasped the concept of environmental conservation or knew the value of

trees. Due to population increase, the fallow period has become shorter and shifting

cultivation areas have expanded. The FD estimated that 22.8 percent of the total land area

was affected by shifting cultivation in 1993; according to the 2010 estimate it now stands at

30 percent. Commercial forest plantations have been established with the aid of Taungya

cultivators for more than a century. This is a win-win system. Taungya is an agroforestry

system as agricultural crops are grown mixed with forest trees. It was developed after

exploring the Karen ethnic group’s shifting cultivation practice in 1869 in Kaboung forests in

Taungoo District.

Shifting cultivation, if done properly, delivers forest, land and climate change benefits. In its

purest form, this is a highly sustainable system of agriculture. Ideally, the evidence of land

degradation is limited. Forest regeneration is encouraged. Biodiversity is fairly well

maintained. The strength of the shifting cultivation system lies long fallow periods, maybe

over eight years and the cultivator also plants some forest trees in the fallow land so that it

recovers quickly. However, if fallow periods are short and revegetation is not conducted, then

degradation occurs. The current land tenure scheme proposed by the FD does not support

sustainable shifting cultivation. Under the present approach, sustainable shifting cultivation is

likely to be lost and gradually displaced by permanent upland agriculture/agroforestry. The

result will be loss of forest cover and related ecosystem services. It was observed that due to

prevailing locality factors, and the soil, shifting cultivation areas recoup fairly quickly, and

they assume their ecological role within a couple of years. So, being brought under

permanent agroforestry may not be the most desirable option. On the other hand, these areas



15

could be assisted to recover quickly, and made more productive, with suitable inputs and

appropriate technology.

The draft National Land Use Policy, 2014 under Part VII − Land Use Rights of Ethnic

Nationalities has the following clauses:

a. Clause 68: “Traditional land Use system shall be provided in the land law for

the awareness and compliance of the traditional land use practices of the ethnic

nationalities, for acquiring complete traditional land use right, for enabling

protection of such right, and for enabling use of impartial dispute settlement

mechanism readily” and

b. Clause 75: “It shall carry out to enable to recognize and to have the right to

register the traditional land tenure rights of the ethnic nationalities, to enable to

protect and conserve the forest lands and environment and to enable to

reclassify the traditional alternative taungya system as the permanent taungya.”

3.7. Community forestry

The CFI, 1995 was issued primarily to address the basic needs of local communities and

environmental stability. It defines CF as neither regional development forestry nor an

industrial enterprise based on forest products. It aims at providing only the bare necessities of

rural lives. But it is now realized that the scope of CF needs to be expanded in order to

support livelihoods and poverty reduction through increased food production and income

generation, and should relate closely with agriculture, fishery and livestock, along with

reforestation, afforestation, and collection and sharing of NWFPs and timber.

Community forestry has made good progress in India and Nepal. Nepal has three types of

participatory forestry: (1) community forestry where forest areas are handed over to user

groups who manage them under a management plan of 10 years approved by the district

forest office. The user groups pay 15 percent of the revenue realized from harvests of the

forests to the government. (2) Collaborative forest management user groups, who pay 50

percent of the revenue realized to the government. The above two types are basically

applicable to forest areas. (3) leasehold forestry, where landless user groups are given a small

extent of barren land on a renewable lease for 40 years for developing the land as silvipasture

areas; growing of annual agricultural crops is not permitted. Behind the said success story of

Nepal CF there are darker sides also, such as elite capture, destruction of the forests, lack of

inclusiveness, inequity, marginalization of the poor. The Community Forestry Federation has

emerged as an organization which is said to be seriously influencing the policies of the

Forestry Department of Nepal.

In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) started in 1990. Generally, degraded forest areas of

less than 25 percent canopy density are given to the Village Forest Committees, practically in

perpetuity, for joint development and for sharing the produce. Fodder and fuel usufructs are

free and for timber the sharing is on a 50:50 basis between the government and the people.

The Deputy Range Forest Officer or the Forest Guard of the area is the Secretary of the JFM

committees. Nearly 29 percent of the country’s forest area was covered under JFM up to

2012.

3.8. Agroforestry

Forestry and agroforestry are linked to food security for poverty alleviation and rural

development in three major ways: food production and watershed protection; forestry and

agroforestry products; and income generation and employment. Agroforestry practices in

Myanmar have been developed by farmers over a long period, as can be seen throughout the



16

country in its various agro-climatic zones. They can be classified as farm-based agroforestry

(trees in and round agricultural fields) and forest-based agroforestry (shifting cultivation).

Most shifting cultivation agroforestry systems offer cost effective and less risky alternatives

than intensive food crop production. Experimental trials at the Department of Agricultural

Research, Yezin revealed that the cultivation of Sesbania rostrata as a green manure crop

(for 45-60 days and ploughing it into the soil), before paddy crops, can increase production

by about 25 percent.

3.9. Research and development

Keeping in tune with the Myanmar Forest Policy, 1995, the policy and decision-makers of the

country need to address three broad and complementary R&D challenges with regard to

Myanmar’s forests and environment: (1) how to improve forest productivity and the

environment for livelihoods and industry; (2) how to improve the income of forest-based

communities and thereby reduce rural poverty; and (3) how to improve the sustainability of

natural resources and the environment through rehabilitation and conservation measures.

3.10. Traditional knowledge and practices

Traditional forest knowledge can be an opportunity for mutually beneficial interaction

between communities and forest management units/foresters. There are many traditional

knowledge and practices to conserve forest and for sustainable use of forest products. In

Myanmar local people or forest dwellers have forestry-related knowledge, for instance to

protect forest for water resources and to prevent soil erosion, as well as for religious

purposes. Moreover, they have extensive knowledge of exploiting/harvesting and use of

forest products.

3.11. Environmental conservation and climate change

The MOECAF develops the forest policy and legal frameworks and coordinates climate

change-related policy analysis and development. It is also in charge of environmental

protection including the development and implementation of rules relating to environmental

and social impact assessments. The MOECAF is also the official Myanma focal point for the

Global Environment Facility (GEF).

Nature has evolved flora and fauna species through a very long and complex interaction over

hundreds of thousands of years. The role of the environment in the context of rainfall and

temperature has been enormous. Due to rise in temperature the pattern of rainfall is being

affected and areas are becoming drier. It is said that in some cases climate change will bring

more aridity while in other cases it may bring more humid conditions and both situations will

affect biodiversity. Trees and forests have very important roles for environmental

conservation. They are capable of evaporating excess moisture while at the same time they

also have the capacity to reduce aridity. The present management paradigm should be to

check aridity on the one hand and reduce excess humidity on the other, under different

situations.

In Myanmar, as 70 percent of the population depends on agriculture, forest, livestock and

fisheries, their livelihoods are determined by favourable climate conditions. In other words,

the Myanmar economy is very susceptible and vulnerable to climatic variability, extreme

climates and natural disasters, including climate change impacts. The country is encountering

increased climate-related hazards including floods, droughts, landslides and untimely rainfall,

underlying the importance of adaptation measures. Basic livelihoods are affected by changes

in weather and their effects on local ecosystems. The poor are more vulnerable to climate-

related disasters.



17

As climate change is a global problem that requires a global solution, the UN Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) signed in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro entered into

force during 1994. Myanmar signed the UNFCCC in June 1992 and ratified the convention in

November 1994. The 2000 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventory has testified that Myanmar is

still a major net carbon sink country. The Government of Myanmar in 1990 established the

National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) as the policy body for

environmental protection. The NCEA also serves as the focal point and coordination agency

for environmental matters. The NCEA’s objectives are: (a) to develop sound environmental

policies in the utilization of natural resources to safeguard the environment and prevent its

degradation; (b) to set environmental standards, rules and regulations to control and prevent

pollution; (c) to lay down environmental plans, policies and strategies; and (d) to promote

environmental awareness. The NCEA initiated the formulation of the National Environment

Policy which was pronounced in December 1994. The National Environment Policy serves as

the general guideline for the management of the environment in Myanmar. Apart from the

National Environment Policy, there are other policies/statutes relating to the management and

conservation of the environment such as the: Forest Law, 1992, Protection of Wildlife and

Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law, 1994, Myanmar Mines Law, 1994,

Myanmar Forest Policy, 1995 etc. These instruments provide an important means for

ensuring environmental conservation in Myanmar.

Climate change is not only a major global environmental problem, but it is also an issue of

great concern to a developing country like Myanmar. Climate change is likely to threaten

food production, increase water stress and decrease its availability, result in sea-level rise that

could flood croplands and coastal settlements, and increase the occurrence of diseases, such

as malaria. Developing countries such as Myanmar have low adaptive capacity to withstand

the adverse impacts of climate change due to the high dependence of the majority of the

population on climate-sensitive sectors, such as agriculture and fisheries, coupled with poor

infrastructure facilities, weak institutional mechanisms and lack of financial resources.

Integration of Climate Change Concerns (CCCs) into development plans and programmes is

of vital importance to Myanmar in view of further enhancing its low-carbon economy and

reducing its vulnerability to the climate change challenge. Both GHG emission mitigation

and adaptation to climate change are indispensable and complementary. Myanmar has

identified the following programme areas in the forestry sector for climate change mitigation:

(a) accelerate sustainable development of forest resources; (b) develop the forestry sector to

meet basic needs; (c) promote efficiency in the production of forest goods and services; (d)

strengthen forestry policies, legislation and institutions; and (e) enhance people’s

participation in forestry development and management. Like many other countries, Myanmar

faces many environmental issues such as unsustainable land use, transboundary wildlife

trade, weak law enforcement, inadequacy of trained staff and human resources, insufficient

funding and equipment, etc.

The NCEA considers soil erosion in the hilly region and the Dry Zone to be the primary key

factor contributing to the degradation of agricultural land in Myanmar. Soil erosion and land

degradation are the major causes for declining agricultural production levels. Nearly 33

percent of farmlands were vulnerable to soil erosion in 2008. Excessive removal of trees and

mono-cropping practices accelerate land degradation. All soil types show low fertility, low

soil moisture holding capacity and declining organic matter content. Saline soils are found in

the Dry Zone, in the coastal areas, and also in the Delta Region. Population pressure has led

to intensification of cultivation, with removal of trees from farmlands and also for

construction and fuelwood.



18

Cyclones are created due to natural atmospheric phenomenon and are unpredictable, but

cloud bursts and excessive rainfall in certain periods/years is becoming a regular feature. This

will lead to soil erosion and embankment cutting. Oceanic disturbances with rising

temperatures will also affect ocean surges leading to soil erosion and land cutting. Hence

stabilization of the banks of water channels with suitable vegetation is going to be a crucial

factor in stabilizing the land, mainly in the delta and coastal regions. There is no alternative to

mangrove vegetation where it occurs, but other coastal plains have options of species like

Casuarina, Acacia and Calophyllum, which can provide similar stability. Nipa palm-based

agroforestry is a better option in the brackish Delta Region of Myanmar. It can stabilize

embankments substantially. In the coastal areas the mangroves are a highly effective tool for

addressing climate change mitigation, adaptation and attenuating the effects of natural

disasters. For instance, communities’ proximate to healthy mangrove forests were much less

vulnerable to the devastating impacts of Cyclone Nargis in 2008. The root system of

mangrove vegetation is highly effective in binding the soil. The ecological condition of the

slushy and fully saturated soil environment gives rise to pneumatophores, stilt roots and

heavily manifested root systems. Such strong and resilient root systems along with the

mangrove vegetation act as a perforated wall against cyclonic winds, firstly dissipating their

velocity, and subsequently deflecting them upwards and away from the damage zone and thus

providing protection.

Rainfall patterns are changing as indicated by farmers in the Delta Region and the Dry Zone;

rains are starting late and when they do, downpours are heavy, hampering agricultural

operations. Farmers in the Delta Region said that river flow has become half of what it was

30 years ago. Due to heavy sedimentation rivers have become shallow and frequency of the

rivers overflowing and chances of floods have increased. In the Dry Zone, numbers of rainy

days have declined from 120 to 80 and as a consequence agricultural patterns and crop yields

are affected. As a response to the changing rainfall pattern, farmers are changing their

cropping patterns and cropping systems. In many upland fields, fruit trees (mango, plums),

Limonia acidissima and gum tree (Sterculia versicolor) are planted and field crops are

cultivated in a form of agroforestry.

4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The institutional and policy framework governing natural resource conservation in Myanmar

falls under the MOECAF and the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MoAI). Permanent

forest estate (PFE) is under the direct management of the MOECAF. Unclassified forests are

primarily under the authority of the Settlement Land Record Department (SLRD) within the

MoAI. These agencies have staff located across the country responsible for issues ranging

from use of resources, extension services, law and policy, and professional and academic

training. The MOECAF has offices operating at all levels of government from the capital to

rural locations. There is an extensive institutional and planning framework in place.

However, this is mainly focused upon extraction of high-value timber. Afforestation efforts

are oriented towards industrial-style forest plantations.

4.1. Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

The MOECAF has six entities: (i) the Planning and Statistics Department (PSD) is

responsible for drafting general policies, evaluating and monitoring the implementation of

forest policies, production and work targets, short- and long-term planning for international

cooperation strategies and identifying project achievements; (ii) the Forest Department (FD)

is responsible for protection and conservation of forests, biodiversity conservation,

sustainable management of forest resources, watershed conservation, afforestation,



19

reforestation and R&D; (iii) the Dry Zone Greening Department (DZGD) is responsible for

reforestation of degraded forest lands, protection and conservation of natural forests, and

restoration of the environment in the Dry Zone; (iv) the Environmental Conservation

Department is responsible for the effective implementation of environmental conservation

and management; (v) the Survey Department is responsible for producing topographical maps

and cartographical projects, boundary demarcation and inspection; and (vi) the Myanma

Timber Enterprise (MTE) is responsible for timber harvesting primarily within reserved

forests, milling and downstream processing and marketing of forest products. The main

activities of the FD include: a) planning and establishment of forest plantations in degraded

lands and previously forested lands, including an extensive network of nurseries; b) thinning,

teak girdling, felling and harvesting (using elephants); c) forest clearing, weeding and fire

protection; d) forest infrastructure development construction; e) natural forest management,

encouraging natural regeneration; and f) research. The DZGD focuses on afforestation and

land rehabilitation; village plantations; fuelwood substitution for communities; natural forest

conservation; and irrigation. High priorities of the forestry sector are conservation of natural

forests, collaborative initiatives, more technical input and reforestation.

Land reforms have started and forest villages have been identified. Nearly 137 733 ha of land

have been removed from the PFE (9 271 ha of village land, 117 786 ha of paddy land and 10

675 ha of religious land).

4.2. Summary of laws and policy governing forests

The Forest Law (1992) regulates the management of the PFE. Various use rights may be

granted under the Forest Law. For example, there is a provision for the establishment of

village firewood plantations or local supply plantations. The CFI, 1995 issued by the FD, is

designed to engage local populations in forest management. The CFI allows community

groups to obtain use rights to forest lands. Under the CFI, community members form FUGs

and develop a management plan. Upon approval of the plan by the FD, the FUGs receive 30-

year use rights documented in the form of a Community Forestry Certificate. The Protection

of Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994) provides basic protections for key

habitats.

4.3. Forest management

The MOECAF is responsible for sustainable management of forest resources, national parks

and wildlife/forest conservation. It was upgraded in place of the Ministry of Forestry in

September 2011, as the focal and coordinating agency for overall environmental

management. The MOECAF is responsible for developing forest policies and laws, for

managing most forest lands, including the PFE, PAs, development and implementation of

environmental and social impact assessments. Forests outside the PFE are considered

unclassified. Although ecologically important, unclassified forests often do not benefit from

proper forest management approaches. These forests are also liable to be considered vacant

land for potential settlement. Some of the lands designated as part of the PFE are highly

populated with farmland and villages.

