Environmental, Economic, and Social Costs of the Car TREN 3P18: Sustainable Transportation

Environmental, Economic, and Social Costs of the

Car

TREN 3P18: Sustainable

Transportation

shakespeare.bookshop.free.fr/ GB/home_page.htm

‘The World Car Crisis’

• Wolfgang Zuckermann (1922- )

http://shakespeare.bookshop.free.fr/GB/home_page.htm

‘The World Car Crisis’

• Wolfgang Zuckermann

(1991) described the

aggregate global

impacts and

influences of the

automobile as ‘the

world car crisis’

people.hofstra.edu/.../ conc3en/carprodfleet.html

Problems and consequences• 500 million vehicles were on the road in 1991 • More than 550 million were on the road by 2002 (1)

• More than 1 billion cars were on the road by 2013 (2), (3)

Graph source:WorldwatchInstitute

http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/carprodfleet.html



http://www.worldometers.info/cars/

http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2011/08/23/car-population_n_934291.html

Problems and consequences• Mounting traffic congestion

• Air, noise, and aesthetic pollution

• Near-total dependence on fossil fuels (often dirty and imported)

• Highly wasteful usage of materials and energy

• More than 250,000 traffic deaths each year

Problems and consequences• Negative impacts on cities and land use

• Approximately sixty million new vehicles are added each year (165,000 per day) (1)

• Approaching the limits of the carrying capacity of the planet

• Climate modification with serious consequences

http://www.worldometers.info/cars/

Increasing auto dependency• Even with cleaner fuel, we’re driving

more in low miles-per-gallon vehicles. Air

pollution damages human health, crops,

structures, and our climate.− Litman, Todd, Transportation Cost Analysis: Techniques, Estimates,and Implications Victoria

Transport Institute, June 2002

Percent of Trips by Travel Mode (all trip purposes) – compiled 1998

Country bicycle walking public transit car other

Netherlands 30 18 5 45 2

Denmark 20 21 14 42 3

Germany 12 22 16 49 1

Switzerland 10 29 20 38 1

Sweden 10 39 11 36 4

Austria 9 31 13 39 8

England/Wales

8 12 14 62 4

France 5 30 12 47 6

Italy 5 28 16 42 9

Canada 1 10 14 74 1

United States

1 9 3 84 3

Source: John Pucher, Transportation Quarterly, 98-1 (from various transport ministries and depts., latest avail. year) (table from www.ibike.org/library/ statistics.htm)

http://www.ibike.org/library/statistics.htm

Increasing auto dependency: Urban density factors• There is a strong link

between urban population

density and petroleum

consumption

• USA, Canada, Australia

and New Zealand have

the lowest urban densities

and highest per capita

petroleum consumption

- (Newman and Kenworthy

1989)

Increasing auto dependency: China• China led the way in vehicle growth, with the

number of cars on Chinese roads increasing by

27.5 per cent between 2009-2010 (half the

entire global growth)

• China now has the world's second largest car

population, with 78 million vehicles

• United States still constitutes by far the largest

vehicle population in the world, with 239.8

million cars− http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2011/08/23/car-population_n_934291.

html



Increasing auto dependency: European cities• Larger European cities are becoming more car

dependent due to sprawl

• Since 1975, the average distance between home and the workplace has more than doubled

• journeys by private car continue to increase

• In Europe, the car is used more often for leisure activities or for shopping

− http://www.22september.org/info/en/air.html

http://www.22september.org/info/en/air.html

Increasing auto dependency: European cities

• European car use is

approaching that of the

USA: by 2002, 82% of

urban journeys in

European cities were

undertaken by car

(12% transit, 6% bicycle)

− http://www.22september.org/info/en/air.html

Increasing auto dependency: European cities

However, modal split (walking / cycling / public

transit / private car) is quite variable –

• Spanish cities are most walkable

• Danish and Dutch cities are most cyclable

• Slovakia, Switzerland, Estonia use public

transit the most

• Italy and Spain have highest car use (Modal split for European cities of over 250,000 population, 2004 data –

www.urbanaudit.com )

Costs and impacts of the car

…include the following

(nonexclusive) categories:• Internal economic costs (borne by car users)

• External economic costs (borne by society)

• Environmental costs (borne by the environment)

• Social costs (borne by all of society)

Internal economic costs (borne by users)

• Fixed costs

• Operating costs

• Personal costs

• Financial benefits?

