WDP-80

80 E = World Bank Discussion Papers

EnvironmentalManagement inDevelopment

The Evolution of Paradigms

Michael E. Colby

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Recent World Bank Discussion Papers

No. 16 Macroeconomic Policies and Adjustment in Yugoslavia: Some Counteractual Simulations. Fahrettin Yagci and Steven Kamii

No. 17 Private Enterprise in A,iica: Creating a Better Environment. Keith Marsden and Therese Belot

No. 18 Rural Water Supply and Sanitation: Timefor a Change. Anthony A. Churchill, with the assistance of Davidde Ferranti, Robert Roche, Carolyn Tager, Alan A. Walters, and Anthony Yazer

No. 19 The Public Revenue and Economic Policy in African Countries: An Ovewview of Issues and Policy Options. Dennis Anderson

No. 22 Demographic Trends in China from 1950 to 1982. Kenneth Hill

No. 23 Food Import Dependence in Somalia: Magnitude, Causes, and Policy Options. Y. Hossein Farzin

No. 24 The Relationship of External Debt and Growth: Sudan's Experience, 1975-1984. Y. Hossein Farzin

No. 25 The Poor and the Poorest: Some Interim Findings. Michael Lipton

No. 26 Road Transport Taxation in Developing Countries: The Design of User Charges and Taxes for Tunisia. DavidNewbery, Gordon Hughes, William D.O. Paterson, and Esra Bennathan

No. 27 Trade and Industrial Policies in the Developing Countries of East Asia. Amarendra Bhattacharya andJohannes F. Linn

No. 28 Agricultural Trade Protectionism inJapan: A Survey. Delbert A. Fitchett

No. 29 Multisector Frameworkffor Anal,sis of Stabilization and Structural Adjustment Policies: The Case of Morocco. Abel M.Mateus and others

No. 30 Improving the Quality of'Textbooks in China. Barbara W. Searle and Michael Mertaugh with Anthony Readand Philip Cohen

No. 31 Small Farmers in South Asia: Their Characteristics, Produaivity, and Efficiency. Inderjit Singh

No. 32 Tenancy in South Asia. lnderjit Singh

No. 33 Land and Labor in South Asia. Inderjit Singh

No. 35 Global Trends in Real Exchange Rates. Adrian Wood

No. 36 Income Distribution and Economic Development in Malawi: Some Historical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor

No. 37 Income Distribution and Economic Development in Madagascar: Some Historical Perspectives. Frederic L. Pryor

No. 38 Quality Controls of Traded Comnodities and Services in Developing Countries. Simon Rottenberg and Bruce Yandle

No. 39 Livestock Production in N)rth Africa and the Middle East: Problems and Perspectives. John C. Glenn [Also available inFrench (39F)]

No. 40 Nongovernmental Organizations and Local Development. Michael M. Cernea [Also available in Spanish (40S)]

No. 41 Patterns of Development: 1950 to 1983. Moises Syrquin and Hollis Chenery

No. 42 Voluntary Debt-Reduction Operations: Bolivia, Mexico, and Beyond... Ruben Laindany

No. 43 Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa: Analysis and Explanation. Susan Cochrane and S.M. Farid

No. 44 Adjustment Programs and.Social Welfare. Elaine Zuckerman

No. 45 Primary School Teachers' Salaries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Manuel Zymelman andJoseph DeStefano

No. 46 Education and Its Relation to Economic Growth, Poverty, and Income Distribution: Past Evidence and Further Analysis.Jandhyala B.G. Tilak

No. 47 International Macroeconomic Adjustment, 1987-1992. Robert E. King and Helena Tang

(Continued on the inside back cover.)

8 O ~ 0 World Bank Discussion Papers

EnvironmentalManag;ement inDevelopment

The Evolution of Paradigms

Michael E. Colby

The World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright © 1990The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK

1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printingjune 1990

Discussion Papers present results of country analysis or research that is circulated to encourage discussionand comment within the development conmnunity. To present these results with the least possible delay, thetypescript of this paper has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to fomialprinted texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) andshould not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members ofits Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee theaccuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for anyconsequence of their use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for the convenienceof readers; the designations and presentation of material in them do not imply the expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its Board or member countries concerning thelegal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof or concerning the delimitationof its boundaries or its national afiliaticn.

The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permiission to reproduce portions of it shouldbe sent to Director, Publications Department, at the address shown in the copyright notice above. TheWorld Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when thereproduction is for noncommnercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to photocopy portions forclassroom use is not required, though notification of such use having been nmiade will be appreciated.

The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the alnnual Index of Publications,which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, andcountries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Publications Sales Unit,Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or fromPublications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France.