Planning in the forestry sector is also production-based. Ten-year district forest management

plans are developed at the district level. These plans are essentially used to establish

production targets. Targets are based on quotas developed at the central level. Management

plans are revised every 10 years, based on the forest inventory. The township forest offices

are responsible for implementing forest management plans and for drawing up annual work

plans to reach the desired levels of production. They prepare and supervise forest harvest



20

operations, enforce forest protection measures and support local CF expansion. The

management system requires updating, including the provision of training programmes.

The MOECAF, in its all-out effort for greening of the Dry Zone, created the DZGD for this

purpose in July 1997. The DZGD is undertaking greening activities in three regions in the

Central Dry Zone; Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway regions, and is responsible for four main

tasks: i) the establishment of forest plantations or environmental greening for arresting

desertification and for local supply; ii) the protection of remaining natural forests; iii) the

introduction and promotion of the utilization of woodfuel substitutes; and iv) the management

and development of water resources.

The FD has been using remote sensing and GIS in forest management for a long time. It has

been carrying out the forest inventory annually to establish the forest database such as stand

tables, stock stables, species composition and status of natural regeneration in the country’s

forests. The Forest Inventory Section and Computer Section of the Planning and Statistics

Division is responsible for conducting forest inventory and developing forest resource

databases. Currently, the FD is conducting the FRA 2015 in collaboration with FAO. Six

appraisals of forest cover have been conducted in Myanmar. The first appraisal was done in

1957 using aerial photographs; the second in 1975 used Landsat MSS imageries; the third in

1989 was based on Landsat TM imageries; the fourth was done for the FRA 2000 − mainly

based on digital classification of Landsat TM data. The fifth appraisal was conducted in 2005.

In the FRA 2010 appraisal, most of the country’s area was classified by using 2006 Landsat 7

ETM. According to this assessment, the forest cover of the country in 2010 was 31 773 000

ha, representing 46.96 percent of the country’s area.

4.4. Forest research, education and training

With regard to forestry education, research and development, the University of Forestry,

Forest Research Institute (FRI), Myanmar Forest School and several training centres have

been established with a specific mandate to produce competent foresters, train forest

technicians and carry out research activities. The FD has been attempting SFM which is the

key mandate in Myanma forestry. Among other initiatives are developments of CF,

promoting herbal and medicinal plants, formulation of district forest management plans,

formulation of a national Forest Master Plan, promoting the concepts of model forests,

identification of Myanmar's Criteria and Indicators for SFM, forestry establishment,

extension, forest rehabilitation and in-service training. Several training institutions under the

FD support capacity-building efforts. The School of Forestry was established more than 100

years ago. This school is designed for advanced training of forest management professionals.

The Central Forestry Development Training Centre supports training programmes for forestry

staff and the public. The FRI provides research support for the forestry sector, including

improved methods for reforestation. The FRI is working on silviculture of natural forests,

teak, Xylia xylocarpa and pines; nursery practices; propagation of bamboo; mangrove

ecosystems; and utilization of forest products and wood. It is also working on CF and

agroforestry. Together with The Center for People and Forests (RECOFTC) it is working on

participatory applied research on CF and has conducted a number of training events,

workshops and roundtable discussions. The FRI feels that there is lack of policy on CF and

local people are not aware of the CFI’s provisions. People also need some entry point

activities. The FRI considers that more than half of the villages are willing to take up CF.

Public participation and awareness are important for conservation of forest and biodiversity

so the FD therefore formed the Extension Division in 1995, which carries out extension

services through films, plays, audio visual means, newspapers, journals, public speeches,



21

demonstration plots etc. The Extension Division works under the national office, which

develops and sends out awareness and training information to FD offices located in each

state/region and township.

4.5. Community forestry

Community forestry could be applied as a useful tool to protect and develop the forests. The

CFI provides the administrative basis for the handover of forest land for management and use

by communities. The 30-year NFMP mandates that CFUGs manage 2.27 million acres by

2030-2031, but progress so far has been very poor (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Status of CF establishment

The President of the Union of Myanmar has instructed the MOECAF to create a model CF in

each township throughout the country. Review of 16 CFUGs across the country by the

Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative (ECCDI) revealed that the

FUGs are struggling against a wide range of challenges, with very limited support from the

FD in most cases. The FUGs in Shan State and the Dry Zone are facing more problems

compared to those in the Delta Region and Kachin State. Some FUGs, where NGO support is

good, are doing well. Kachin has high rainfall, larger extents of forest and rich biodiversity.

But deforestation and degradation are also taking place at an alarming rate. In Mandalay in

the Dry Zone, because of unfavourable climatic conditions, the 30-year tenure for the FUGs

does not seem attractive. In some areas a handful of outsiders have captured the CF area and

are converting it to agricultural land. In another case the land has been appropriated by a few

individuals for agroforestry. In all these cases there is a need for the FD’s role, not only in

guiding the people but more importantly in preventing the individual-oriented use of CF land.

Most upland areas have large tracts under Taungya and long fallow conditions. There are

good, bad and indifferent situations. In some cases, some outsiders are felling the trees and

causing conflict. In the Ayeyarwaddy Region, the benefits of mangrove vegetation have been

realized even more after the devastating Cyclone Nargis of 2008. People also see the benefits

of regeneration and restoration in the form of increased presence of fish and crabs. A problem

in one village has been the FD’s reluctance to give permission for felling the coppice crop.



22

Some inferences that can be drawn from the ECCDI study are: (a) success was due to good

leadership, facilitating NGOs, good communication with the FD, motivation to secure their

land by FUGs, most villagers were middle class, good rainfall, equity about resource access,

the self-selection approach and social inclusion as non-FUG members also benefited; b)

failure was due to CF application not being properly analysed and outsiders grabbing the

land, the FD not enforcing the law, the lack of knowledge of CF principles, lack of leadership

and powerful groups operating illegal felling; c) there is a need for the FD to stop illegal

felling and encroachment, better extension services, long-term capacity building, continuous

support from the FD in monitoring, more care in selecting species and soil conservation; d)

the message is that CF in the Dry Zone can re-green the land and only the FD can act against

illegal felling; also, the focus on fuelwood and poles should also be on NWFPs. Major

challenges that arose in the study were: (i) poor quality of the formation process; (ii) issues

related to inclusiveness and equity; (iii) sustainability, stagnation and lack of post

formation/post project support; and (iv) the FD prohibiting harvesting. RECOFTC’s

experience in the four FUGs is that having healthy forests is vital for fishers. During the

monsoon season when the wind is strong and the waves are high, fishers turn to forests as

sources of alternative income and daily food for subsistence. In Rakhine State CFUG

members established an Agar wood nursery and profited from the sale of seedlings. What

emerged clearly from the study of the four groups was that people have learned to work

together and realize the benefits of teamwork.

4.6. Shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation lands are governed by particularly complex customary rules. The

majority of forested areas subject to shifting cultivation lie outside FD management. The

Settlement and Land Records Department (SLRD) certifies and generates tax assessments of

agricultural lands. Shifting cultivation land is assessed and taxed annually on the basis of

village records and SLRD surveys. However, this land is not formally registered, certified or

mapped. SLRD field notebooks indicate village boundaries through sketch maps and

landmarks. These field notebooks are the only formal documentation of Taungya land. Due to

these regulatory gaps, upland farmers risk the loss of traditional ownership rights over fallow

land. Traditional landownership patterns are not codified or recognized within the legal

framework. If shifting cultivation land is left fallow and the forest is allowed to regenerate,

this land may be categorized as ‘cultivable wasteland’ and the land could be allocated to a

commercial enterprise. The village elders are generally responsible for allocating land and

mediating disputes, since most upland Taungya areas are not formally or fully registered with

the SLRD

4.7. National energy policy and the forestry sector

As alternative energy sources like natural gas and electricity cannot be provided in a

foreseeable short time frame, therefore the demand for fuelwood and charcoal will still be a

cause of deforestation. In order to mitigate the situation to some extent the National Energy

Policy has developed the following strategies for the forestry sector. They are:

a. Sustaining water and hydropower resources;

b. Natural forest conservation and biomass fuel conservation;

c. Establishing village fuelwood plantations;

d. Effective utilization of alternative energy sources;

e. Promoting research and awareness building.



23

4.8. International cooperation

MOECAF has closely worked with the UN, other international and non-governmental

organizations like FAO, UNDP, RECOFTC, ITTO, ICIMOD, JICA, JIFPRO, KOICA,

AFoCo, etc., on rural development programmes in the past. Currently several international

cooperation projects related to rural development and forestry are being implemented by the

MOECAF.

4.

5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT

5.1. Lessons learned

Worldwide communities in the past have destroyed forest areas for economic development

and later realized that ecological stability is extremely important for sustainable growth. It is

said that prior to the eleventh century the present day Dry Zone of Myanmar had a flourishing

agriculture-based rural economy and fairly good forest cover. (Some relic vegetation in the

form of very good forests can still be seen in the areas protected for sentimental or spiritual

reasons.) It is the destruction of the forest which has brought aridity to this area. Further, the

excessive use of water for irrigation has induced salinity and has created saline and sodic

soils. These situations can be mitigated and reclaimed. Absence of facilitating provisions for

growing of trees on farmlands (even now teak is being considered as the property of the

state), has restricted the development of agroforestry on private lands. Destruction of

mangrove forest exacerbated the severe impact of Cyclone Nargis in 2008; people are now

aware of this.

5.2. Imperatives of the forestry sector

Some of the present imperatives of the forestry sector are given below. If addressed they will

help in the protection and development of the forests. There is a need to: (a) fully recognize

the degraded and depleted state of the forests, internal and external pressures which cause

their degradation and how to improve forest conditions; (b) take up large-scale

restoration/plantation/reforestation/afforestation/agroforestry, soil and moisture conservation

measures, watershed development and supportive research for these areas; (c) implement a

massive investment plan for at least 10 years aiming to plant 5 000 acres in each district via

polyculture gap regeneration, plus other efforts as mentioned above; (d) provide quality

technical human resources to bring back the forests to some extent; (e) establish well-

publicized enabling policy and comprehensive ‘government- and FD-owned’ support for CF

implementation, which will help the process of restoration of forest areas.

5.3. Constraints of the forestry sector

Anthropocentric factors like encroachment, shifting cultivation, illegal logging, unsystematic

or overexploitation of forest products are the key constraints for the sustainability of forests

and other natural resources in Myanmar. These constraints have developed due to limited

knowledge about the consequence of forest destruction, the unstable political situation in the

past, natural resource dependence, illegal exploitation of natural resources by neighbouring

countries and poverty. The main constraints that the forestry sector is facing are:

Lack of investment in forest regeneration and development: The main constraint for

protection and development in the forestry sector has been lack of resources. Myanmar has

challenges on two fronts: (i) lack of adequate resources for overall rural development

including forest, and (ii) developing the urban and peri-urban infrastructures for industrial

growth. Forests and mines have been exploited to generate revenue. Forests carry the national



24

burden on two fronts namely, generation of revenue for the state and meeting the subsistence

needs of the rural population. For over three decades now the country has been losing

practically 1 percent of forest cover amounting to roughly 350 000 ha every year whereas

plantations efforts during the same period have only resulted in 40 000 ha per year. There is

an urgent need to pledge many more resources for the regeneration of forests. Nearly 50

percent of the land area of the country is under the superintendence of the forestry sector. The

population that lives in rural areas can be engaged in forest regeneration efforts,

development, management and conservation.

Mangrove forests in Myanmar are decreasing at an alarming rate. The FD has been

attempting to rehabilitate and conserve mangrove ecosystems jointly with international

organizations such as UNDP/FAO, JICA and local NGOs. A JICA-supported project has

involved community participation in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta. Another project has been

implemented with support from FAO in Rakhine State. Sustainable management of coastal

and marine ecosystems is vital for environmental and biodiversity conservation and

development of fisheries. There are a number of issues and constraints associated with the

management of these ecosystems, such as difficult access to remote areas, insufficient human

resources in the FD, lack of adequate infrastructure, insufficient funding and inadequate

policy support.

Policy, statutory and financial support to CF: This is required to push forward the

government’s decision on CF. Legal recognition of CF groups will give them strength and fill

the trust deficit or remove apprehensions that people may have. Clear guidelines on formation

(ensuring inclusiveness and equity) and responsibilities of the CF groups and the FD,

provision of revolving funds for self-help groups for small enterprises, provision of audit and

training of CF members and forestry staff are required for the long-term sustainability of CF

groups. While, the CFI has been recognized as a breakthrough in the history of Myanma

forestry, the devolution of decision-making and management remains constrained and the

level of assistance to be provided by the FD to communities remains unclear. There is weak

political commitment to CF and this requires more vigorous mobilization and awareness-

raising of its economic potential. Communities require long-term ownership rights for

undertaking investment decisions under CF regimes. It is necessary to create enabling legal

provision to register the CFUGs under an appropriate Act, so that they have the required

authority to borrow from financial institutions. There is a need to have unambiguous and

clear provisions for the functioning of the management committees and their duties and

responsibilities and also clarity on the position of CFUGs vis-à-vis the FD, and other village-

level institutions. It is necessary to enlarge the composition of the management committee of

the CFUG from its present strength of five members and add officials of relevant

departments. The number could be about 15 in all, with due representation of women and

marginalized sections of the society. It is also necessary to mainstream CFUGs and introduce

democratic elections (in place of self-selection) in their formation, make them inclusive and

clearly provide for equity.

Policy and legal constraints in development of agroforestry: Facilitating provisions for

agroforestry are also required both through policy and legal enactments so that people can

grow trees on their lands and harvest and use or market them in a helpful environment; teak

still continues to be the property of the state. This needs to be reviewed and done away with.

There is a need for an enabling policy environment for growing trees on farmlands, their

harvesting, marketing and sale, and for the products. The FD needs to provide quality seed

and other planting material and technical guidance for growing of trees. In specific areas of

the country there should be exemption for some species (mainly those which are primarily

cultivated/grown on farmlands) from requirements for felling permission and transit passes.



25

Fiscal and/or monetary support/incentives could be provided, primarily to the Dry Zone and

Coastal Zone (including Delta areas), for agroforestry and CF.

Restoration of teak forest and establishing teak plantations: The only four countries, in

the world that have natural distribution of teak are Myanmar, India, Thailand and Lao PDR,

with extent of area being in that order. Myanmar has the best quality teak. Seriously degraded

forests can be restored as valuable productive assets through enrichment planting, mainly

with teak but also with other valuable hardwood species. There is also an opportunity to

create teak plantations both in government and private sectors (this is already happening but

could be increased).

Afforestation in the Dry Zone and in upland areas: There are vast stretches of degraded

forest and open lands which can be restored or afforested by using appropriate techniques and

suitable species. Besides becoming productive assets of the future these efforts will also

augment soil and moisture conservation appreciably. There are lands with saline and sodic

soils in the Dry Zone. Experimental results from India are available to bring these kinds of

lands under vegetative cover. Upland afforestation technology is also available for large-scale

plantations.

Community forestry: A great opportunity exists for comprehensive development of forest

areas through peoples’ participation. The Forest Policy of 1995 provides for this. What is

required is to take the experience of neighbouring countries such as India and carefully

analyze the best options for large-scale adoption of CF/JFM in Myanmar. During the past 19

years of its implementation, starting from 1995, only 5.6 percent of the intended progress has

been achieved in CF. The intention was to hand over only 3 percent of the forest area for CF.

By 2012 nearly 29 percent of the forest area in India had been brought under JFM/CF.