Download worksheet from course home page

Direct Costs paid by motorist • Fixed costs – insurance, licensing, registration and

taxes

• Finance charges – interest on borrowed money for

vehicle purchase

• Depreciation – The difference between what you paid

for a car and what you can sell it for

• Fuel and Oil Expenses

• Maintenance and Tires

• Parking

Direct Costs paid by motorist • Annual costs of ownership of most

vehicles in US and Canada can be

compared online at Vincentric website:

• Brand Analysis by Segment -

Ownership Costs

284,763 246,688 212,454Baht– exch.05 Feb 13

Direct and Societal Costs Travel time • cost to drivers of unpaid time• cost to employers for work time spent in

travel• costs of opportunities lost to travel time

• Measured door-to-door (including time spent parking and walking to and from vehicle.) Variable rate depending on congestion and travel distances

− Litman, Todd, Transportation Cost Analysis: Techniques, Estimates,and Implications Victoria Transport Institute, June 2002

External economic costs (borne by society)

• Infrastructure development and

maintenance costs

• Government subsidies to auto

industry, petroleum industry, etc.

• All other non-environmental external

costs

Environmental costs

Environmental impacts of carsImpacts to…

• Atmosphere (air)

• Hydrosphere (water)

• Lithosphere (soil)

• Biosphere (biota)

… affecting ecosystem

process and function

Waste Disposal Costs

• Disposal of tires, batteries, junked

cars, oil and other hazardous and

semi-hazardous materials are

environmental costs paid by all.


Resource Consumption Costs • Cars use many nonrenewable natural resources –

petroleum, metals and synthetic rubber.

• Passenger vehicles account for 40% of petroleum

products consumed in the U.S. each year.

• Environmental and national defense costs associated

with extraction, processing, transport, recycling and

depletion of non-renewable resources are not covered

by the purchase prices of gas and automobiles.


− U.S. Department of Energy, "Conserve Resources for the Future Generations," [online] 2002 − Alliance to Save Energy, Increasing America's Fuel Economy, February 2002

Road Noise

• Noise negatively affects human health

and wildlife and it causes declines in

property values. Noise mitigation

measures are not always successful and

come at a high price.− Litman, Todd, Transportation Cost Analysis: Techniques, Estimates,and Implications Victoria


Atmosphere• Large scale atmospheric diffusion of pollutants

• Local concentration of pollutants (e.g. urban smog)

• Photochemical reactions

e.g., ultraviolet light inducing reactions with ozone,

SO2, NO2

• Climate change (global warming)

• Acidic precipitation

• Synergistic / cumulative effects

(e.g. smog and greenhouse gases)

HydrosphereWater Pollution Impacts include:• crankcase oil and fluid drips• roadside herbicides• leaking underground storage tanks • oil tanker spills contribute to water pollution,

degradation of surface, ground and drinking water and destruction of wildlife habitat.

Hydrologic Impacts include:• increased impervious surfaces• shoreline modifications• reduced groundwater recharge


Hydrosphere• Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state.

• Acidification of groundwater and underground water; loss of buffering

capacity

• Decline of pH following snow melt (aquatic organisms are particularly

vulnerable)

• Increased solubility and toxicity of heavy metals due to acidification

• Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, lead, manganese,

calcium, magnesium and potassium to water bodies through runoff

• Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates

• Modification of hydrological systems by the construction and

maintenance of automotive infrastructure

Lithosphere• Liberation of toxic metallic ions from soil

(aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through

acidification

• Loss of soil nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium

• Inhibition of nitrification

• Inhibition of microbial decomposition through pH changes and

toxic effects

• Loss of soil flora and fauna

• Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination

• Consumption of land

• Impacts of raw material extractions (metals, aggregates, fossil

fuels)

Automobile production…

• is among the world's most resource-intensive and

polluting industries

• is expanding globally

• consumes the majority of the rubber, iron and lead

in the United States

• is also a top user of steel, zinc and copper

• is responsible for a significant proportion of the

massive pollution from primary resource industries− Clean Production Action .

www.cleanproduction.org/ what/vehicles.htm

Image credit: www.epa.gov/.../programs/ caa/caaenfstatreq.html

Specific toxicants

attributable to automobile use

Environmental impacts of cars:

Fuel and additives

Lead• gasoline additive banned in the 1970s

• still sold for use in older vehicles in some

jurisdictions (e.g. sales reinstated in UK,

despite initial ban in 2000)

• extremely toxic; can affect almost any organ

in the body

• low level chronic exposure to lead affects the

nervous system (learning disorders) and the

blood (anemia)