ISSN: 0259-21OX

Michael E. Colby is with the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvarnia and a consultant to theStrategic Planning and Review and the Latin America and the Caribbean Technical departments of theWorld Bank.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-]Publication DataColby, Michael E.

Environmental management in development : the evolution ofparadigms / Michael E1. Colby.

p. cm. -- (World 13ank discussion papers ; 80)Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-8213-1559-51. Economic development--Environmental aspects. I. Title.

II. Series.HD75.6.C62 1990333.7--dc2O 90-12447

CIP

Abstract

The importance and the methodologies of environmental management, and itsrelationship to human development, are in a period of dramatic change. Conceptions of what is

economically and technologically practical, ecologically necessary, and politically feasible arerapidly being altered. Implicit in such changing strategies are differing philosophies of human-

nature relationships.

For centuries, a usually implicit debate has prevailed between what have come to be

called "economics" and "development" on one side, and the "preservation of nature" and "ecology"on the other. In the past quarter century, as environmental management has become anincreasingly explicit and significant matter requiring the attention of governments, corporations,communities, and individuals, this dichotomy has begun to break down. The resolution of thisdebate involves much more than ecology and economics; it includes different approaches to the

organization of social and production systems, orientations toward the past and the future, andphilosophies of science and epistemology.

Societies are beginning to have serious discussions about "sustainabledevelopment." Many different ideas are emerging, from a wide range of disciplines, about whatenvironmental management and sustainable development entail. Five broad, fundamentalparadigms of environmental management in development, of human-nature relationships, aredescribed. From the primordial dichotomy of "frontier economics" versus "deep ecology,"

paradigms of "environmental protection," "resource management," and "eco-development" areevolving, in a progression which involves increasing integration of economic, ecological, andsocial systems into the definition of development and the organization of human societies. Eachperceives different evidence, imperatives, and problems, and each prescribes different solutions,strategies, technologies, roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc.

Each paradigm actually encompasses several schools of thought, not always incomplete agreement, and there are also overlaps between them. The paper explores thedistinctions, connections, and implications of these five paradigms for the future of environmentalmanagement in development.

iii

Acknowledgements

The material in this paper is excerpted from a copyrighted dissertation, Ecology,

Economics, and Social Systems: The Evolution of the Relationship Between Environmental

Management and Development, completed at The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia (1990). An earlier version of the paper appeared as Strategic Planning and Review

Discussion Paper No. 1 (October 1989), Strategic Planning and Review Dept., The World Bank,

Washington DC.

Thanks for many helpful discussions and written comiments since the previous

version are due to: Erik Arrhenius, Bruce Bandurski, Herman Daly, Joel Fisher, Robert

Goodland, Chris Herman, Thomas Hutcheson, Robert Kaufmann, Agnes Kiss, David LaRoche,

Richard Norgaard, Ragnar Overby, Kenneth Richards, Wolfgang Sachs, Wladimir Sachs,

Francisco Sagasti, Bemd Scharer, and Drexel Sprecher.

iv

Table of Contents

I. In tr o d u c tio n ........................................................ 1

II. A Taxonomy of the Relationship Between

Environmental Management and Development ......................... 3

A. Frontier Economics ........................................................ 9

B. Deep Ecology ........................................................ 13

C. Environmental Protection ........................................... ... 1 6

D. Resource Management ........................................................ 19

E. Eco-Development ........................................................ 23

III. Changing Conceptions of National Security .......................... 31

IV. Possibilities for Convergence .............................................. 32

V. Conclusions ........................................................ 34

References ............................. .................................. 36

List of Tables and Figures

Table 1. Evolution in Perception of Environmental Problems .................. 2

Table 2. Basic Distinctions Between 5 Paradigms ............................... 8

Table 3. Dominant Economic Worldview vs. Deep Ecology Worldview .... 15

Table 4. Resource Management vs. Eco-Development Paradigms ........... 30

Figure 1. Evolutionary Paradigms Diagram ..................................... 7

Figure 2. Neoclassical Circular Flow Model of Economic Production ....... 10

Figure 3. The Evolution of Ethics and The Expanding Concept of Rights ... 14

Figure 4. Economic Production from a Biophysical Perspective .............. 25

Figure 5. A Rural Agro-Industrial System Design .............................. 26

Figure 6. The Evolution of Economic Paradigms ............................... 33

v

I. Introduction

The range of environmental problems wastes; the Intergovernmental Panel on

perceived to be major threats to human Climate Change, the furor over deforestation

welfare has expanded considerably over the in the Amazon, the creation of a central

past two decades, from pollution issues at Environment Department and four regional

local, regional and then international scales, technical environmental divisions in the

to widespread natural resource depletion and World Bank, growing cooperation between

degradation, to truly global concerns such as environmental NGOs and international

climate change and the ozone layer (see Table agencies to create and coordinate action