Enabling legal provisions will create confidence among people for their long-term

involvement in forest development and protection.

Agroforestry on private lands: There is considerable potential for adoption of agroforestry

on private land. Agroforestry should be planned to meet requirements for food, fodder, green

manure, fuelwood and timber, and also to act as shelterbelts/wind breaks. In the Dry Zone a

number of agroforestry systems are already in place such as: Acacia catechu, Acacia

leucophloea, Zizyphus spp., Neem and mango-based agroforestry. T. hamiltonii sometimes

mixed with T. grandis on better sites is also used for single line planting along farm bunds.

Bauhinia and Erythrina leaves are used as fodder. There is potential for Anona squamosa and

Emblica officinalis.

Management of shifting cultivation areas: For better management of shifting cultivation

areas it will be necessary to adopt appropriate agroforestry technology to enhance

productivity while keeping the ecological integrity of the site within its limits of resilience. It

will be helpful to take up participatory monitoring of the areas, involving villagers and FD

personnel to record observations and to take steps to reduce site degradation. An effort in the

direction of assisted recovery of the fallow area will also be of benefit to the cultivators and

will be in the interest of environmental restoration/conservation. According to the FD’s plan,

shifting cultivation areas have to be transformed into CF or agroforestry and 150 trees will

have to be planted per acre in CF areas.

Bamboo-based enterprises: The country has a huge bamboo resource, but marketable

species and marketable quality need to be clearly identified. There is opportunity for bamboo

plantations on farmlands. Formerly, accessing bamboo was easy, but now more effort is

needed to harvest it. Bamboo is used for food, raw material for vessels, handicrafts,

construction and paper pulp. Bamboo shoots are produced and processed using local



26

knowledge for domestic use only. Due to lack of advanced technical expertise, Myanma

bamboo shoot products still cannot penetrate international markets. If technical assistance on

the utilization of bamboo and bamboo shoot processing were available, Myanmar has high

potential to earn revenue from bamboo products. NWFP bamboo products such as sheaths

and branches are used for making hats, brooms, utensils etc. The FD has conducted five

training events for the development of bamboo handicrafts and has also provided required

instrumentation for bamboo artisans.

5.4. Research, training and capacity building

Research in the FD on harvest of timber has not been given due priority. This is also partly

because natural regeneration, restoration, afforestation, reforestation and agroforestry are not

priority areas in the functioning of the FD. There is a need to change this approach in order to

develop the forest. Forestry by tradition is more like a paramilitary set up, mainly because it

is outdoors and requires considerable field work. Therefore, forestry training has to be very

field-oriented as learning of silviculture is a never-ending process. The foresters who work in

the field have to be trained to cope with the arduous nature of their duties; not only on overall

conservation and watershed aspects, but also now more importantly on social integration in

the domains of CF, agroforestry etc. The multiple uses of forests and development of forest-

based enterprises are other areas where adequate level of competence will be required by

forest professionals.

The priority research areas for the forestry sector will be mainly for forest management,

restoration of degradation forests, and afforestation in the Dry Zone, Shan Plateau, and the

Coastal Zone. Research is also needed on agroforestry and CF. The Myanmar Selection

System had the sole intention of harvesting teak trees without really paying attention to the

population of trees in the lower diameter classes, which would eventually take the place of

harvested trees. This system needs to be changed and restoration of forests should be adopted.

For restoration of the degraded forest areas general observations about the success of the

species and the technique can be documented and some experimental work can be taken up

regarding choice of species, soil and moisture conservation, fertilizer application and other

silvicultural aspects. In most of afforestation areas site preparation, choice of appropriate

species and other silvicultural aspects like after-care of planted seedlings, fertilizer

application amounts etc. will be warranted. In the domain of agroforestry there will be a need

for more detailed research regarding combination of species, their impact on agricultural

crops and the expected products from these initiatives. This will vary considerably for

different agro climatic zones and in the same zones with the combination of species.

Sometimes the results from similar climatic areas from other countries can also be adopted,

both in respect of choice of species and also about practices and techniques. Another very

important domain for research will be management of shifting cultivation areas. Most of

these areas are on hill slopes, and therefore they are prone to soil erosion and degradation.

The first step will be to accept shifting cultivation as a land-use practice of rotational

agriculture and then try to minimize its deleterious effects. The fact is that all agricultural

practices have an element of soil erosion, which is much less on flatlands, and more

pronounced on sloping terrain. It would be ideal to educate the farmer to take care of soil

erosion aspects by adopting appropriate cropping patterns and also building in such

combinations of species where degradation of the shifting cultivation sites is minimized.

With the start of the fallow period it would be highly desirable to provide suitable cover crop

and tree species, which can protect the ground and make it regenerate faster. It would be ideal

to bring in some species which have a combination of protective value and also give



27

commercial returns. In parts of India and Nepal a combination of Alnus nepalensis, black

cardamom and broom-grass has been found to be a very good mix. There can be many

variations to this, depending on local conditions.

There is also a need for policy and sociological research to find out the reason why, in spite

of favourable policy and legal provisions, forests are still continuously degrading and CF has

been lingering.

5.5. Human and other resources

The township forest officers are not in a position to control illegal logging due to limited

staff, accessibility and budget. They also have difficulty in establishing CF out of forest

areas. There is low budget provision for plantation establishment. They have limited time for

pursuing awareness-raising activities. There is a need for more human resources and more

facilities are needed for forest protection and development. If CF has to move forward, then

the field-level officers will need more time for social interactions and for constant support to

the CF groups. Similarly, development of agroforestry on private lands and appropriate

advice to the shifting cultivators would also need more human input. This is an area which

can be self-sustaining and would contribute considerably towards poverty reduction and rural

development. The present situation calls for a serious review, both regarding the size of the

human resources available to the FD, quality of the training and other capacity-building

needs. There is a need to enlarge the strength of the FD and create an environment where

officers are able to implement the law. The government and the FD have been able to create a

number of organizations and formulate a policy for achieving a number of goals, but the

result so far is not appreciable.

5.6. Security of tenure of shifting cultivators

Without tenure security SFM is not feasible and the contribution of forestry to poverty

alleviation or sustainable livelihoods will be limited. Tenure provides a base on which to

build capacities that can lead to SFM and, in turn, poverty alleviation. In the Myanma

uplands customary tenure institutions vary widely based on geographic, ethnic and social

structures. Land may be owned collectively, individually or a combination of both. Tenure

relating to use, control benefit and transfer of land ranges from collective and seasonal to

individual and inheritable. Statutory law differs from customary law. As expressed by the

1974 Constitution in Myanmar all land is owned by the state. However, farmers may hold the

right to use and control land and benefit from its products, but they may not transfer and sell

this use right to others except through inheritance. The most common form of traditional

tenure which still holds good, and is also recognized in law is dama-ucha literally meaning

the one who wields the machete first is the owner, even if the field has been kept fallow. This

also applies to Taungya as well as paddy land. Customary tenure rights are often embedded in

the social systems. The individual Taungya holdings are not formally registered or surveyed.

More importantly to accommodate the rotating system of shifting cultivation, large areas of

land are maintained as fallows which get recorded as ‘wasteland’ in the village records and

under the provision of the Wasteland Act, 1991 they become available for allocation for

entrepreneurs or commercial ventures. Through access to secure land tenure guarantees and

investment inputs, small farm holders including Taungya farmers in the uplands can be made

to make a meaningful contribution to the national goals for poverty eradication.

In Myanmar, about 1.5 to 2 million rural dwellers have been involved either directly or

indirectly in shifting cultivation. Traditional shifting cultivation systems in the past appeared

to be self-sustaining. However, the system is now considered as a land-use practice, leading

to unsustainability, increased marginalization and widespread deforestation. To address this



28

issue, Myanmar has developed a national-level multisector programme of highland

reclamation and actions are already underway. The programme clearly encourages the upkeep

of traditional land-use systems, customary rights and cultural values. The FD in cooperation

with other sectors has been implementing the following: (i) CF based on agroforestry

systems; (ii) provision of improved technologies, complementing forest-related traditional

knowledge; (iii) recruiting shifting cultivators into routine forestry operations, such as

plantation establishment; (iv) enhancing income generation opportunities; and (v) provision

of awareness-raising campaigns and extension services.

6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS

Paradoxically for such a resource-rich country, there is a strong association between

agriculture and poverty in Myanmar. While it produces a surplus of food in aggregate terms,

many rural areas suffer from chronic and acute food insecurity. In addition, the incidence of

poverty in rural areas is significantly higher than in urban areas, and rural areas lag behind in

terms of health, social and educational indicators, as well. The rural poor typically consist of

the landless, farmers with access to small and marginal landholdings (usually less than 2 ha

each), and ethnic groups. Most of the poor live either in the CDZ – where soils have

degraded, rainfall is low and population density is high – or in hill tracts populated by ethnic

groups, which are remote, have limited arable land and have been affected by conflict. It may

also be said that with the continuing forest degradation, approximately 1 percent of forest

area every year is lost, and spread of shifting cultivation and/or reduction in the fallow

periods affect the living conditions of the poor in the surrounding areas. In rural areas the

houses are not only small and modest, but in more than 90 percent of cases, are also made of

bamboo. For poverty reduction, rural development and environmental conservation relating

to forestry the suggested measures are: adequate financial resources for SFM, CF,

agroforestry, traditional right of access to forest resources for local rural communities and

forest dwellers, income generation activities, fire protection, soil and water conservation,

research and education, and strengthened organizational capacity and institutional

frameworks of the forestry sector.

6.1. Poverty and food security

The LIFT Household Survey, 2013 covered three of the country’s main agro-ecological

zones: the hill, dry and delta zones. The study found that overall 71 percent of the households

were living above the poverty line. Using the poverty line of 862.97 kyat per person per day,

75.8 percent of households in the Hills, 73.6 percent in the Delta Zone and 64.2 percent in the

CDZ were above the poverty line. There were more poor households in the CDZ compared to

the other two zones. Over 93 percent of households used wood as a source of cooking fuel.

Of late there has been increase in the use of fuel-efficient cooking stoves. There is marked

increase in the use of solar power. A UNDP (2007) survey found nearly half of the rural

population of Chin State to be in food poverty; 22 percent of northern Shan and 23 percent of

eastern Shan households were similarly affected, compared to the national average of 10

percent. In 2010, in selected areas of Kokang, the World Food Programme (WFP) found 64

percent of the households to be food insecure, with 22 percent of all households severely food

insecure. Households experiencing food shortage have coping strategies. For example, they

change their diet by reducing the size or number of meals eaten in a day, eat cheaper or less

preferred food, or switch to wild foods that they can gather. A second strategy is to change

behaviour to ensure more food is available, such as by selling family resources, borrowing

money or taking a child out of school to earn money for the household. In the Hills protected

springs and dug wells constituted 46.3 percent of drinking water supply; in the CDZ tube



29

wells and dug wells provided 56 percent; and for the Delta Zone rainwater collection was the

main source, accounting for 82.5 percent of the drinking water supply. There is a seasonal

water shortage in the Hill and CDZ villages from February to June, when over 10 percent of

the villages face water shortage. In April, the height of the hot season, close to 80 percent of

villages in the Hills face water shortage. The seasonal water shortage in the Delta Zone is

short, from March to May. A study by the WFP covering 600 households in Bago,

Ayeyarwaddy and Yangon regions revealed that for 45 percent in Bago, 37 percent in

Ayeyarwaddy and 35 percent in Yangon region, the main source of livelihood was wage

labour. Average duration with difficulties to access food was from 1.6 to 2 months in these

regions. Four main constraints for agriculture were floods, pests, low and erratic rainfall and

labour availability. Around 25 percent of households in Bago, 22 percent in Yangon and 18

percent in Ayeyarwaddy reported outmigration and in all three cases 80 percent of

outmigration was for better job opportunities.

6.2. Landholdings, access and insecure tenure

The land is one of, if not the most, important assets in rural Myanmar. Ownership of

sufficient land can ensure income and food security. However, ownership of land is not

universal in its distribution amongst the rural population. Among the LIFT surveyed villages

only about 52 percent households owned land. Landownership was more than 75 percent for

Hill households; 64 percent in the CDZ and 34 percent in the Delta Zone. Inadequate access

to land in the uplands is a worsening trend that affects food security. By different estimates

the landless households vary from 35 to 53 percent in Myanmar. In some upland areas

farmers identify loss of land tenure as the most important problem that they face today-and in

these areas declining access to land is potentially the greatest driver of poverty. The root

cause of land tenure insecurity ranges from demographic aspects (such as increased

population, concentration of populations and fragmentation of landholdings), to legal and

institutional aspects (such as encroachment on traditional lands and a statutory framework

with limited respect for and recognition of customary land-use rights).

6.3. Forests are the last refuge of the poorest

In some forest-dependent communities 80 percent of income is derived from forest resource

use, indicating that there is scope for more formal involvement of people in forest product

gathering and forest revenue. As households are no longer able to access enough land to

sustain livelihoods as an initial coping strategy they gather and deplete common resources

such as forests. As less land is available for shifting cultivation, productivity declines and this

leads to depletion of natural resources. People are caught in this downward spiral; poverty

leading to degradation of forests and in consequence degraded forests adversely affecting

agricultural productivity and livelihoods.

6.4. Rural development and poverty reduction plan and activities

Myanmar has a goal for the sustainable development of natural resources. This goal is to be

achieved through the balancing of rural development and poverty reduction activities along

with environmental conservation. Accordingly, the National Environmental Conservation

Committee (NECC) has been implementing the following activities based on lessons learned

from other developing countries, and its own experiences for rural development and poverty

reduction. These are forest conservation, soil conservation, water resource development

(ensure clean drinking water supply), prevention of air pollution, biodiversity conservation,

climate change mitigation, waste management, participation of rural communities and

capacity building. These activities are being conducted by the MOECAF with the

collaboration and cooperation of working committees, relevant authorities in states and



30

regions, INGOs, NGOs and local-level working groups to achieve sustainable rural

development and poverty reduction.

The FD has been providing seedlings to each household at the rate of three teak and 20 other

hardwood species, and for establishing 1 acre of forest plantation in each village in order to

supply rural people with timber, posts and poles for housing and for support to agricultural

operations. Under this programme, a total of 43.48 million seedlings, including 24.39 million

for teak, 24.39 million for hardwood and 8.1 million for village plantations were distributed

in the country during the period 2008-2009 to 2013-2014.

As forests contribute a wide range of goods and services, rural communities depend on them

for their livelihoods. During the past the FD provided for the basic needs of local people by

constituting Local Supply Working Circles (LWCS) in the forests near villages in its

management plans. Today, those forests have disappeared due to high demand for forest

products and encroachment on forest lands. Thus forest management has evolved into a

participatory approach and now CF is being used. The FD issued CFIs in 1995 and has been

encouraging development of CF areas since then. Up to August 2014, a total of 760 CFUGs,

comprising 30 844 members had been established and 49 300 ha of CF were handed over to

the CFUGs.

Since 1970 the FD has been promoting tree planting programmes during the rainy season

with free distribution of seedlings to the public, organizations, associations and schools.

About 15 to 18 million seedlings are distributed every year.

Most rural communities are very dependent on timber and NWFPs for their livelihoods.

Local people mainly extract food, medicinal and aromatic plants and products, fuelwood,

charcoal, bamboo, rattan and bark for subsistence as well as a source of income generation.

Altogether 25 kinds of NWFPs are being collected from the forest and used by the people.