Lead

• even low levels of lead can impair the

mental abilities of children

• soil in parts of West Oakland, CA is so

highly contaminated with lead from

highways and leaking underground

petroleum storage tanks, that it qualifies

as a Superfund Hazardous waste site

Benzene

• Fuel additive (up to 5% in some areas) which improves the performance of unleaded gasoline

• limited in Canada (since 1999) to < 1% by volume CEPA Benzene in Gasoline Regulations (SOR/97-

493)

• Sources in air: emissions from motor vehicles; evaporation losses during handling, distribution, and storage of gasoline

Benzene

• levels are higher in urban areas (highest near filling stations, gasoline storage tanks and benzene producing and handling industries)

• proven carcinogen; no known safe threshold level

MMT (Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl)

• used for many years in Canada as an additive to boost octane and to prevent valve problems in old cars designed for leaded fuel

• a suspected neurotoxin and respiratory toxin (manganese may cause memory impairment, tremors, and psychosis similar to Parkinson's Disease)


• banned in California and most of the US eastern seaboard

• 85% of U.S. gasoline is MMT free• virtually every European country has

also banned the additive • Government of Canada banned trade

and transportation of MMT in 1996 due to health concerns


• Ethyl Corporation (now Afton Chemical) used Chapter 11 of the NAFTA to sue Canada for 350 million dollars - the amount Ethyl says the ban cost them in lost profits and damage to their reputation(Chapter 11 allows corporations to sue a government for compensation if that government passes a law that harms a corporation's profits or reputation)

In an out of court settlement, the Govt. of Canada:

• paid US $13 million in damages to Ethyl

• agreed as a part of the settlement to allow MMT back into the Canadian market

• issued a statement through Health Canada (now buried, and available through special request only) saying that the additive poses no health threat

• Contrast health concerns with industry position (Afton Chemical, manufacturer of MMT)

Combustion Byproducts

Carbon monoxide (CO)

• colorless and odorless gas

• affects human health by impairing the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood

• Fatal at high concentrations

• Lower levels of CO can result in impaired perception, slowed reflexes, drowsiness, headaches and effects on the central nervous system, the heart, and blood circulation around the body

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• one of the major greenhouse gases contributing to global climate change

• One-third of CO2 emissions in the U.S. are transportation-related

• Cars, SUV’s and light trucks in the U.S. account for more than 300 million tons of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere each year


− Environmental Defense, "Carbon Emissions Fact Sheet: Clearing the Air on Climate Change," [online] July 2002

Oxides of nitrogen

• include nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitric oxide

(NO), and nitrous oxide (N2O)

• derived from automobile emissions

• irritate the respiratory tract, reduce lung

function, and increase susceptibility to

asthma and viral infections

• play a major role in the formation of acid

rain and ground-level ozone

Hydrocarbons /VOCs• unburned or partly burned

fuel from exhaust

• some are carcinogenic; others cause drowsiness, eye and respiratory tract irritation, and coughing

• react with nitrogen oxides to form tropospheric ozone, a principal

component of photochemical smog

Photochemical smog• causes eye irritation,

headaches, coughing, impaired lung function, and eye, nose and throat irritation.

• asthmatics and children are most at risk

• adverse health effects increase during heavy exercise or outdoor activity

Particulates

• fine particles such assoot that result from the incomplete combustion of fuel

• higher output from diesel engines

• can aggravate respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and asthma

• carcinogenic

Aldehydes

• a group of chemicals emitted from car

exhaust as a result of incomplete fuel

combustion

• pungent odor; responsible for much of

the smell associated with traffic,

particularly diesel vehicles

Aldehydes

• cause irritation of the eyes, nose, and

throat; sneezing, coughing, nausea,

and breathing difficulties.

• Children, the elderly, and asthmatics

most sensitive

• Some (e.g., formaldehyde) are

carcinogenic

Other Auto-related Toxics

Trace metals

• include arsenic, beryllium,

mercury and cadmium, as well as lead

• trace quantities emitted in exhaust

• present in used oil, lubricants and other

fluids which are drained or leak from old

and scrapped vehicles

• can be highly toxic at low concentrations

Trace metals: mercury (pre-2003)

Trace metals: mercury (pre-2003)• High Intensity Discharge (HID) mercury vapour

lights

• Switches (trunk and hood lights, ABS systems,

antitheft systems, some airbag systems.Left: Mercury switch. Each switch contains about 1.2 g of metallic mercury.

Centre: Ball bearing switch (no mercury)

Right: US dime, for size comparison

Trace metals: mercury

= 1901 kgMetallic lead

= 1112 kgMetallic lead

= minimum3010 kgmetallic lead(assuming 1switch per vehicle!)