1). The subject of "environmental agendas, and a burgeoning of articles on

management"'l and its integration with redefining "national security" to incorporate

"development'2 has therefore become a major the needs of environmental/resource quality

concern and challenge for a growing number and stability in addition to economic and

of people, businesses, and governments of military interests (e.g., Mathews, 1989;

the world. While this is not a new subject, Myers, 1989; Renner, 1989).

the level of concern and sense of urgency has

reached new heights, and presently there is With all this political, organizational,

widespread discussion, a myriad of new scientific, and public activity, the subject of

proposals, commitments of resources, and how mankind is to integrate environmental

programs of action. Examples include the management with concerns about economic

Montreal Protocol on Ozone, the publication and social development in order to create and

of the Brundtland Report, Our Common ensure a future for civilization is, sixteen

Future (WCED, 1987), the international years after the groundbreaking 1972

agreement over the disposal of hazardous Stockholm UN Conference on the HumanEnvironment, once again a major arena of

debate. Not unrelated to changes in the types

1 Environmental Management: the field that seeks and scale of environmental threats and theto balance human demands upon the Earth's new initiatives mentioned above, the practicesnatural resource base with the naturalenvironment's ability to meet these demands on a of environmental management and economicsustainable basis. development planning, and the theoretical

2 Development: a process of progressive societal(therefore involving equity and political issues) constructs on which they rest, are in a periodand economic transformation, the major objective of major revision. The outcome of thisof which is the satisfaction of human needs andaspirations, usually achieved by increasing evolutionary process is particularly importantproductive potential (growth) and equality ofopportunity (WCED, 1987). because, m the words of the Assistant

-I

TABLE 1. Evolution in the Perception of Serious Environmental Problems

1970 19132 1988 Compiled 1988(MIT Study) (Rattvik Conference, (Blueprint for the (Worldwatch, ICSU,

see Smil, 1987)) Environment) IIASA, WCED, UNEP)

Carbon dioxide COa' Greienhouse Greenhouse gases/ Global ClimateThermal pollution Gases Sea Rise Global Warming Change, Sea Rise

Atmospheric Particles __

Jet-induced Cirrusclouds

Supersonic Transport Depletion of Ozone Atmospheric Ozoneimpact on the ozone layer by CFCs Concentration

layer Changes (decreases inupper, increases in

lower)Mercury _Regional Seas Pollutio

Oil in the ocean Ocean Pollution Ocean Pollution Oil Spillsoastal Eutrophication in general in general Estuarine/Coastal

__________________ _______________ EutrophicationBiocide residues

DDT (pesticides) Hazardous chemicals Toxic substances, Toxic Wastes andSolid Waste International "Trade"

The spread of man-made mutznt qenes

Tropical Deforestation Tropical Deforestation Tropical Deforestation,Loss of Biodiversity Loss of Biodiversity/ Loss of Biodiversity/

Habitat HabitatAcid Rain/ Deposition Acid Deposition Acid Deposition,

Trans-boundary,Multimedia pollution

Nuclear WinterFresh Surface- and Fresh Water Quality

Groundwater Pollution and QuantityPopulation Growth Population Growth

Environmental Marginalization ofDegradation in poor, especially

Developing Countries indigenous culturesand women

Wasteful, harmful use Inefficient use ofof Energy EnergySoil Loss Soil Deteroration,

Loss,Desertification,Salinitv

Poor Public Lands Poor Land UseManagement (US) policies in general

Disruption ofEcological/ Biogeo-chemical processes

._________________ ._______________ _ _Urban_grow th

-2-

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, II. A Taxonomy of theThomas Lovejoy (1988), "most of the great Relationship BetweenEnvironmental Managementenvironmental struggles will be won or lost and Developmentin the 1990s. . . I am utterly convinced...that by the next century it will be too late."

At both operational and theoretical All human activity, economic andlevels, there have been many developments socio-cultural, takes place in the context ofsince the Stockholm Conference which certain types of relationships between societyportend major changes in the way societies and the bio-physical world (the rest ofwill think about the management of the nature). "Development" necessarily involvesrelationship between nature and human a transformation of these relationships. Foractivity in the future. Most of these advances instance, agriculture, of any sort, is a form ofhave yet to be institutionalized into environmental management, but the types ofgovernments' and development agencies' agriculture implemented may reflect verypolicy and planning systems. In many different underlying conceptions of therespects, the Brundtland Commission said relationship between nature and humans, andlittle that was not said at Stockholm, though what "environmental management" means.perhaps it was said with more widespread As societies have evolved or developed, soparticipation and urgency. The ideas - that has this relationship. Sometimes it evolved"sustainable development"3 is necessary, that in ways that might be construed as mutuallyit requires careful management of the beneficial and ecologically sustainable. Atbiophysical-geochemical resources and other times or places, people exacted benefitsprocesses of the planet - are now in good by attempting to manage nature to improve

currency once again, however. This brings their chances of survival and quality of life,with it both some threats and some major in ways which have reduced localopportunities. ecosystems' capacities to provide them in the

future.