6.5. Gender equality

Rural women in Myanmar are key drivers of agricultural productivity, forest resource use and

management, performing at least 80 percent of the agriculture and livestock work. Women

perform nearly 80 percent of the work related to livestock and also substantially contribute in

agricultural operations. Rural women are among Myanmar's most marginalized groups, with

high vulnerability to food insecurity and poverty. During our interactions with the CFUGs in

12 villages across four different regions, only one Delta village had substantial female

representation and in another village there were a few members. Women did not participate

in the discussions openly and only responded to specific questions occasionally. There is a

need to address this issue. Experience elsewhere has been that regarding planting of forest

species, men generally preferred short rotation species that can be harvested for wood and

sold, while women preferred more long-term species to provide food, fodder, fuelwood and

timber. It would be of considerable value to involve women in planning and management of

CF areas.

6.6. Inclusiveness

On average, 35 percent of the population of Myanmar is landless. While forming CF groups

it is extremely important to involve these landless people as their dependence on the forest is

comparatively the highest. Once assured of equity and transparent management they will

substantially contribute to development, protection and management of the forest areas.

Experience in India has demonstrated this in no uncertain manner. A review of 300 water

user societies revealed that for the successful post management of water systems,

involvement of landless people in a transparent and equitable manner was critically

important. People living in hills and remote areas can be considered as vulnerable populations



31

as the arms of protective administration do not reach there easily. From the climatic point of

view they become vulnerable to the vagaries of nature. Therefore, in the planning process,

special attention needs to be paid to their needs and welfare. Poverty incidence is around

twice as high in rural than urban areas: rural areas account for almost 85 percent of total

poverty. Overall 18.5 percent of people in the CDZ faced food insecurity. This was more

pronounced in highland farming areas and less so in the floodplains and irrigated zones. As

expected it was more pronounced for small farmers and the landless. But household

indebtedness is looming as potentially the largest problem: the median poor owe money

mostly for consumptive purposes.

7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT

There is a need to check the process of forest degradation and restore degraded areas.

Restoration of forests will not only provide considerable rural employment but it will also

promote better water availability and enhance ecological services. There is also a need to pay

attention to augmentation of soil conservation and water availability.

Investment in the forestry sector in Myanmar with regard to development of forests,

establishing plantations in degraded areas, promotion of CF and agroforestry on private lands,

and promotion of the forest-based cottage industry has been very low. The following

interventions can enhance the contribution of the forestry sector towards poverty reduction

and rural development. More detailed description is given in Annex 2.

7.1. Restoration of degraded forest

Objective: Restore the degraded forest areas.

Output: Forest areas are restored to their near natural state.

7.2. Promotion of community forestry

Objective: To regenerate the forest for the overall benefit of the community and also to

provide for their basic needs.

Output: The forests are improved and better ecological services are available; (2) fodder,

food, fuelwood, small timber and timber requirements of people are met; (3) convergence of

other programmes takes place through CF.

7.3. Promotion of agroforestry

Objective: Development of agroforestry on private lands.

Output: (1) support to agriculture and livestock is made available; (2) fruits, fuelwood and

timber are made available.

7.4. Management of shifting cultivation areas

Objective: Sustainable management of shifting cultivation areas is achieved.

Output: (1) Shifting cultivation area is sustainably managed; (2) the livelihoods of shifting

cultivators are improved via better technological inputs.

7.5. Afforestation in CDZ areas

Objective: Afforestation in CDZ areas.

Output: (1) Afforestation is successfully carried out in CDZ areas; (2) lands with saline and

sodic soils are successfully reclaimed.



32

7.6. Establishment of bamboo-based enterprises

Objective: Promotion and establishment of bamboo-based cottage industries and creation of

a marketing network.

Output: (1) Production of articles from bamboo and rattan is substantially increased; (2)

local networks for procurement of these products and their marketing is created.

7.7. Salvage logging

Objective: Take up salvage logging in areas that were worked during the past for removal of

small and malformed timber.

Output: Surplus small and malformed timber of the main hardwoods is extracted.

7.8. Suggested techniques and species

Polyculture gap regeneration or enrichment planting in moist deciduous forest: The species

that may be used inter alia are: Tectona grandis, Xylia xylocarpa, Mitragyna rotundifolia,

Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Adina cordifolia and Terminalia tomentosa. Nursery-raised

seedlings of 50-60 cm height should be planted in such adequate numbers that the area should

receive pole crops of around 160/ha in due course. Tending of coppices and natural

regeneration should to be done. Moisture conservation for individual plants should be

provided via saucer-shaped pits. A small dose of fertilizer should also be applied in the first

year to individual plants and also to advanced growth seedlings and coppice regeneration.

Polyculture gap regeneration or enrichment planting in dry forest areas: The species that may

be used are inter alia: Tectona hamiltonii, Terminalia tomentosa, Shorea siamensis, Shorea

obtusa, Acacia catechu, Schliechera trijuga and Spondias acuminata. Other prescriptions will

be similar to those for moist deciduous forests.

Species for afforestation in CDZ and upland areas: The choice of species can be more broad-

based. There is considerable variability among the sites, therefore the choice of species

should be made based on field observations. One generic recommendation for these areas is

to adopt ripping at a spacing of 2.5 to 3 m apart for site preparation and plant nursery-raised

seedlings at a spacing of 2 to 2.5 m. Also take up dibbling of seeds of Gliricidia sepium,

Cassia siamea and Anona squamosa in order to provide not only greenery but also green

manure and fruits.

Reclamation of saline and sodic soils: Experimental results of over 40 years of work in parts

of India have revealed that the most suitable species are Prosopis juliflora and Acacia

nilotica. Others species which can be planted are inter alia Pongamia pinnata, Albizia lebbek,

Terminalia arjuna, Butea monosperma, ipil-ipil, Casuarina equisetifolia, neem, Cassia

siamea, Emblica officinalis, Pithecolobium dulce, Sesbania grandiflora and Syzygium cumini

Terminalia arjuna is a good species for reclaiming saline and sodic soils. It has been

cultivated in Myanmar. Its further cultivation can reclaim saline and sodic soils and also acid-

sulphate soils.

Coastal plantations: Fast-growing mangrove species like Sonneratia apetala, Avicennia

officinalis, A. alba, A. marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Bruguiera spp. and Rhizophora spp.

are suitable for mangrove plantation from which income can be generated within a short

period. Non-mangrove species such as Acacia spp., Eucalyptus spp., Melaleuca spp. and

Casuarina equisetifolia can be established in coastal areas for terrestrial plantations and are

similarly fast growing.



33

7.9. Suggested agroforestry model

Tree-based farming in the CDZ: In the dry tropics of India, experience reveals that there

should be at least 30 percent perennial tree and shrub cover. A new concept, Tree Based

Farming (TBF), has a theoretical construct that is different from agroforestry. In agroforestry

there is intrinsic emphasis on agricultural crops, and their productivity and trees and other

components are secondary and supportive. However, in the concept of TBF the basic thought

is that it is essentially the trees and shrubs which support the agricultural crop and bring

optimum productivity via their multifaceted roles. In a monsoon zone where rainfall is spread

over four to five months and the average annual rainfall is below 700 mm, TBF has given 25-

30 percent more yield in millets, primarily due to its shelter-belt/wind-break effect.

Species for agroforestry in the CDZ: Borassus, Zizyphus, Acacia catechu, Tectona hamiltonii,

T. grandis, Cassia siamea, neem, Pongamia pinnata, Sesbania grandiflora, ipil-ipil, Acacia

auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Gliricida sepium, Acacia leucophloea, Erythrina spp.

Bauhinia, Melia composita.

Upland areas: Terrace risers cover 10-25 percent of the total surface area of the cropped

uplands in the hills. This land resource has not yet been fully utilized to increase

fodder/fuel/green manure supply. A number of species can also be found which are

compatible with the annual crops. The edges of the upland terraces can be utilized to produce

fodder without causing negative shade effects on the annual crops. Pennisetum purpureum

(Napier grass) is one such species. Fodder trees and shrubs can also be planted along the

edges, notably Flemingia mycrophylla, Leucaena diversifolia and Morus alba. Thysanolaena

maxima (broom-grass), a multipurpose species that provides fodder as well as cash

(inflorescence sold as broom) and improves the environment, has high potential to further

intensify utilization of these land resources in the uplands. Other tree fodder species which

occur (naturally or introduced during the past) in the plains and uplands of Myanmar are inter

alia Bauhinia variegata, Ficus auriculata, F. glabberrima. F. nemmoralis, Litsea

monopetala, Melia composita, Gliricidia sepium and Sesbania grandiflora var. grandiflora.

Delta Region: The suggested agroforestry model for bund planting on paddy fields in a

mixture is: Sesbania grandiflora var. grandiflora (for fodder, food, fuelwood and posts) +

Pongamia pinnata (green manure and fuel) + coconut + Acacia auriculiformis (fuelwood and

small timber) + banana + Melaleuca leucodendron (posts/poles/fuelwood) + Gliricidia

sepium (green manure) + casuarina (poles/posts/fuel wood) + Cassia siamea (green manure

and fuelwood). It has been observed that species grown together have synergy and they

together work as better wind-breaks.

7.10. Promotion of community forestry

CF has not picked up as initially expected. Its implementation started in 1996 and so far in 18

years it has only achieved 5 percent of the intended progress (it was expected to cover only

1.3 percent of the land area of the country which will approximately translate to about 3

percent of the forest area by 2030). There is scope to expand this activity by making

appropriate institutional changes.

The goal: The goal and objective of CF must be very clear from the beginning; it has to be a

twin goal − firstly protecting and improving the forests for ecological needs for the larger

good of a larger number and secondly for the benefit of the local community. CF in Myanmar

has various shades: individual agroforestry plots, regular agriculture, forest plantations for

rural supply and the classical CF concept of protection of forests and their sustainable use.

Under all these conditions it has to be borne in mind that the sovereign state always has the



34

longest interest in sustainability of natural resources because its foundation is based on the

polity of the nation; individuals and communities will not have that long interest.

The process: The focus of CF should be to address livelihoods; in order to do this there can

be self-help groups (SHGs) and income-generating activities. Microfinance is necessary to

develop local initiatives. In some countries (India) women SHGs, by developing income

generation activities, have been working sustainably and profitably. There should be a well-

defined mechanism for proper distribution of the forest products. This has been a source of

conflict in other countries.

The FD and the CFUGs should jointly prepare a management plan for the area after critical

analysis of the protection issues, needs of the villagers and development and management

issues. The plan should aim at sustainable development of degraded forest areas for

production of fuelwood, timber, fodder, arrangements for grazing and modalities for removal

of forest produce and their distribution to the villagers. It should also aim at improving their

livelihoods. The management plan should be in consonance with the approved management

plan of the district. The FD should meet the initial cost of planting and maintenance for three

years. A further period of three years should be considered in certain cases. Participatory

rural appraisal and other participatory tools should be used for the preparation of the

management plan.

Institutional and policy issues: The onus lies on the FD to make it clear to CFUGs about their

rights, duties and responsibilities and there must be a legally-binding and written document

for this. It will ensure trust, transparency and perpetuity. Capacity building of the people not

only on silvicultural matters but also in book-keeping and accounting and related issues will

be a source of empowerment which will help convergence with other programmes. A sharing

mechanism has to be clearly stated, transparent and equitable. The CF programme must

address livelihoods and promote income generation activities.

For CF to be successful, wider policy support is needed to: (a) provide clear and secure forest

tenure; (b) acknowledge customary management systems; (c) improve access to markets and

market channels; (d) establish a revolving fund as microfinance for the SHGs; (e) provide

credit through appropriate institutions; (f) generate economic incentives for conservation and

cottage industry-level products; (g) provide for the initial planning process, management

plans etc. and (h) institute simplified administrative procedures and requirements.

What can make CF successful? In no particular order: a conducive socio-political

environment, social inclusion and equity, willingness of forest officials to closely work with

the people, presence and support of good NGOs/CBOs, good and transparent local

leadership, financial support and linking it with livelihoods. CF needs strong legal and

political support, full ownership of the FD, good participation of the user groups, good

understanding and mutual trust between the FD and CFUGs, technological support and

backstopping from the FD. There is also a need for implementation of forest protection laws

to safeguard community resources and so on. Villagers need continuous availability of goods

to sustain their livelihoods. Therefore, the management plans need to be oriented in these

directions and make provision for periodic produce availability. In this way agriculture and

livestock linkage to CF is not only required but also essential.

7.11. Capacity building

In addition to institutional reforms capacity building of FD personnel and also of organized

groups like CFUGs or the artisans working with bamboo, rattan and in other fields, can be of

great help in improving their skills and leading to better opportunities for income generation

and productivity. There is an urgent need to stabilize CF groups where the members can be



35

trained in diverse areas starting from silviculture to book-keeping. Similarly, the forest staff

also need to be trained for community mobilization, carrying out participatory rural appraisal

and in conflict resolution. There is a need to strengthen both the numbers and the training

quality of the FD personnel.

7.12. Harmonizing the policies of different sectors

Harmonizing the policies of forestry, agriculture, livestock and fisheries sectors and

removing certain bottlenecks or some contradictory provisions can be of great benefit to the

village-level population. One of the major areas to be resolved at the policy level is between

land-use classification wherein the agriculture sector promotes cultivation (also on forest

land) while the forestry sector wants to protect, conserve and grow forest for the common

good, and for flow of benefits. Similarly, there are grey areas between livestock rearing and

forest conservation. For the livestock sector, promotion of goats and sheep may be the

priority, but particularly goats, if allowed to browse in the forest, impact natural regeneration

adversely. Similarly, there are grey areas between fisheries and forest, regarding waterbodies

and fish culture, which need to be harmonized and resolved.

7.13. Important species that can be promoted/used

There have been several useful introductions to Myanmar from neighbouring countries; for

example, sandalwood and Pterocarpus santalinus (red sander). These are commercially

extremely valuable species; they can be successfully grown on suitable sites and can be of

enormous benefit to people and the state. Similarly, there are species like Gliricidia sepium

(for green manure), Sesbania grandiflora (for fodder), both of which are valuable for

agricultural systems and livestock. Species like Terminalia arjuna and Acacia nilotica can be

used for reclamation of saline lands. All these species are present in Myanmar and they need

to be further expanded and cultivated. There are Napier grass varieties which can yield up to

100 tonnes of green fodder/ha/year under irrigated conditions. These can be grown on farm

bunds very successfully and can be a good source of fodder for livestock. There is enormous

scope to use improved high yielding varieties of mango, Emblica officinalis and Aegle

marmelos particularly in the CDZ, which will augment both nutrition and rural income. There

is also scope to introduce improved varieties of millets and perennial pigeon pea in suitable

areas. There are improved dwarf varieties of drum-stick (Moringa pterigosperma) which start

fruiting in the first year; they can be introduced in suitable areas. Agar wood and sandalwood

can be successfully grown.

7.14. Institutions and research

There are number of laws which address conservation (e.g. the Forest Policy and Forest

Law). The CFI was issued in 1995 and during the past 19 years progress has been only 5

percent of the intended goal up to 2030. Ongoing forest degradation appears to be a serious

combination of both policy and governance failure. Regarding promotion of CF there appears

to be a need to create a forest extension officer to support the district- and township-level

officer of the FD. Empowerment of the people involved in CF can also go a long way to

making it a success. Capacity building of forest staff to work with communities and other

sister organization and NGOs is also important.

Forestry research is entirely left to the FRI. However, field-oriented research seems to have

stopped within the FD. Forest growth is based on empirical field knowledge, rather than

formal experimental research. It has become a lot more important under the changing climatic

conditions. There is a need to revive the posts of silviculturists in the FD, either based on

species or on main climatic zones. Two to three silviculturist posts appear to be necessary,

with some field staff and other support.