Trace metals: mercury

References for this section:

•Beard J, ed. 1992. The environmental impact of the car: a

Greenpeace report. Greenpeace, Seattle, Wa. Pp. 21-26.

•Holmes, Henry. 1995. Building Healthy Communities for

Children: The Transportation Link. Environmental Health

Perspectives Volume 103, Supplement 6, September 1995.

• Menke, Dean M. 2001. Toxic by design: the Automobile

Industry's Continued Use of Mercury. The Pollution Prevention

Alliance / Environmental Defense, New York.

Social Costs of Automobile Dependency

Direct and Societal Costs • Accidents – The UN has estimated that

road crash injuries cost between one and

two percent of a nation’s gross national

product annually. Insurance only covers

about one-third the cost of accidents with

the societal costs in lives, property and

productivity borne by all.− Litman, Todd, Transportation Cost Analysis: Techniques, Estimates,and Implications Victoria

Transport Institute, June 2002− UN World Health Organization and World Bank World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention,

April 2004

Traffic Deaths

Laube, Felix. 1997. Optimizing Urban Passenger Transport, Ph.D. Dissertation, Sustainable TransportResearch Group, Murdoch University (Perth; http://wwwistp.murdoch.edu.au), Cited in Litman, 2002

Accident rates have declined significantly per vehicle mile, but not much per capita:

14 Facts and Figures ‘95, Motor Vehicle Manufactures Association (Detroit), 1995.

Societal Costs we all Pay

• Construction, Improvements and

Repair of Roadways – In the USA in

2000, the total cost was $64.6 billion

with about 64% of that covered by fuel

taxes and user fees. The remaining $23

billion is paid by taxpayers through

state and local sources (36% subsidy) − U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Highway Statistics 2000


• Maintenance and Operation of

Roadways –In the USA in 2000,

about 64% of the $30.9 billion cost in

2000 came from fuel taxes and user

fees but the remaining $11 billion is

financed by taxpayers (36% subsidy)− U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Highway Statistics 2000


• Commercial and Employer

Parking – ‘Free’ parking is a major

hidden cost which encourages driving.

• Other parking subsidies increase

driving by 20 to 40%, even where

direct subsidies are not provided.− Litman, Todd, Transportation Cost Analysis: Techniques, Estimates,and Implications Victoria

Transport Institute, June 2002− Shoup, Donald, "Cashing Out Employer-Paid Parking" in Curbing Gridlock, 1994

Litman, Todd. 2002. The Costs of Automobile Dependency and the Benefits of Balanced Transportation. Victoria Transport Policy Institute. Available in PDF format at www.vtpi.org/ecodev.pdf (current to 22 Jan 2005).

Parking costs typically constitute a greater portion of poor household expenditures than for wealthier households, indicating that they are regressive.

Social Costs

• Transportation Diversity and

Equity – Those who don’t or can’t drive

cars are at a distinct disadvantage in our

car culture. Non-drivers have fewer

options when it comes to jobs, housing,

education, social services and activities. − Litman, Todd, Transportation Cost Analysis: Techniques, Estimates,and Implications Victoria


USA – 1997 data


Social Costs

• Barrier Effects on Pedestrians and

Cyclists – Roads may be transportation links

for some, but they can also impact the

mobility and safety of pedestrians and

bicyclists. These barriers tend to affect

mostly disadvantaged populations including

children, students, the elderly and those with

disabilities.− Litman, Todd, Transportation Cost Analysis: Techniques, Estimates,and Implications Victoria


Social Costs• Land Use Impact Costs – Automobile

dependency drives urban sprawl and the

loss of farm and recreational lands. Land

use decisions based on automobile needs

further disadvantage pedestrians and

bicyclists and increase costs for schools

and municipal and emergency services.



Costs of sprawl

60 James Frank, The Costs of Alternative Development Patterns, Urban Land Institute, 1989, from p. 40.

Social Costs• Roadway Land Value – Roads are

under-priced compared to other land

uses. Roadway lands don’t pay rent or

generate property taxes. They don’t

provide the same degree of secondary

value as other public lands like parks,

wetlands, open spaces or wildlife habitat.


Social Costs• Congestion – Congestion

results in increased travel

times, air pollution, vehicle

operating costs and stress.

It contributes to lost

productivity and insurance

rate increases.




- USA - 1997


82 Patricia Hu, Jennifer Young, 1990 NPTS Databook, Vol.1, FHWA (Washington DC), Nov. 1993.


Documents

Environmental, Economic, and Social Costs of the Car TREN 3P18: Sustainable Transportation