3 Sustainable Development: (1) "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising theability of future generations to meet their own needs....A process of change in which exploitation of resources,the direction of investments, the reorientation of technology development, and institutional change are all inharmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations" (WCED, 1987, p.43, 46).(2) a process in which qualitative development is maintained and prolonged while growth in the biophysicalscale of the economy becomes increasingly constrained by the capacity of the socio-ecosystem to perform overthe long run two essential functions: to regenerate raw material inputs and to absorb waste outputs of the humaneconomy (Daly, 1989c).

-3-

This was not too important when disciplines, wvith rio need to learn from each

such activities took place on a scale that was other. It is probably not yet a truly practical

minor compared to that of nature's own. consensus. Without more powerful

When populations were small and new approaches, and the courage to implement

frontiers could always be found, people them, the concept of "sustainable

could move on to a new arena when they had development" maLy prove to be politically

exhausted the local capacity o0 the land to unsustainable, subject to yet another period

support their activities, and the land would of disillusionment, backlash, or simple

then have time to regenerate itself. Bletween disinterest.

1950 and 1986, however, the scale of the

world population doubled, frorn 2.5 to 5.0 If one takes a slightly longer

billion, while the scale of gross world perspective on this "reborn" consensus, it is

product and world fossil fuel consumption easy to see that it is more than just the second

each quadrupled (Daly, 1988). In this wind of a process that began in the 1960s.

century, world population has tripled, and the With a considerably longer view, and the idea

world economy has expanded to 20 times its of the evolution of the relationship between

size in 1900 (Speth, 1989). Matter and man and nature in mind, one can see that this

energy flows - the physical presence of the relationship has itaken on a very specificeconomy within the ecosphere - were not character, in the Western world at least, sincenegligible in 1900, but they now rival in the time of the scientific revolution, and

magnitude the flow rates of many natural developed to its present state in that context.

cycles and fluxes. This is having major Going back even further in time, or by

effects on the stability of the biogeochemical looking at other societies, one encounters

and physical processes that suppcrt life, other kinds of relationship between man andhuman and otherwise, on this planet. The nature. Each society, in fact, has had its own

result is a new political pseudo-consensus relationship with nature. There even exist

that societies can no longer operate as if "ecological" accounts of history, with the

economics4 and ecology5 were two separate thesis that the downfall of certain civilizationsmay have been more related to what today are

4 economics: (1) the study of allocatingthe resources available to society in a way thatmaximizes social well-being (common 5 Ecolo: (1) the study of theneoclassical definition). (2) "the wise and interrelationships between living organisms andlegitimate government of the house for the their biological, physical, geological, chemical,common good of the whole family ... exlended to and geographic environment (reductionist;the government of the great family, the State." McNaughton and Wolf, 1979); or(Rousseau, 1755, quoted in Bandurski, 1973). (2) the study of the structure and function of

nature (holistic; Odum, 1953).

-4-

called "environmental problems," than to the basic "paradigms" 6 of management of the

typical historical accountings of military give relationship between humans and nature, or

and take between societies (Cronon, 1983). of "environmental management in

Some studies of the Mediterranean and development," are proposed here. Each

Mayan civilizations have provoked thought in paradigm is driven by different assumptions

this vein (Weiskel, 1989). about human nature and activity, about nature

itself, and the interactions between nature andPeoples' views on their relationship humans. Each asks different questions and

with nature is one of the most important perceives different evidence, dominant

aspects of any strategy for human imperatives, threats or risks (problems for

development, though they are very often development), has different modeling

implicit. Since this relationship is at the root techniques for how the world works, and

of each of the seemingly distinct fields of different preferred solutions and management

"environmental management," "economics," strategies. They also have different flaws, ofand "development," its evolution is course.

fundamental to current discussions and the

future practice of "sustainable development." Many of these differences will be

Societies' fundamental ideas about the highlighted for purposes of distinction.

relationship between human activity and However, it is important to emphasize that

nature are now in a period of major flux. The these paradigms are not completely distinct or

term "nature" is used here purposefully to unrelated. Because some aspects are shared

represent one "side" of this relationship, between two or more of the paradigms

rather than "environment," as the latter is presented, the reader may feel that some of

itself a term that has evolved as a the distinctions made are overdrawn. In part

consequence of a particular worldview on the

relationship between man and nature. In. . ~~~~~~~6 Puradgim: (1) a criterion for choosing

other words, it is the result of one of the very problems ... that can be assumed to h4ve

paradigms that are in flux, and as such is a solutions. Other problems are rejected asmetaphysical, as the concern of another

particular conceptual representation of nature discipline, or sometimes as just too problematic

which is also evolving, to be worth the time; (2) the entire constellationof beliefs, values, techniques, and so on sharedby members of a given community, or one