36

There is a need to review the enrichment planting and natural regeneration being attempted

under the Bago Yoma greening project and come to a clear understanding regarding the

species that are growing successfully. From general experience of tropical forestry, it is felt

that the current rate of planting of 70 seedlings per acre in enrichment planting areas is not

adequate and it must be at least 200 to 250 seedlings per acre. In addition, moisture

conservation for individual plants and some fertilizer application are necessary. It will also be

necessary to tend the advanced growth and coppice shoots of important species and, if

required, provide clearing of the unwanted vegetation growth to free the seedlings of desired

species.

8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS

Forest management and forestry practices cut across a wide range of sectors which are

directly concerned with poverty reduction and rural development. More prominent among

them are food security, agriculture, livestock, soil and water conservation, horticulture, water

supply (quality and quantity), and energy (rural and urban). In fact, it can be said that forests

are the foster mother of agriculture (broadly defined to include crops, livestock, fisheries etc.)

which in turn is the main basis of rural food security and rural development.

8.1. Support to agriculture

Water is the main product of forests; in this way it links to all human and animal lives and

their activities. Forest produces soil on which agriculture is practised. Trees can be used for

soil reclamation and also for upkeep of soil health. Without the organic matter and the

nutrients that the vegetation and forests provide the disintegrated rocks are inert material.

Increased vegetative cover generally improves soil structure and its water-holding capacity.

Agricultural productivity and health of the soils on farmlands, and broad-based soil and water

conservation are the key areas where trees and shrubs have a pivotal role. A number of plants,

leaves, flowers, fruits and roots contribute not only to food security in rural areas but they are

also source of rural health. Nutrient-rich water that flows through the forests onto agricultural

fields adds to crop productivity. More directly green and dry leaves are used as source of

organic manure.

Most horticultural crops have their origin in forests and their still-wild cousins are important

gene banks and the only fallback support in time of genetic need.

8.2. Fodder for the livestock sector

Livestock rearing is an important agricultural enterprise among poor families. The forestry

sector provides 40 percent of livestock nutrition. In Nepal more than 50 percent of fodder for

ruminant animals comes from forest sources. In the middle Himalayan hills of India fodder

trees constitute 10-15 percent green forage during the monsoon, 80 percent during winter and

60 percent in summer.

8.3. Habitat for fisheries

Marine and freshwater ecosystems are the habitats of fish and crustaceans. More prominently

in coastal environments the mangroves are an excellent breeding habitat for fish. Forests play

an important role in providing sustainability to these ecosystems and habitats.

8.4. Foundation for soil and water conservation

Forests produce soil and hold and release water over a period of time to provide perennial

status to rivers and other waterbodies, which are the lifelines of environmental conservation

and the community in many cases. In order to fully appreciate the contribution of forest in its



37

role as a water purifier and provider of clean water we have to only go to the concept of

parity of payments. It would be fully recognized and, it is only a matter of time, when this

contribution and payment for ecological services will be taken into account in the

computations on national GDP, which will in turn lead to better understanding, care and

development of forest land.

8.5. Bedrock of rural health

There are more than 800 medicinal plants and other products which are used by forest

dwellers and rural people in various parts of Myanmar. It is a well-known fact that nearly 80

percent of the population of developing countries across the world uses traditional medicines,

most of which are plant-based, for health care. This also applies to the use of herbal

medicines for cattle and other livestock. This again is the non-monetized contribution of

forests to the general welfare and health of the people.

8.6. Role in environmental conservation and climate change mitigation

The role of forests in environmental conservation is related to protection of water resources,

soil protection, influence on the local climate and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,

conservation of the natural habitat and biological diversity, recreational and other social

functions and protecting cultural dimensions. The role of forests in climate change mitigation

is invaluable. Forests have four major roles in climate change: they currently contribute about

one-sixth of global carbon emissions when they are cleared, overused or degraded; they react

sensitively to a changing climate; when managed sustainably, they produce wood fuel as a

benign alternative to fossil fuels; and finally, they have the potential to absorb about one-

tenth of global carbon emissions projected for the first half of this century into their biomass,

soils and products and store them − in principle in perpetuity. Natural forest is the home of

wildlife and wildlife is also a source of food and income for rural people.



38

ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Climber of Myanmar, 2003.

Advocating for Sustainable Development in Burma.

Agriculture and Rural Development in Myanmar: Policy Issues and Challenges, 2013.

Agro-forestry as a Tool toward Sustainable Development in Babati District, 2009.

Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study Working Paper Series (1997)

Better Forestry, Less Poverty (FAO)

Challenges and Practices in Watershed Management in Myanmar 2013. (PPT)

Community Forestry in Myanmar: Progress & Potentials, 2011.

Community Forestry in Myanmar: Some Field Realities, 2011.

Country Strategic Opportunities Programme 2014.

Draft National Land Use Policy (5th

edition)

Ex-Post Evaluation Report of Promoting Sustainable Utilization of Bamboo Through

Community Participation in Sustainable Forest Management, Myanmar, ITTO Project.

Forest Policy Review (FAO)

Forests and Poverty Alleviation.

Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA), 2010, FAO.

Global Forest Resources Assessment, 1990, FAO.

Hazard Profile of Myanmar.

Indigenous Knowledge & Natural Commons in Myanmar, 2013.

Karen Forest Management on the Thai-Burmese Border

Land and Forest Tenure Challenges in the Political Transition in Myanmar

LIFT- Household Survey 2013.

Logging Burma frontier Forests

Mangrove for Future National Strategy Action Plan

Myanmar- Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Environment Initial Sector Assessment,

Strategy, and Road Map, 2013, ADB.

Myanmar Country Report on Bamboo Resources, 2006, FAO.

Myanmar Forestry Outlook Study (2009)

Myanmar REDD+ Roadmap

Myanmar’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to Climate Change

(2012)

Myanmar-Action Plan on Disaster Risk Management, 2012.

Myanmar-Agricultural Sector Review and Investment Strategy Vol. II.

Non-wood Forest Product Community-based Enterprise Development: a way of

livelihood improvement in Laos, 2006, FAO.



39

OECD-FAO, Agricultural Outlook (2014-2023)

People, Forests and Human Well-being, 2008.

Policies, Laws, Rules and Instructions

Rapid Plantation Expansion Fuels Deforestation in Ethnic Regions, 2013.

Rural Development Environmental Programming Guidelines

State of the World’ Forests 2014

Study on the Evolution of Some Deforestation Drivers and their Potential Impacts on the

Costs of an Avoiding Deforestation Scheme, Final Report 2010.

Sustainable Coastal Zone Management in Myanmar, 2013.

Tenure Security for Better Forestry, FAO.

Unleashing the Potential of Community Forest Enterprises in Myanmar, 2014.

Upland Land Tenure Security

Voluntary Guidelines on Small Scale Fisheries, 2014, FAO.

Voluntary Guidelines on the Governance of Tenure: At a glance, 2012, FAO.

Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure, 2012, FAO.



40

ANNEX 2: INTERVENTION DESCRIPTIONS AND INVESTMENT PROFILES

Employment potential needs to be generated by various forestry operations. At the same time it

may also be kept in view to generate some produce from the forest that should be of food value

to the people or as fodder for their livestock and also green manure to support agricultural

productivity. Most poor farmers and landless people primarily think about their immediate

requirements of livelihoods and they are not per se interested in long term gains. Some

interventions have been suggested for investments in forestry sector. They may be considered

based on the availability of funds. The size and scale also will depend upon funds and the value

judgment of the eventual plan design; it may have ecological, rural development, poverty

reduction and link to other sectors, focus. The present sequence in intervention is suggested

keeping the poverty reduction and rural development as the main focus which is the primacy and

the stated objective of NAPA. However, this may be altered based on regional and sectoral

priorities.

Suggested interventions in order of preference are:

Sustainable management of Shifting Cultivation areas.

Development of Agro forestry on private lands.

Development of Community Forestry.

Establishment of Bamboo based Enterprises and Marketing set up.

Afforestation in the Dry Zone.

Salvage Logging, Tending and Restoration of Degraded Moist Deciduous Forests.

Restoration of Degraded Forest.



41

Intervention 1: Sustainable management of shifting cultivation areas

Process

The ways to improve the livelihood of the shifting cultivators would be by

introducing appropriate crop varieties which can be high yielding and less

exacting on the sites. It would also be ideal to evolve appropriate mixtures

where, in the event of failure of rains, some crop yield is available. Even

from conservation of sites point of view, it would be good to have mixture

of legumes and cereals. In fact in many of the areas the cultivators are

already practicing the same approach as their livelihood depends on it.

Outside intervention should be sympathetic to their cause and should

incorporate appropriate technologies and inputs. A different approach can

also be adopted in these areas where people can be educated to produce bio-

fertilizers for their use, which will be cost effective and ecologically more

desirable. The bio-fertilizers could also be supplied by the government

selectively to the hilly areas for augmenting agricultural productivity.

Certain components which yield fodder, green manure or cash crops can be

introduced in these areas, both for support to agriculture and livestock, and

also for generation of income. Napier grass as a fodder source, and Broom

grass both as fodder and also for cash income, are two suggested species.

These grasses will not only provide fodder and cash income but they will

also protect the soil from erosion. Intervention also will be required to

conserve some of these hilly areas on the pattern which is available in parts

of India and Nepal, where big cardamom and a tree species (Alnus

nepalensis) are cultivated with great success, in ecologically sustainable

manner. However this choice will largely depend upon the preference of

the people, as there is a trade-off between food crops and cash crop.

Shifting

Cultivation

and Agro

forestry

Depending on altitude besides rice, both early and late maturing, the crops

include millets, maize, cotton, potatoes pulses, yams, chillies, tobacco,

vegetables, mustard, sugarcane, sesame, ginger, turmeric, sweet potatoes,

tapioca, oil seeds, cotton, etc. with pineapples, bananas, orange and jack

fruit among them. Alder (Alnus nepalensis) trees are allowed to come up in

the fields. Besides providing small timber, charcoal, firewood, etc., it also

helps to increase the nitrogen content of the soil as it has nodules containing

symbiotic bacteria. The leguminous tree Parkia roxburghii is also grown

for its edible beans. Farmers raise silkworms on oak in places. Coffee is

grown under the shade of silver oak and jack fruit trees. In some parts of

India coffee, tea, Big cardamom (Amomum subulatum) and Dioscorea spp.

(for sale to pharmaceutical industry) have been commercially cultivated

with loan from institutional finance.

The suggested mechanism is to take up soil and water conservation

measures by use of appropriate species in the Shifting Cultivation areas and

also by stabilizing the slopes with vegetation and crops. While the

cultivation is still going on we should introduce elements of such vegetation

which do not allow the site to degrade very much. The real work will be

when the areas are left fellow and at this time it would be ideal to introduce

cover crops along with tree and bamboo species which will not only protect



42

the soil, but also improve it. Only generic prescriptions are made regarding

choice of species, but the final choice may be made depending on the

locality and the overall experience of the people.

Appropriate choice of species, based on synthesis of prevalent practices,

which are helpful both for livelihoods and for protection of sites and at the

same time are relatively tolerant of climatic fluctuations and pest and

diseases will be helpful. A combination of trees and shrubs which can be

grown with fewer disturbances to site will be preferable.

The Shifting Cultivation areas which have got degraded are not primarily

because of Shifting Cultivation practices as most shifting cultivators look at

short term crops and its combinations to meet their requirements of food,

fodder and fuel wood. The degradation of such areas has often happened

largely because of timber harvesting, also keeping export of material in

view. It would be desirable to introduce certain species in Shifting

Cultivation areas which have food, and other economic value. As most of

these areas are in the uplands introduction of Broom grass along the farm

bunds can serve both as fodder and also provide cash income. Similarly

introduction of Napier grass and certain other shrubs can be of good value

to the farmers. It may also be considered to introduce bamboo both as food

crop and also for it multiple uses. Species like orange, Avocado, pear,

banana etc., could also be of value to the farmers. In the areas which are

suitable for growing of teak, even teak can be a good option in a small

scale. Most people living in a hill country depend quite considerably on

live stock as a source of income for their livelihood. Therefore a good

component of fodder in the agroforestry systems will be quite desirable.

The choice should be for perennial fodder crops or for the trees fodder

species. Sesbania could also be a good multipurpose choice. Similarly there

is a variety of Cajanus cajan which lasts for more than one season. It

would be good source of pulses and also to some extent fuel wood for the

agroforestry areas under Shifting Cultivation areas.

In parts of Meghalaya (India) bamboo drip irrigation system has been

evolved by use of different sizes of culms. It is ecologically most suitable.

Areca nut, black pepper and betel leaves are successfully grown with this

method. Experiments conducted by the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, Shillong have shown that in hilly areas, the bottom third of the

slope can be used for agricultural crops on terraces, irrigated from low

dams; the middle third can be used for fruit trees and cash crops such as

coffee, black pepper, big cardamom, etc., planted along the contours; while

the upper third should be used for forestry and fodder crops. This could

form a basis for the planning of the land-use pattern in programmes for

shifting cultivation control.



43

Intervention 2: Development of agroforestry on private lands

Context World over, particularly in the developing countries, which are mainly

based on agriculture, the agroforestry is emerging as an important land

use. In the high rain fall areas the protective role of trees and shrubs is of

considerable importance. The high rain fall areas with high mean

temperatures are susceptible to laterisation. Under such situations

addition of organic matter in the soil, generally in form of green or dry

leaves of the trees is of critical importance in maintaining soil the

fertility. In the same way in the Dry areas presence of rows of trees and

shrubs along the boundary of the fields as shelter belt can enhance

agricultural productivity by about 25%. This effect is created by

deflecting the desiccating winds. It is more pronounced at the time of

ripening of grains from milky stage to the solid form. Dry winds at this

stage can reduce the grain yield considerably. Besides this effect in

supporting agricultural productivity, the agroforestry practices also

produce green manure, fodder, fruits, fuel wood, small timber, poles and

posts for use by the farmers. In addition the trees are also helpful in soil

and moisture conservation.

Fairly large numbers of agroforestry system are already in place in

various parts of Myanmar. What is required at this stage is to give it a

boost by bringing in suitable policy initiatives. While adoption of

agroforestry in the moist zone may be to some extent a matter of choice,

but in the Dry Zone the presence of trees on farm lands is a necessity.

Agro forestry now needs to be looked at as a provider of green manure,

fodder, fruits, fuel wood, small timber, poles and posts and also a help in

soil and moisture conversation. Further the row planting of trees along

the boundary of the fields can also act as wind break, besides being

support to livelihoods and income generation.

Process The ways to improve the livelihood of the shifting cultivators would be

by introducing appropriate crop varieties which can be high yielding and

less exacting on the sites. It would also be ideal to evolve appropriate

mixtures where, in the event of failure of rains, some crop yield is

available. Even from conservation of sites point of view, it would be

good to have mixture of legumes and cereals. In fact in many of the areas

the cultivators are already practicing the same approach as their

livelihood depends on it. Outside intervention should be sympathetic to

their cause and should incorporate appropriate technologies and inputs. A

different approach can also be adopted in these areas where people can

be educated to produce bio-fertilizers for their use, which will be cost

effective and ecologically more desirable. The bio-fertilizers could also

be supplied by the government selectively to the hilly areas for

augmenting agricultural productivity. Certain components which yield

fodder, green manure or cash crops can be introduced in these areas, both

for support to agriculture and livestock, and also for generation of

income. Napier grass as a fodder source, and Broom grass both as fodder



44

and also for cash income, are two suggested species. These grasses will

not only provide fodder and cash income but they will also protect the

soil from erosion. Intervention also will be required to conserve some of

these hilly areas on the pattern which is available in parts of India and

Nepal, where big cardamom and a tree species (Alnus nepalensis) are

cultivated with great success, in ecologically sustainable manner.

However this choice will largely depend upon the preference of the

people, as there is a trade-off between food crops and cash crop.

Shifting

Cultivation and

Agro forestry

Depending on altitude besides rice, both early and late maturing, the

crops include millets, maize, cotton, potatoes pulses, yams, chillies,

tobacco, vegetables, mustard, sugarcane, sesame, ginger, turmeric, sweet

potatoes, tapioca, oil seeds, cotton, etc. with pineapples, bananas, orange

and jack fruit among them. Alder (Alnus nepalensis) trees are allowed to

come up in the fields. Besides providing small timber, charcoal,

firewood, etc., it also helps to increase the nitrogen content of the soil as

it has nodules containing symbiotic bacteria. The leguminous tree Parkia

roxburghii is also grown for its edible beans. Farmers raise silkworms on

oak in places. Coffee is grown under the shade of silver oak and jack

fruit trees. In some parts of India coffee, tea, Big cardamom (Amomum

subulatum) and Dioscorea spp. (for sale to pharmaceutical industry) have

been commercially cultivated with loan from institutional finance.

The suggested mechanism is to take up soil and water conservation

measures by use of appropriate species in the Shifting Cultivation areas

and also by stabilizing the slopes with vegetation and crops. While the

cultivation is still going on we should introduce elements of such

vegetation which do not allow the site to degrade very much. The real

work will be when the areas are left fellow and at this time it would be

ideal to introduce cover crops along with tree and bamboo species which

will not only protect the soil, but also improve it. Only generic

prescriptions are made regarding choice of species, but the final choice

may be made depending on the locality and the overall experience of the

people.

Appropriate choice of species, based on synthesis of prevalent practices,

which are helpful both for livelihoods and for protection of sites and at

the same time are relatively tolerant of climatic fluctuations and pest and

diseases will be helpful. A combination of trees and shrubs which can be

grown with fewer disturbances to site will be preferable.

The Shifting Cultivation areas which have got degraded are not primarily

because of Shifting Cultivation practices as most shifting cultivators look

at short term crops and its combinations to meet their requirements of

food, fodder and fuel wood. The degradation of such areas has often

happened largely because of timber harvesting, also keeping export of

material in view. It would be desirable to introduce certain species in

Shifting Cultivation areas which have food, and other economic value.

As most of these areas are in the uplands introduction of Broom grass



45

along the farm bunds can serve both as fodder and also provide cash

income. Similarly introduction of Napier grass and certain other shrubs

can be of good value to the farmers. It may also be considered to

introduce bamboo both as food crop and also for it multiple uses. Species

like orange, Avocado, pear, banana etc., could also be of value to the

farmers. In the areas which are suitable for growing of teak, even teak

can be a good option in a small scale. Most people living in a hill

country depend quite considerably on live stock as a source of income

for their livelihood. Therefore a good component of fodder in the

agroforestry systems will be quite desirable. The choice should be for

perennial fodder crops or for the trees fodder species. Sesbania could

also be a good multipurpose choice. Similarly there is a variety of

Cajanus cajan which lasts for more than one season. It would be good

source of pulses and also to some extent fuel wood for the agroforestry

areas under Shifting Cultivation areas.

In parts of Meghalaya (India) bamboo drip irrigation system has been

evolved by use of different sizes of culms. It is ecologically most

suitable. Areca nut, black pepper and betel leaves are successfully grown

with this method. Experiments conducted by the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research, Shillong have shown that in hilly areas, the

bottom third of the slope can be used for agricultural crops on terraces,

irrigated from low dams; the middle third can be used for fruit trees and

cash crops such as coffee, black pepper, big cardamom, etc., planted

along the contours; while the upper third should be used for forestry and

fodder crops. This could form a basis for the planning of the land-use

pattern in programmes for shifting cultivation control.

Approach The farm lands in Myanmar can be classified into three main groups for

the purpose of agroforestry. The first one will be the areas where settled

agriculture is being practiced and crops are taken on a regular basis. This

can be called agroforestry on permanent agricultural lands. The second

category can be the Shifting Cultivation areas where there is slash and

burn agriculture and where crops are taken on rotational basis; initially

for few years and then land is left fallow for forest vegetation to grow for

some years before it is brought under agriculture once again. This can be

called agroforestry on Shifting Cultivation lands. The third category will

be the saline land in the Dry Zone where because of high level of salinity

the land has been left fallow and cultivation of agricultural crops is not

possible. This can be called agroforestry on saline lands. The

agroforestry approaches to be adopted in all the three categories are

described below.

Agroforestry on

permanent

agricultural land.

There is whole range of options available regarding choice of species to

be planted on permanent agricultural lands. The suggestion here is to

plant only a single line or may be more than one line depending on the

size of land holding of the farmer, along with rows of shrubs to form a

continuous vegetative wall like structure from the ground level upwards.



46

Such a wind break can protect eight times of its height from the hot and

cold wind effects. The wind starts rising upwards from a distance of three

times the height of the trees from the wind ward side and it touches back

the ground after a distance of five times the height of the trees on the lee

ward side. The choice could be a mixture of species to yield a variety of

products. Tree species can be planted at 3 meters apart along the

periphery of the land. Nursery raised seedlings should be used for this

type of planting. The intervening space could be filled with shrubs by

sowing of seeds. The focus on shrubs will be for production of food,

fodder, green manure and fuel wood. While the trees could be used for

production of fuel wood by lopping the branches in appropriate season so

as to not to interfere with the agricultural crops. The trees will also yield

poles and posts and timber in due course. Bamboo can be a component

of this type of planting. Particularly in the Dry areas when the corps have

been harvested the trees can be lopped for collecting fuel wood. It has

been observed that a combination of numbers of species (sometimes 10

to 20 brings synergy and helps the overall growth). By way of example

some species choice is given below

Species for

Agroforestry in

Dry Zone

Many of the species are already in use by the farmers depending on the

site conditions, type of soil and the terrain. A choice could be made out

of the following species depending upon the necessity of the farmer and

the suitability of growing conditions. The suggested species are -

Borassus, Zizyphus, Acacia catechu, Tectona hamiltonii, T. grandis,

Cassia siamea, Neem, Pongamia pinnata, Sesbania grandiflora, Ipil-Ipil,

Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Gliricida sepium, Acacia

leucophloea, Erythrina spp. Bauhinia variegata, Melia composita etc.

Tree Based

Farming in Dry

Zone

In order to rehabilitate and also to maintain the site without degradation

in the dry tropics of India the experience revealed that there should be at

least 30% perennial tree and shrub cover on farm lands. A concept has

got evolved which is called Tree Based Farming (TBF), and theoretically

it is different from agroforestry. In agroforestry there is emphasis on

agricultural crops, and their productivity and trees and other components

are secondary and supportive. However, in the concept of TBF the basic

thought is that it is essentially the trees and shrubs which support the

agricultural crop and bring the optimum productivity by their

multifaceted roles. In a monsoon zone where rain fall is spread over 4-5

months and the average annual rain fall is below 700 mm the TBF has

given 25-30 percent more yield in millets, primarily due to its wind-

break effect. The technique is as described for the permanent agricultural

lands and species choice should be as desired by the farmer. This can be

practiced in the Dry Zone of Myanmar, with advantage.

Species for

Agroforestry in

Upland areas

In the hilly areas the terrace risers cover 10-25% of the total surface area

of the cropped lands. This land resource has not yet been fully utilized to

increase fodder/ fuel wood/ green manure supply. A number of species

can be planted which are compatible with the annual crops. The edges of



47

the upland terraces can be utilized to produce fodder without causing

negative shade effects to the annual crops. Pennisetum purpureum

(Napier grass) is one such species. There are improved varieties of this

grass available in India namely: CO3 and CO4, which under intensive

cultivation can yield 100 tons of green fodder per hectare. Even under

rain fed conditions in Myanmar, as the rainfall is better distributed and

adequate (except in the Dry Zone) in rest of the country the improved

varieties of Napier will yield up to 60 tons of green fodder per hectare. It

can be a great support to live stock rearing. Fodder trees and shrubs can

also be planted along the edges, notably Flemingia mycrophylla,

Leucaena diversifolia and Morus alba. Thysanolaena maxima (the

Broom grass), a multipurpose species that provides fodder as well as

cash (inflorescence sold as broom) and improves the environment, has

high potential. Other tree fodder species which occur (naturally or were

introduced during the past) in plains and uplands of Myanmar are

Bauhinia variegata, Ficus auriculata, F. glabberrima. F. nemmoralis,

Litsea monopetala, Melia composita, Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania

grandiflora var grandiflora etc. Some of these species are already

growing very well in certain areas; their cultivation can be expanded.

Melia composita is a fast growing species. Its leaves are used as fodder.

It produces high quality timber and the tree has light crown; ideal for

agroforestry. In Shan plateau areas it is growing very well. Acacia

auriculiformis is also growing fairly well in Shan plateau area. It can

come up very well on depleted sites, and is capable of reclaiming the

areas. It yields very good quality small timber. In parts of India it fetches

nearly 30% of the price of teak and is used for furniture making on large

scale, Similarly Sesbania is a large shrub. Its leaves are used for fodder,

flower are used as vegetable and the stem is used for pole and fuel wood.

It can also come us under saline conditions.

Species for

Agroforestry in

Delta region

The suggested agroforestry species for Delta region for bund planting on

paddy fields in a mixture are: Sesbania grandiflora var. grandiflora (for

fodder, food, fuel wood and post), Pongamia pinnata (green manure and

fuel), Coconut, Acacia auriculiformis (fuel wood and small timber),

Banana, Melaleuca leucodendron (post/pole/ fuel wood), Gliricidia

sepium (green manure), Casuarina (pole/ post/ fuelwood), Cassia siamea

(green manure and fuel wood). These are some examples, but many more

variants are already in use.

Agroforestry in

Shifting

Cultivation areas

Ethnic communities practicing shifting cultivation raise agricultural

crops and trees simultaneously, as they need the former for food, and the

latter to provide timber and bamboos for house construction, agricultural

implements, fencing, etc., and also to provide a good burn when the land

is opened for agriculture. They see no dichotomy between agriculture

and forestry, and only wish to obtain an economically beneficial way of

life from their land. The study of their methods will help to evolve better

ways for the development of multiple cropping and inter-cropping, and



48

of agroforestry.

Agro forestry on

saline lands

Salinity is very often induced due to excessive evaporation and less of

leaching. Whatever may be the cause very good fertile sites have

become saline lands in many parts of the world, including Myanmar.

The experiments over a long period of time in India have shown that

initially only two species when planted following a particular technique

can come up successfully namely: Prosopis juliflora and Acacia nilotica.

It also has been proven that the initial planting must be done by creating

an augur hole of 15 cm diameter and going below the calcareous pan if

that exists. The hole should be filled with better soil and sand and some

organic manure. In the initial 5 to 7 years these species reclaim the site to

some extent and reduce the level of salinity, thereafter some other

species can be grown. In the first few years the roots remain confined to

the augur hole itself and later on after about 7 years they start spreading

laterally and the soils percolation capacity of the site is also improved.



49

Intervention 3: Development of community forestry

Justification In many countries of world participatory forestry is being

practiced in the name of Joint Forest Management /

Community Forestry / Social Forestry or Participatory

Forestry. Main goal is to seek people’s participation in

protection and management of forest areas. It is being

practiced in different countries in various forms but the basic

philosophy is to involve people in development and

management of forests. Myanmar started this process in 1995,

but the progress has been very slow. The CF has not picked up

as initially expected. Its implementation started in 1996 and so

far in 18 years it has only achieved 5% of the intended

progress. It was expected to cover only 1.3% of the land area

of the country which will approximately translate into 3% of

the forest area by 2030.

Considering the fact that there is very heavy dependence of

people on forests and availability of funds for forest

development are very less, Community Forestry offers a great

opportunity to utilize human labour for development of the

forest areas, which in turn will not only meet the requirement

of the people, but also be very good from ecological point of

view. What is required is to have very clear legal provisions

wherein people are empowered to get into an arrangement

with the government of Myanmar through the Forest

Department, by signing a legally enforceable document. This

document should clearly define the duties and responsibilities

of the Forest Department, Community Forest User Groups and

other government departments which are active at the village

level, besides it should also outline the role of NGOs and

CBOs. Experience in India has been that empowerment of

people has given very good result in rural development in a

large number of cases.

Priority Considering the fact that the investment in forestry sector has

not been forthcoming there is good scope to involve people in

management and development of degraded forest areas.

However, this needs to be attempted in such a way that

peoples’ requirements of food, fodder, fuelwood and timber

are met on continuous basis. People are not in a position to

wait for a long time for only trees to grow and become

available for harvest. Therefore the model should be such that

practically from the second year onwards some products are

available to them from Community Forest areas.

The approach of community forestry in Myanmar has several

shades; sometimes it is individual plots of agro-forestry, other

times it could be regular agriculture or forest plantation or



50

natural forest protection, development and management.

Ideally as we are talking in-terms of forest, the Community

Forestry must have forest protection and conservation as the

main objective as it will serve larger number of people than

the members of CFUGs alone. The process here could involve

restoring the forest area by raising plantation, closing the area

from fire and grazing, stopping removals of the forest products

from the area, and caring for the natural regeneration and its

restoration. In long run the benefits of this will flow in the

following three areas.

Scope To Make Community Forestry a Success:

There is scope to expand this activity by making appropriate

institutional changes and also by providing it support in the

following areas:

The goal and objective of CF must be very clear from the

beginning; it has to be a twin goal- firstly protecting and

improving the forests for ecological needs for larger good

of larger number, and secondly for the benefit of the local

community.

Provision should be made for some Entry Point Activity,

based on the main requirement of the CFUG. Provision

should also be made for the initial planning process and

preparation of Management Plans etc. The experience has

been that even with these provisions only about two-

thirds of CF groups are active after nearly 25 years of

existence in India, where Joint Forest Management is

primarily based on degraded forest development. Hence it

is necessary to meet these initial expenses.

Participatory Rural Appraisal and other participatory

tools should be used for the preparation of the

Management Plan. This will bring out the problems, the

needs and solutions from the people. It need not be

confined only for forestry sector issues; it could be

overall for village development.

The FD and the CFUGs should jointly prepare a

Management plan for the area after critical analysis of the

protection issues, needs of the villagers and development

and management issues. The Plan should aim at

sustainable development of degraded forest areas for

production of firewood, timber, fodder and arrangement

for grazing and modalities for removal of forest produce

and their distribution to the villagers. Villagers would

need continuous availability of goods to sustain their



51

livelihoods. Therefore the Management Plans need to be

oriented in those directions and make provision for

periodic availability of forest produce.

The focus of CF should be to address livelihoods. It

should incorporate provisions for credit availability from

institutional sources. Credit has been a major problem in

the rural areas. Preferably a Revolving fund should be

provided by the government to each CFUG as grant, and

from which the CFUGs can lend to individuals or SHGs

for enterprise development. CFUGs can also plan for

other Income Generating Activities. Providing channels

for Micro Finance is also essential for Income Generation

activities.

As CF is entirely anchored in rural areas and as people

are largely dependent upon agriculture the linkage of CF

to agriculture and livestock is not only required but also

essential. While planning for production from CF areas

requirement of fodder for livestock, and other products to

support agriculture must be kept in view.

People lack resources. Poverty is more in the rural areas.

To expect people to invest in development of degraded

forest areas is not realistic. As being done in some

countries (e.g. India) the FD should meet the initial cost

of planting and maintenance for 3 years. Further period of

3 years should be considered in certain cases, which need

special attention or are difficult to restore/regenerate.