There are many ways of describing element in that constellation, the concrete puzzle-solutions which, employed as models or

this fundamental relationship and how examples, can replace explicit rules as a basis for

different social conceptions of it translate to the solution of the remaining puzzles of normalscience; (3) not the samne as shared rules; the

or impact on practical management. Five existence of a paradigm need not even imply thatany full set of rules exists (Kuhn, 1970). (4) aworldview or mode of perception; a model aroundwhich reality is organized (Berman, 1981).

5-

this is true, in part it is evidence of the previously dominant approaches, some

transitional stage of the debate about just aspects of the paradigms have evolved out of

what sustainable developrnent and the others, retaining many of their

environmental management entail. All too predecessors' features within an expanded

often, the implications of changing conditions framework. It should also be noted, of

and innovations in thought in the field have course, that there are still disagreements and

not been explored; all variations are vriewed many schools of thought within each general

by the dominant paradigm as belonging in a paradigm presented. This paper will identify

single basket of strange thoughlts. lThis is the core differences between the paradigms

why "environmentalism" and environmental and begin to explore their implications.

management can look so confusing to "non-environmentalists" - but it is nowhere near Figure 1 provides the titles proposed

as monolithic as the latter tend to believe; just for the five paradigmns, and attempts to depict

as economics is nowhere near as monolithic graphically the nature of the "evolutionary"

as many assume. This is what makes the relationships between them. Table 2

debate about just what "sustainable provides a summary of the distinctions

development" means so interesting -- and between thern, along the dimensions

what makes greater clarity so very important. mentioned above. It is also worth noting thatwithin the basic dimension of dominant

Certain approaches are probably more perceived threats, one could construct a sub-

appropriate to different problems or issues list of particular problems or risks and then a

than others. Concepts and techniques from whole additioinal matrix of the "solutions"

all five paradigms will be necessary for long preferred by each of the paradigms (see

into the future; what is definitely changing is Colby, 1990a, pp. 194-198). Following

the dominance or relative degrees of Table 2 is a more detailed discussion of each

emphasis the different approaches are given. paradigm and the concepts raised in the table.

At least in part due to shortcomings in the

- 6-

Eco-Development

- ~Resource

-S ~Management -_-~ > Environmental'_

/ ~Protection ,-

Frontier Deepk EconomWic }i s' Ecolog

FIGURE 1. Evolutionary Paradigms Diagram.

The diagram attempts to indicate schematically the non-linearity of paradigmevolution in the following ways. The vertical scale represents the progression intime from one paradigm to the next going upward; the horizontal scale indicates theupper three paradigms' position on a spectrum between the "diametrically opposed"frontier economics and deep ecology paradigms. The size of the boxes signifies(roughly) the degree of inclusiveness and integration of social, ecological andeconomic systems in the definition of development and organization of humansocieties. Non-solid lines indicate the hypothesized future.

-7-

TABLE 2. Basic Distinctions Between Five Paradigms of Environmental Management in Development ©M.E. Colby 290

Paradigm> Frontier Environmental Resource Eco- DeepDimension Economics [ Protection Mana ement Development Ecology

Dominant "Progress," as "Tradeoffs," as in "Sustainability" as Co-developing `Eco-topia":Dominant Infinite Economic Growth Ecology versus necessary constraint for Humans and Nature; Anti-Growth 'ConstrainedImperative: and Prosperity Economic Growth "Green Growth" Redefine "Security" Harmony with Nature'

Human-Nature Very Strong Strong ModifiedRelationship: Anthropocentric Anthropocentric Anthropocentric Ecocentric ? Biocentic

Dominant Hunger, Poverty, Disease, Health Impacts of Pollution, Resource Degradation; Ecological Uncertainty Ecosystem CollapseThreats: 'Natural Disasters" Endangered Species Poverty, Population growth Global Change 'Unnatural' DisastersMain Open Access/Free Goods Remedial/Defensive Global Efficiency Generative Restructuring Back to NatureThemes: Exploitation of Infinite "Legalize Ecology" as "Economize Ecology" "Ecologize Social Systems" "Biospecies Equality'

7hemes: Natural Resources Economic Externality Interdependence Sophisticated Symbiosis Simple SymbiosisGlobal Commons Law GCL + Local Common &Prevalent Privatization (Neoclass.) or Privatization Dominant; (GCL) ior Conservation oi: Private Property regimes Private, plus Common