People could be entrusted with the responsibility of

protection of the areas. Grass and other useful herbs could

be permitted to be removed on cut and carry basis, as

regulated by the CFUG and as provided in the

Management Plan

There should be well defined mechanism for proper

distribution of the forest products. This has been a source

of conflict in other countries.

Capacity building of the people not only on silvicultural

matters but also in book keeping and accounting and

related issues will be a source of empowerment which

will help in convergence with other programmes. The

aim has to be a long term sustainability of the CF

institution; hence proper account keeping and training of

people in different aspects will be necessary.

Provision should be made to provide economic incentives

for conservation of forest areas and also for cottage



52

industry level products. People in the rural areas are not

in a position to market their produce satisfactorily hence

improved access to markets and market channels should

be provided

The voices from the field all over the participatory forestry

implementing countries are equivocal that technological

support and back stopping from FD is absolutely essential on

continuous basis. It is also equally required to safeguard the

community resources that exist and that will get created. FD

can also often play a conflict resolution role between CFUGs

and within the CFUG.

Benefits The forest will get improved and there will be better

ecological services. Soil erosion will get checked and there

will be better regulated and cleaner flow of water in the

streams. Besides this the micro climate of the areas would

improve and there will be large availability of leaf manure

from the forest areas which will directly and indirectly benefit

the agriculture.

There will be increased availability of fodder, food, fuel wood,

small timber, and timber from the forest areas which will help

people in their economic development. People in rural areas

depend on the forest to a large extent to meet their needs of

fodder, fuel wood, poles and posts and bamboos. With a

restored forest and by bringing it to its optimal productivity,

availability of these goods will increase. Regenerated forest

will also be very good source of medicinal, aromatic and food

plants which are very closely linked with the local culture of

the area.

The experience has shown that Community Forestry has

brought people together on the same platform. They have

realized the benefits of the team work. This team work is a

very favourable situation to seek services from various

departments of the government. The voice of an organized

group makes considerable impact and it also helps to seek

services as a team rather than as individuals. With a good

leadership the CFUGs can become a reasonably strong

institution which will be helpful in convergence of other

programmes.



53

Intervention 4: Establishment of bamboo-based enterprises and marketing set up

Context Myanmar has rich bamboo resources and long history of bamboo

processing and utilization. Even though it enjoys a rich bamboo resource,

its development and utilization remains in a relatively back-ward

condition. More than 50 different products of bamboo are made and used

in Myanmar. Bamboo has a very wide range of uses and hundreds of

marketable products have made out of bamboos. China is the world

leader in export of bamboo products. Many bamboo growing countries

have their own indigenous technology and some of them have also been

manufacturing machines for processing of bamboo and making market

products from them.

Bamboo is used for food, raw material for medicine and aromatic

products, for utensils, for handicrafts and construction, and as ornamental

plants and other plant products. Raw material for utensils, handicrafts and

construction is 30 % of total bamboos stem production based on

estimation by Forest Department. Bamboo shoots are harvested and

processed using local knowledge for domestic use only. Advance

technical know-how on the utilization of bamboo and bamboo shoot

processing has high potential in Myanmar. Non-wood bamboo product

such as sheaths and branches are used for making hat, broom and utensil

etc. Some of the neighbouring countries have much wider use, and have

more substantial contribution of bamboo in their economy.

The FD has been conducting trainings for manufacture of bamboo

products and also providing tools to set up bamboo based cottage

industries. There is need to further scale up this process and also to create

a marketing set up. Very often the small entrepreneurs are not in a

position to market their product or have the capacity to hold their

production for a reasonable length of time to get better prices. This aspect

needs to be addressed which will help very considerably in rural

economic development.

Approach The main products which may be aimed at and which are very wide

acceptability in the market are processed bamboo shoots and bamboo

furniture. There is a large internal market for both these products and

there is also huge international demand for bamboo furniture and process

bamboo shoots. The traditional furniture based on wood is becoming

more expensive and bamboo furniture is relatively cost effective, and also

has durability besides being a novelty. It can be promoted as a cottage

industry by creating appropriate marketing set up. It was also seen that

very good garden chairs were made out of Toddy palm leaves and wood.

It was also found that this is very cost effective and a chair cost only 3000

Kyats. It is seen widely used in the Dry Zone areas in the homes and also

road side eateries. Toddy palms components are very durable and or

flexible and strong. Therefore the chairs made out of it can be long

lasting



54

District level plan should be developed to make use of bamboo resources

so that the existing bamboo forest would not be overexploited and

destroyed. Based upon the advantages of bamboo with its short rotation

periods and powerful regeneration ability, it is necessary to reform

management practices in the natural bamboo forests to promote the

quality and high yield bamboo culms to ensure stable supplies for bamboo

products manufacturing. Export of bamboo products such as furniture,

parquet, bamboo charcoal, bamboo splits, bamboo shoots and bamboo

chop-stick have now started in Myanmar. Current bamboo shoot

processing and trading are in the status of traditional, and are not

acceptable in terms of international standards. These cottage industries

should be provided with modern processing technology. Bamboos are

used for food, construction, house hold appliances, veneers, plywood,

parquet, composite panels, fibre board, paper and rayon manufacture.

Traditional and modern uses need to be tapped fully to improve the lives

of the people and country’s economy.

The main problem in establishing cottage level industries or home grown

enterprises is the capacity of the rural people to hold on to their produce.

Very often, as they are not able to hold on to their products to obtain a

better price, they sell it to the middle men at whatever prices are offered

to them. Therefore the first and foremost step in this direction would be

to provide institutional credit facilities to these home and cottage

entrepreneurs, at preferably subsidized rate so that they are not compelled

to sell their products at rock bottom prices. It would further be necessary

to provide support to them by making institutional arrangement in form of

cooperatives or federation at appropriate levels where they are able to

pool their products and bring it to the market place wherefrom it can be

sold on regular basis in established shops.

Similarly appropriate technology for processing of bamboo shoots, proper

packaging and creating a market channel will also be necessary. Bamboo

shoots are fairly common in use by the Myanmar people and its

appropriate processing and ways to enhance its shelf life can go a long

way in supplementing the food requirements of the people at the home

level. The other dimension of this would be bringing it out in a properly

package form for the urban people and also for the export market. In fact

opportunity exists in Myanmar where bamboo can be cultivated by every

household in the rural areas also with an objective of its partly being used

as a source of food. Opportunity exists for cultivation of bamboo both in

community forestry initiatives and also in agroforestry practically across

the country. Bamboo can also play a very significant role in stabilizing

the Shifting Cultivation areas and also being a source of food besides

other uses to the farmers.

For establishing the set up for marketing of bamboo products it would be

ideal to take a Township as the unit.



55

Intervention 5: Afforestation in the CDZ

Context The Dry Zone areas have higher pressure of human and cattle

populations and they also have considerable extent of saline and sodic

soils. Adoption of intensive and appropriate technique for establishing

plantation in Dry Zone and for reclamation of the saline and sodic soils

will help reduction of poverty and also lead to rural development.

Eucalyptus is being planted quite extensively in the Dry Zone

afforestation programmes. It should be discouraged. These sites should

be afforested mainly for ecological imperatives and partly to meet the

local requirement, hence the choice must be in favour of such species

which have multiple uses. Experience from India has been that

preparation of sites by using heavy duty tractors and creating contour

trenches by use of a single plough can trap considerable amount of

rainfall, which boosts the growth of plants appreciably. The species to

be grown could be a mixture so that there is availability of some fodder,

food or green manure, practically from second year onwards from these

plantation areas. Similarly techniques are available for reclamation of

saline and sodic soils also which are described.

Technique Myanmar has large extents of land in Dry Zone which can be

successfully afforested. Suggestions are made regarding change in the

present technique. The present approach is by digging pits and planting

nursery raised seedlings in them. Water harvesting for individual plant

is also adopted and fertilizer application is also done. By itself it is a

good technique but there is scope to improve upon this. What is being

suggested is to use heavy duty tractors/ bulldozers of around 100- 120

HP and a single plough to rip contour furrows 2 to 3 meters apart. And

use these ripped lines for planting at a spacing of 2 or 3 meters with

nursery raised seedlings, and also to carry out some dibbling of seeds in

these furrows to provide synergy for improving the sites. A small

quantity of fertilizer should also be applied to the planted seedlings, a

month after the planting operations have been completed. The

advantages of this approach is that almost the entire rain that will fall on

such ripped sites will be retained and the initial growth of the planted

seedlings is remarkably better for the first 2 years, which is very critical

for establishment of any plantation. Another remarkable feature of

ripped areas is that there is very good growth of grass in the first three

years which can be allowed to be cut and carried.

Site

preparation

and planting

Ripping of the area may be done by using bulldozers or tractors (around

100-120 H.P.). Generally a rooter (single plough) should be used which

can rip the soil up to a depth of 45-60 cm, depending on the hardness of

the soil and presence of boulders and other things. The lines should be

ripped 2 or 3 m apart (as the case may be), along the contour and these

furrows (which are 20-25 cm wide) should be subsequently manually

formed into furrows and mounds, in order to facilitate planting on loose

soil and also for water harvesting. Nursery raised polybag seedlings



56

should be planted 2 or 3 m apart (as the case may be), aiming to plant

them perpendicular to the line of ripping. The ripping work should be

generally done during the summer months and planting taken up with

the on-set of monsoon and completed within a month at the latest. After

completion of planting, septas (up to the full height of the furrow and

20-30 cm wide) should be formed, at 2 to 3 m interval in order to check

the movement of water along the furrows. This type of site preparation

can absorb 1500-2000 mm of annual rainfall and there is very little

surface flow from the areas. Basal-dressing with 50 gm of rock-

phosphate at the time of planting and application of 20 gm Di-

Ammonium Phosphate for each planted seedling, one month after

planting gives good result. Ripping and planting gives best results. The

height growth is appreciable. Providing protection from grazing is one

of the important considerations along with fire-control measures for the

afforestation areas.

Regarding afforestation work in Dry Zone and Upland areas, there has to

be a clear demarcation regarding the site preparation, the planting

espacement and also the choice of the species. The categorization could

be on below mentioned lines:

Where the

rainfall is

less than 900

millimetres

per year.

In such areas, the ripped lines should be 3 meters apart. Here the

planting spacing for seedlings should be 3 meters apart and the species

choices will be mostly Holoptelia integrifolia, Prosopis juliflora,

Terminalia arjuna, Sandalwood, Cassia siamea, Neem, Pongamia

pinnata, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Gliricidia sepium,

Acacia leucophloea, Erythrina spp. Bauhinia spp., Albizia lebbek, Ipil

Ipil etc.

In the intervening spaces dibbling of Gliricidia sepium, Cassia siamea,

Anona squamosa etc. may be done. Other operations will be r as

generally mentioned.

Whether the

rain fall is

more than

900

millimetres.

Such areas generally would be on the Shan plateau where the soils are

deeper. Here the ripping should be done 2 meters apart. The planting

espacement in this case could be 2 meters apart and the dibbling in the

interspaces could be taken up with species like Gliricidia sepium, Cassia

siamea, Anona squamosa.

The choice of the species for planting in these areas will be Acacia

auriculiformis, Melia composita, Holoptelia integrifolia, Sandalwood,

Cassia siamea, Pongamia pinnata, Albizia lebbek etc.

Pitting with saucer type of soil working also gives good results, while

pitting with ordinary soil working is not effective. In some plantations

mainly with Acacia auriculiformis in parts of coastal western India,

approximately six tonnes of leaf litter was removed every year from

each hectare of plantation for use as fuel or leaf manure. Twigs and

small branches were also removed for fuel. Cart loads of dried leaves

were collected for leaf manure. Fodder availability from these areas was



57

also fairly good. From these plantations (ripped and planted at 2m x

2m), green grass to the extent of approximately 3 tonnes during the 1st

and 2nd year and 1.5 tonnes in the 3rd year, was available from each

hectare on an average. There have been instances where paddy

cultivation has been resumed as the water supply in the area had

improved in 2-3 years after the plantations were taken up. The

improvement was noticed through prolonged stream flow after the

cessation of rains and also in the improved recharge of open wells.

Species for

Afforestation

Some of the species suggested for planting are given.

Species for Afforestation in Dry Zone and Upland areas: The choice of

species in Dry Zone and Upland afforestation areas can be more broad-

based than what it is at present. There is considerable variability among

the sites; therefore the choice of the species should be made based on the

field observations. One generic recommendation for these areas is to

adopt ripping at a spacing of 2 or 3 meters apart for site preparation and

plant nursery raised seedling at the spacing of 2 or 3 meters. Also take

up dibbling of seeds of Gliricidia sepium, Cassia siamea, and Anona

squamosa, in order to provide not only greenery but also green manure

and fruits. In some parts of the world Gliricidia leaves are used as fodder

for goats. Other important species that can be grown in the area are-

Holoptelia integrifolia, Prosopis juliflora, Terminalia arjuna,

Sandalwood, Cassia siamea, Neem, Pongamia pinnata, Acacia

auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Gliricidia sepium, Acacia leucophloea,

Erythrina spp. Bauhinia spp., Albizia lebbek, Ipil-Ipil etc. In some parts

of Shan plateau on deeper soils Acacia auriculiformis is coming up very

well. Such sites will be very suitable for ripping and planting. Similarly

in some areas Melia composita is coming up very well.

Species for Reclamation of Saline and sodic soils: For reclamation of

saline and sodic soil experimental results of over 40 years of work in

parts of India have revealed that the most suitable species are Prosopis

juliflora and Acacia nilotica. Other species which can be planted are –

Pongamia pinnata, Albizia lebbek, Terminalia arjuna, Butea

monosperma, Ipil-Ipil, Casuarina equisetifolia, Neem, Cassia siamea,

Emblica officinalis, Pithecolobium dulce, Sesbania grandiflora,

Syzygium cumini etc. Terminalia arjuna is a good species for reclaiming

saline and sodic soils. It also has been cultivated in Myanmar. Its further

cultivation can be to reclaim the saline and sodic soils and also for acid

sulphate soils. The most successful method has been creating boreholes

of 15 cm diameter by use of a tractor mounted augur and filling the

boreholes with good soils and sand and also addition of some organic

manure to provide the initial good environment to the root zone for

growth of seedlings. In course of time these seedlings grow and spread

their roots and thereby reclaiming the sites. Even Sesbania has also been

found to come up under saline condition. This kind of mixing can be

both in agro forestry and also afforestation. It may be mentioned that



58

vegetation has a very definite role in reclaiming the sites and mainly by

improving the capacity of saline lands in percolation of water through

the soil profile by which the salts which generally come up on the

surface are leached below. Besides this the organic matter has a

neutralizing effect on the salinity and consequently reducing it.

Species for Plantations in the Coastal Zone: Fast-growing mangrove

species like Sonneratia apetala, Avicennia officinalis, A. alba, A.

marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Bruguiera spp., and Rhizophora spp. are

suitable for mangrove plantation from which income can be generated

within a short period. Non mangrove species such as Acacia

auriculiformis and Casuarina equisetifolia can also be planted in the

coastal areas.



59

Intervention 6: Salvage logging, tending and restoration of degraded moist deciduous

forests

Context This intervention is prescribed for important teak bearing forests of

Myanmar. Some of these areas have very high potential and have

considerable opportunity cost, (if looked at from short term perspective).

Therefore they need to be put to optimal forest productivity; also to provide

ecological benefits. Visit to some of the logged areas in Bago Yoma has

revealed that quite some quantity of small to medium sized timber of

hardwood species, and at times also a bit malformed logs, are lying

scattered in the forests. Teak being a termite resistant species even old

material from previous logging operations will also be available for

removal. The price of teak has been rising steeply. This left-over material

can be salvaged and brought out and sold with advantage. It would lessen

the pressure on forests, and will also provide some revenue to the

government. There is possibility of collecting good quantity of small girth

timber. The revenue thus realized could be ploughed back for tending of

the forest and their regeneration. It would not only cover the cost of

extraction, but will also be a profitable proposition. This salvaged timber

need not really be brought to the major cities but could be sold in the rural

markets and other urban centres, so that it would be used mainly for

household furniture or house construction. The activities of salvage

logging, tending and regeneration will provide considerable rural

employment.

With the progress of urbanization and overall economic development of the

country, coupled with the changing life style of the people, there would be

more demand for house hold furniture and wood in other forms. At present

nearly 90% houses in the rural areas of Myanmar are made from bamboo,

but slowly there will be increasing component of wood in the house

building process. This intervention is primarily suggested for the salvaging

of valuable timber which is lying in the forest and is also a potential fire

hazards. Besides it is also a short of attraction for the timber smugglers.

Process In case there is a lack of resources for the FD to bring it out in departmental

operations, it could be entrusted to a Government organization or to the

Community Forest Groups, even on a profit sharing basis. The main

aspects in this operation will be to very clearly mark the fallen logs and

record their dimension and strictly regulate the removal to a notified

government depot under an appropriate transit pass. Some such surplus

generated from these operations can also be ploughed back for tending and

restoration of the logged areas as suggested in item 1 of this note.

It may also be examined that some of the teak forest have excessive growth

of bamboo, which is being removed by the people even during the growing

season. Normally the months of June to October should be closed for

working of bamboo areas, but extraction was noticed during this period

also. It was also observed that one-year-old culms were being removed,

which are immature and will be susceptible to fungus and insect damage.



60

Normally more than 2 years old culms are removed for various uses. It has

also been mentioned that because of excessive logging in the proportion of

bamboo has increased in Bago Yama. It may be examined whether there is

scope for removal of bamboo from these areas without causing ecological

damage to the sites.



61

Intervention 7: Restoration of degraded forest

Context The reports available on the forest of Myanmar and also the field

visits revealed that considerable extent of forests have got

degraded or disappeared. This is in different types of forests of

the country. More prominently it is seen in the Delta region,

where forests have disappeared; forests are also severely

degraded the in the Dry Zone. Degradation is also very severe in

the teak bearing moist deciduous forests and dry deciduous

forests. Degradation has got accelerated in the past about 40

years. Its impact is seen in the form of land degradation, soil

erosion and also flooding of the areas. The forests have got

degraded in various zones in varying degrees. Travel to Bago

Yoma, Shan plateau, Dry Zone and Delta area revealed severe

degradation.

Process These areas need to be restored by taking up planting with

suitable species, providing tending to the existing natural

regeneration and coppice shoots and also by taking up

appropriate soil and moisture conservation measures. In this

process sufficient rural employment will get created which will

help in poverty reduction and rural development. There are

methods available which can be used to restore some of these

areas. Three most important factors of forest degradation are-

removal from the forest either in form of logging or by the

people for their domestic needs, grazing by cattle and recurrent

fires. The first process of the restoration would be to control

these degrading factors. Subsequently the areas could be restored

by Assisted Natural Regeneration. Here suggestions are made to

take up gap planting in teak bearing moist deciduous and dry

deciduous forests. This method can also be called enrichment

planting or poly culture gap regeneration.

The technique of

Assisted Natural

Regeneration or Gap-

planting

Due to variety of reasons which are invariably anthropocentric it

is seen that many forest areas do not have adequate regeneration

and pole crop. Effort should be made to have approximately

1000 nursed and well established plants together from the

planted and natural seedlings and coppice source and eventual

goal should be to have at least 500, well established poles, per

hectare in about 15 years. The method suggested is:

First approach will be closure of area from grazing fire and

removal of any kind for a period of at least 5 years. During these

years only grass can be removed by cut and carry method.

Similarly, any other forest produce which may be of use to the

people as food or medicine could be removed without causing

detriment to the regeneration process.

The regeneration areas should be provided with fencing.



62

The existing regeneration of important species should be freed

from rank growth, weeds, and climbers which might be

hampering their progress. The next step would be to clean up the

coppice growth by retaining 2 or 3 shoots in each coppice stool.

As a part of the site preparation the weed growth should be

cleared and if required patch burning should be done in order to

reduce the debris.

Thereafter, pits (800-1000 per ha) of the dimension 30 to 40 cm

cube should be dug during the month of February to March and

refilled in April.

Planting should be taken - up with nursery - raised polybags

seedlings, with the onset of monsoon and completed within a

month at the latest. Soil warmth has very good effect on root

growth and establishment of seedlings. During the past in India,

planting of teak stumps was done in the gap regeneration areas.

But it was found that the juvenile leaves that come up from the

stumps got deposited with splashed mud due dripping from the

over wood trees and the plants did not grow well. Hence it is

better to plant 50-60 cm tall seedlings raised in polybags from

stumps. It has been found that this method although slightly

expensive, has given better success. The technology for raising

the seedlings is generally available and the same could be

adopted.

After about a month of planting about 25 grams of Di-

ammonium Phosphate (DAP) should be applied to each seedling.

Fertilizer should also be applied to the naturally occurring

seedling and to the younger coppice stools.

Fairly elaborate soil working should be done with a view to

capture rain water around the plants. Saucer shaped individual

pits may be created for each seedling wherever feasible to do so

on the upper side of the slopping land. On the flat terrain soil

working around the plants should be done for the seedlings and

also for the coppice stools; after carrying out a thinning among

them and retaining only 2 - 3 best shoots.

Considerable silvicultural experience is required in deciding the

mixture of species to be planted in the gap regeneration areas. If

the soil is good, then planting in 30 cm cube pits is desirable.

Larger pits are likely to accumulate more rain water and are not

very desirable. For 30 cm cube pits seedlings raised in 15 x 12

cm polybags, which are 6-8 months old are ideal. In case, the pits

are of larger size, then it is better to plant seedlings raised in

larger containers; polybags of the size 15x22 cm have been found

more suitable.

Rigid fire protection should be provided to these regeneration



63

areas.

The lesson learnt in the process is that although initially it looks

very attractive to simulate whatever exists in the main canopy of

the forest and plant all those species, but often times in real

practice most the species do not succeed as anticipated. Even

after the initial success in the seedlings and sapling stages, one

cannot be sure that they will become the future pole crop. In a

fairly large scale gap planting operations in teak bearing moist

deciduous forest of India there is experience of nearly 30 years

which is available for reference regarding the choice of the

species. These forests are comparable to teak bearing forest of

Bago Yoma areas; however the Bago Yoma areas have better

distribution of rain fall, cooler temperatures, deeper soils, and

less aggressive bamboo species. What was revealed over the last

30 years of work in India is that initial planting in the gap

regeneration areas was done by more 20 species. After about 5

or 6 years of observation the choice was reduced to 6 to 8

species. Recent observations in the area have revealed that only

3 species have come up successfully which have formed the pole

crop, and they are Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia lanceolata

and Terminalia paniculata. The lesson learnt in the process is

that the choice has to be in favour of the species which are found

toward drier range of the distribution of the type of forest that we

are planning to restore and the species should generally have

wider range of distribution from moist to dry types of forests.

The choice of species for the areas would vary depending upon

the quantum of rainfall, extent of openness and the type of soil.

Notwithstanding this, it is very important to choose such species

which are non- browsable, and are relatively fire resistant, as

movement of cattle and /or occurrence of fire can always be a

threat to the successful regeneration.

The choice of species for the teak bearing areas and also for Dry Zone will be as follows.

Assisted Natural

Regeneration in Moist

Deciduous forest:

These are only suggestions. The final choice will vary depending

on local conditions. The species that may be used for planting

are: Tectona grandis, Xylia xylocarpa, Mitragyna rotundifolia,

Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Adina cordifolia, Terminalia

tomentosa, etc. Nursery raised seedlings of 50-60 cm height

should be planted in such adequate number that the area should

get adequate pole crop of around 500 per ha in due course.

Tending of the coppice and natural regeneration should to be

done. Moisture conservation for individual plants should be

provided by making saucer shaped pits. A small dose of fertilizer

should also be applied in the first year, to individual plants and

also to advance growth seedlings and coppice regeneration.



64

During the second year replacement of causalities should be

taken up and soil working should be provided to the planted

seedling, besides weeding the areas. Rigid fire and protection

from grazing should be provided for the area for at least 5 years.

Assisted Natural

Regeneration in dry

forests areas

The species that may be used for planting are: Tectona

hamiltonii, Terminalia tomentosa, Shorea siamensis, Shorea

obtusa, Acacia catechu, Schliechera trijuga, Spondias acuminata

etc. Other prescriptions will be similar to that for the Moist

Deciduous forests.

Lack of investment in forest regeneration and development: The main constraint for

protection and development in the forestry sector has been lack of resources. Myanmar has

challenges on two fronts: (i) lack of adequate resources for overall rural development including

forest, and (ii) developing the urban and peri-urban infrastructures for industrial growth. Forests

and mines have been exploited to generate revenue. Forests carry the national burden on two

fronts namely, generation of revenue for the state and meeting the subsistence needs of the rural

population. For over three decades now the country has been losing practically 1 percent of

forest cover amounting to roughly 350 000 ha every year whereas plantations efforts during the

same period have only resulted in 40 000 ha per year. There is an urgent need to pledge many

more resources for the regeneration of forests. Nearly 50 percent of the land area of the country

is under the superintendence of the forestry sector. The population that lives in rural areas can be

engaged in forest regeneration efforts, development, management and conservation.

Mangrove forests in Myanmar are decreasing at an alarming rate. The FD has been attempting to

rehabilitate and conserve mangrove ecosystems jointly with international organizations such as

UNDP/FAO, JICA and local NGOs. A JICA-supported project has involved community

participation in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta. Another project has been implemented with support

from FAO in Rakhine State. Sustainable management of coastal and marine ecosystems is vital

for environmental and biodiversity conservation and development of fisheries. There are a

number of issues and constraints associated with the management of these ecosystems, such as

difficult access to remote areas, insufficient human resources in the FD, lack of adequate

infrastructure, insufficient funding and inadequate policy support.

Policy, statutory and financial support to CF: This is required to push forward the

government’s decision on CF. Legal recognition of CF groups will give them strength and fill the

trust deficit or remove apprehensions that people may have. Clear guidelines on formation

(ensuring inclusiveness and equity) and responsibilities of the CF groups and the FD, provision

of revolving funds for self-help groups for small enterprises, provision of audit and training of

CF members and forestry staff are required for the long-term sustainability of CF groups. While,

the CFI has been recognized as a breakthrough in the history of Myanma forestry, the devolution

of decision-making and management remains constrained and the level of assistance to be

provided by the FD to communities remains unclear. There is weak political commitment to CF

and this requires more vigorous mobilization and awareness-raising of its economic potential.

Communities require long-term ownership rights for undertaking investment decisions under CF



65

regimes. It is necessary to create enabling legal provision to register the CFUGs under an

appropriate Act, so that they have the required authority to borrow from financial institutions.

There is a need to have unambiguous and clear provisions for the functioning of the management

committees and their duties and responsibilities and also clarity on the position of CFUGs vis-à-

vis the FD, and other village-level institutions. It is necessary to enlarge the composition of the

management committee of the CFUG from its present strength of five members and add officials

of relevant departments. The number could be about 15 in all, with due representation of women

and marginalized sections of the society. It is also necessary to mainstream CFUGs and

introduce democratic elections (in place of self-selection) in their formation, make them

inclusive and clearly provide for equity.

Policy and legal constraints in development of agroforestry: Facilitating provisions for

agroforestry are also required both through policy and legal enactments so that people can grow

trees on their lands and harvest and use or market them in a helpful environment; teak still

continues to be the property of the state. This needs to be reviewed and done away with. There is

a need for an enabling policy environment for growing trees on farmlands, their harvesting,

marketing and sale, and for the products. The FD needs to provide quality seed and other

planting material and technical guidance for growing of trees. In specific areas of the country

there should be exemption for some species (mainly those which are primarily cultivated/grown

on farmlands) from requirements for felling permission and transit passes. Fiscal and/or

monetary support/incentives could be provided, primarily to the Dry Zone and Coastal Zone

(including Delta areas), for agroforestry and CF.

Restoration of teak forest and establishing teak plantations: The only four countries, in the

world that have natural distribution of teak are Myanmar, India, Thailand and Lao PDR, with

extent of area being in that order. Myanmar has the best quality teak. Seriously degraded forests

can be restored as valuable productive assets through enrichment planting, mainly with teak but

also with other valuable hardwood species. There is also an opportunity to create teak plantations

both in government and private sectors (this is already happening but could be increased).

Afforestation in the Dry Zone and in upland areas: There are vast stretches of degraded forest

and open lands which can be restored or afforested by using appropriate techniques and suitable

species. Besides becoming productive assets of the future these efforts will also augment soil and

moisture conservation appreciably. There are lands with saline and sodic soils in the Dry Zone.

Experimental results from India are available to bring these kinds of lands under vegetative

cover. Upland afforestation technology is also available for large-scale plantations.

Community forestry: A great opportunity exists for comprehensive development of forest areas

through peoples’ participation. The Forest Policy of 1995 provides for this. What is required is to

take the experience of neighbouring countries such as India and carefully analyse the best

options for large-scale adoption of CF/JFM in Myanmar. During the past 19 years of its

implementation, starting from 1995, only 5.6 percent of the intended progress has been achieved

in CF. The intention was to hand over only 3 percent of the forest area for CF. By 2012 nearly 29

percent of the forest area in India had been brought under JFM/CF. Enabling legal provisions

will create confidence among people for their long-term involvement in forest development and

protection.

Agroforestry on private lands: There is considerable potential for adoption of agroforestry on

private land. Agroforestry should be planned to meet requirements for food, fodder, green



66

manure, fuelwood and timber, and also to act as shelterbelts/wind breaks. In the Dry Zone a

number of agroforestry systems are already in place such as: Acacia catechu, Acacia

leucophloea, Zizyphus spp., Neem and mango-based agroforestry. T. hamiltonii sometimes

mixed with T. grandis on better sites is also used for single line planting along farm bunds.

Bauhinia and Erythrina leaves are used as fodder. There is potential for Anona squamosa and

Emblica officinalis.

Management of shifting cultivation areas: For better management of shifting cultivation areas

it will be necessary to adopt appropriate agroforestry technology to enhance productivity while

keeping the ecological integrity of the site within its limits of resilience. It will be helpful to take

up participatory monitoring of the areas, involving villagers and FD personnel to record

observations and to take steps to reduce site degradation. An effort in the direction of assisted

recovery of the fallow area will also be of benefit to the cultivators and will be in the interest of

environmental restoration/conservation. According to the FD’s plan, shifting cultivation areas

have to be transformed into CF or agroforestry and 150 trees will have to be planted per acre in

CF areas.

Bamboo-based enterprises: The country has a huge bamboo resource, but marketable species

and marketable quality need to be clearly identified. There is opportunity for bamboo plantations

on farmlands. Formerly, accessing bamboo was easy, but now more effort is needed to harvest it.

Bamboo is used for food, raw material for vessels, handicrafts, construction and paper pulp.

Bamboo shoots are produced and processed using local knowledge for domestic use only. Due to

lack of advanced technical expertise, Myanma bamboo shoot products still cannot penetrate

international markets. If technical assistance on the utilization of bamboo and bamboo shoot

processing were available, Myanmar has high potential to earn revenue from bamboo products.

NWFP bamboo products such as sheaths and branches are used for making hats, brooms, utensils

etc. The FD has conducted five training events for the development of bamboo handicrafts and

has also provided required instrumentation for bamboo artisans.

Documents

Environmental Conservation and Forestry