Property Nationalization (Marx.) Some Public Parks Oceans, Atmosphere, for Intra/Inter- Generational Property set aside forRegimes: of all property set aside Climate, Biodiversity? Equity & Stewardship PreservationR, P v Property Owners Taxpayers 'Polluter Pays" (producers "Pollution Prevention Pays" Avoid costs by foregoing

Who Pays? (Public at Large: esp. Poor) (Public at Large) & consumers) (Poor) Income-index Envir. Taxes developmentRosrDnsevemt ropert OFragwnnta:or: T owaird IntegratiunI 1C.o-s PrivaietPubiic

forDevkpmnInstitutional I ionpenty Owners: Development decentralized muhiple levels of gov't. Institutional Innovations & Largely Decentralized but& Management Individuals or State Management centralized (e.g., ted./stateAocal) Redefinition of Roles integrated design & mgmt.

Industrial Agriculture: "End-of-the-Pipe" or Impact Assessment & Risk Uncertainty (Resilience) Stability Management, Environmental High Inputs of Energy, "Business as Usual Plus a Management, Pollution Management, Industrial Reduced ScManagement Biocide, & Water; Treatment Plant' Clean-up. Reduction, Energy Ecology/Eco-Technologies, Economy (inc. Trade)Technologies Monocultures, 'Command and Control' Efficiency, Renewable e.g: Renewable Energy, Low Technology

and Strategies: Mechanized Production Market Regulation: Some Resource/ Conservation Waste/Resource Cycling Simple Material NeedsFossil Energy Prohibition or Limits, Strategies, Restoration for Throughput Scale Non-dominating Science

Pollution Dispersal Repair, & Set-asides. Ecology, Population Reduction, Agro-forestry, Indigenous Tech. SystemsUnregulated Waste Focus on Protection of Stabilization & Technology- Low Input Agriculture, "Intrinsic Values'

Disposal Human Health, Enhanced Carrying Extractive Forest Reserves Population ReductionHigh Population Growth "Land Doctoring" Capacity, Some Structural Population Stabilization &

"Free Markets" Envir. Impact Statements Adjustment Enhanced Capacity as RMEcological Economics:

Neoclassical OR Marxist Neoclassical Plus: Neoclassical Plus: Biophysical-Economic Grassroots BioregionalAnalyticl Closed Economic Systems Environmental Impact Include Natural Capital. Open Systems Dynamics; PlanningJ-vdeiting Reversible Equilib.-ia, Assessment after Design; True (Hicksian) income Socio-Technical & Eco- Multiple Cultural Systems

and Planning Production Limited by Optimum Pollution Levels Maximization in UN System system Process Design; Conservation of Cultural &Methodologies: Man-made Factors, Natural Equation of Willingness to of National Accounts; Integration of Social, Biological Diversity

Factors not accounted for. Pay & Compensation rIncreased, Freer Trade Economic, & Ecological AutonomyNet Present Value Principles Ecosystem & Social Health Criteria for Technology;

Maximization Monitoring; Linkages Trade & Capital flowCost-Benefit Analysis of between Population, regulation based on

tangible goods & services Poverty, & Environment Community Goals & Mgmt;Land Tenure & Income

1_________ ______11 _ Redistrib.; Geophysiology?Creative but Mechanistic; Defined by F.E. in reaction Downplays social factors May generate false security Defined in reaction to F.E.,Fundamental No awareness of reliance to D.E.; Lacks vision of Subtly mechanistic; Magnitude of changes Organic but not Creative;

Flaws: on ecological balance abundance Doesn't handle uncertainty |require new consciousness How reduce population?Frontier Economics (F.E.) Environmental Protection (E.P.) Resource Management (R.M.) Eco-Development (E.D.) Deep Ecology (D.E.)

A. Frontier Economics

"Frontier economics" is the term used circular diagram, a pendulum movement

by economist and systems theorist Kenneth between production and consumption within

Boulding to describe the approach that a completely closed system," with all flows

prevailed in industrial countries until the late being completely reversible, (Figure 2) was

1960s. At its most basic, it treats nature as widely accepted (Georgescu-Roegen, 1971).

an infinite supply of physical resources (i.e., This posed little problem as long as the rate

raw materials, energy, water, soil, and, air) of demand for natural resources and

to be used for human benefit, and as an ecosystem services did not exceed nature's

infinite sink for the by-products of the capacity to provide them. Since this capacity

development and consumption of these was assumed to be infinite, for all practical

benefits, in the form of various types of purposes, the issue of scale of total resource

pollution and ecological degradation flow relative to total resource stocks was not

(Boulding, 1966). This throughput aspect of considered important (Daly, 1989b). The

the flow of resources from nature into the primary limiting factors of production are

economy and the flow of wastes back out perceived, in both neoclassical and marxist

into the "environment" did not enter into economic analysis, to be human labor and

predominant economic thinking, because it man-made capital. There is an unbridled faith

was believed to be infinite in extent, while in the "progress" of human ingenuity, in the

neoclassical economics was chiefly benevolence of technological advancement,

concerned with the allocation of those and their capacity to reckon with any

resources perceived to be scarce (Daly, problems that might arise, usually through

1989a). Thus, according to this view, there substitution when scarcity causes prices to

is no explicit biophysical "environment" to be rise. Since both nature's capacity and human

managed, since it is seen as irrelevant to the ingenuity are seen as boundless, there is little

economy. According to Lester Thurow conceptual possibility for the combination of

(1980, p. 112), "worries about natural the accumulation of damage and the depletion

resource exhaustion are hard to rationalize of resources to eventually limit production

from the point of view of economics." and human opportunity.

Hence, the economy became Sometimes economic theory blocks

disembodied from nature, in theory and in out ecological reality, not to mention its

practice. "The standard textbook impact on economic reality - but sometimes

representation of the economic process by a it is economists, not their theory, who

-9-

narrow their "practical" concerns within a definition of efficiency within modern

theoretical framework which mi,ght be economics' exchange theory of value; only

sufficient to handle many ecological problems resources that are considered scarce must be

if properly applied. It is a paradox of used efficiently, so that non-scarce items

economics that "value" is generated by inexorably become scarce, and therefore

creating scarcity; depleting and degrading valuable. Meanwhile the people and

resources increases their measured value, but economies whose survivalV sustainability

it usually hurts people, the economy, and the depends on the use of those resources

functionality of the ecosystem on which they become increasingly vulnerable.

rest. This paradox results frorn a narrow

$ Consumption Expenditures

GOODS AND SE-RVICES NATIONAL

|HOUSEHOLD |RM

f _ -> NATIONALLAND, LABOR, AND IAPITAL INCOME

$ Wages, Profit, Etc.

FIGURE 2. Neoclassical Circular Flow Model of Economic Production.

Households sell or rent land, natural resources, labor, and capital to finns in returnfor rent, wages, and profit (factor payments). Firms combine the factors ofproduction to produce goods and services in return for consumption expenditures,investment, government expenditures, and net exports. (Modified from Hall et al,1986; and Heilbroner and Thurow, 1981.)

Consistent with widespread Western science, nature is seen in this

interpretations of the major Western religions paradigm as existing for man's instrumental

and Francis Bacon's "Techlnolcogical benefit, to be explored, manipulated,

Program" for the development of modern exploited, mocified, and even "cheated" in

- 10-

any way possible that could improve the the purpose of increasing man's power to

material quality of human life (White, 1967; extract resources and production from nature,

Berman, 1981; Pepper, 1984). In fact, and/or to reduce the negative impacts of

nature was to be remade according to man's nature's variability on society. A prime

image, transformed so as to be more suitable example is modern industrial agriculture,

to humans' needs and desires. The which in order to solve the basic problem of

relationship between human activity and hunger, replaced natural nutrient cycles,

nature under this management paradigm thus climate, and plant-herbivore/plant-plant

can be seen as unilaterally oriented interactions with fossil fuel energy,

(anthropocentric). From "nature's irrigation, man-made chemical "pesticides,"

perspective," the relationship may have been and specialized monocultures of genetic

characterizable as zero-sum, or negative; hybrid crops. Another example is the "tall

humans benefitted at the expense of other smokestacks" strategy of waste dispersal.

species and natural ecosystems. Based on the illusion that if pollution is

spread thinly enough, it will go unnoticed, byThis type of relationship between people or by nature, this led to the problem of

society and nature is common to both acid rain.

relatively decentralized, capitalist economies

and centrally-planned, marxist economies. Most developing nations have

They differ in strategies for organizing emulated this basic approach to economic and

development, such as in the type of property environmental management in one way or

regime promoted as most efficient and/or another. They have been in no small way

desirable, responsibility for governance and encouraged by not just the example and

design of activity, and how the income from teachings, but also the direct policies

production is to be distributed, but the prescribed for them by the leaders and policy-

underlying worldviews about the roles of makers of industrialized nations and

people and nature, and their ultimate goals, international development and financial

are much the same. Both capitalism and institutions. Of course, such prescriptions

communism have visions of infinite were not necessary intentionally harmful;

economic growth and human progress. they arose due to the implicit, often

unconscious assumptions made about theMany technologies that have been relationship and interdependence between

used for "development" could thus be seen, human activity and nature. Unfortunately,

with a minor adjustment in view, as the hidden effects were built into the policies.

technologies or strategies for managing the This Frontier Economics approach was

environment, since they were developed for sometimes justified as a minor evil,

- 11 -

"necessary" during the pre- and early- One major problem with this

industrial stages of developmient, as was philosophy arises from an important

rapid population growth, in order to alchieve a difference in vulnerability to ecologicalmore advanced state. Such population degradation between temperate and tropicalgrowth then became a reason for yet more ecosystems, amd the types of "environmental"

resource consumption and pol[utionl. It is problems they face. The resource depletion

believed that damage, if it is even perceived, and ecological destruction going on in

can easily be repaired where necessary, after tropical nations is in many cases irreversibledevelopment has proceeded to somre point on a human itime scale, unlike the pollutionwhere explicit environmental management problems which dominated environmentalcan be afforded (see "Environimental concerns in the industrial countries (at least

Protection"). The vision is one where infinite until very re:cently; the ozone and global

technological progress and economic growth warming issues may be irreversible). In the

would eventually provide affordable ways to late 1980s, most developing nations have

mitigate environmental problems (and others, come to see that they are damaging their own

such as equity). The fundamental flaw is a future prospects by pursuing development

lack of awareness of the humarn economy's strategies and policies that are unsustainable,

basic dependence on a vast array of physical though they often feel that they have no

and biological resources for' materials, choice. A vicioIus circle of poverty and

energy, and food, and even moire basic, the ecological destruction has been set up, often

fine balance of interdependent ecological as a direct result of "development," with a

processes (after Westman, 1977. "ecosystem unifying theme of increasing marginalization

services," such as nutrient and water cycling, of people and the land on which they live.

water and air filtration, regulation of climate Natural resources and ecological services are

and atmospheric gases) that support all life now becominig "scarcer," and so economic

and protect its health. practice must incorporate them.

- 12-

B. Deep Ecology

"Deep ecology" (Naess, 1973; Devall century romanticism and transcendentalism,

and Sessions, 1985) is one name for a eastern philosophies and religions such asworldview that has been widely interpreted as Taoism and Buddhism; various religions'the polar opposite of frontier economics. In concepts of ethics, justice, and equity;many regards, it is a reaction to many of the ecofeminism; pacifism; Jeffersonianconsequences of the dominant paradigm, and decentralized, participatory democracy; andcan be seen as a fundamentally different some of the social equality aspects ofvalue/ethical system (Figure 3). It is much socialism (which some have termed "socialless widely understood or accepted, though ecology").

as a political movement it is growing. Deepecology is not to be confused with the science Deep ecologists promote merging anof ecology. In its current form, it is an understanding and appreciation of some ofattempt to synthesize many old and some new the more technical, scientific aspects ofphilosophical attitudes about the relationship systems ecology with a non-anthropocentric,between nature and human socioeconomic "biocentric," or "harmonious" view of theactivity, with particular emphasis on ethical, relationship between man and nature, whichsocial, and spiritual aspects that have been often means putting man under nature, thedownplayed in the dominant economic reverse of the frontier economics hierarchy.worldview. Deep ecology is far from a Among the basic tenets are intrinsicunified, consistent philosophy as of this date, "biospecies equality" (the Convention on thethough some of its advocates consider this to International Trade of Endangered Species,be a strength rather than a weakness, or CITES, signed by over one hundredpromoting diversity and flexibility (see Vol. nations, is sometimes considered a step18, No. 4/5 (1988) of the British journal, toward the achievement of this goal); majorThe Ecologist). At any rate, neither is reductions in human population; bioregionaleconomic theory anywhere near as unified autonomy (reduction of economic,and consistent as its advocates or its critics technological, and cultural dependencies andare wont to assume. This name actually exchanges to within integrous regions ofcomes from one school of thought within the common ecological characteristics);philosophical spectrum of "Green Politics," promotion of biological and cultural diversity;which draws eclectically on various schools decentralized planning utilizing multiple valuesuch as the modern science of systems systems; non-growth oriented economies;ecology; wilderness preservationism; 19th non-dominant (simple or low) technology;

-13-

and more use of indigenous management and paradigms) see technological fixes as usually

technological systems. Deep ecologists (as leading to larger, more costly, morewell as many systems analysts of the intractable problems - not exactly a

resource management and eco-development desirable form of "progress."

Universe NatureEndangered Species Act 1973

Planet Wilderness Act 1964

Future systems Blacks

Rocks Civil Rights Act 1957

\ Life 7 \ LaborersPlants Fair Labor Standards Act 1938

- - - Animals Native Americans

Present Humans Indian Citizenship Act 1924

\ Race | \ Women

Nation 19th Amendment 1920

Ethical Past Region SlavesEmancipation

\ Tribe / \ Proclamation 1863

American ColonistsPre-Ethical Past Self Declaration 1776

English BaronsMagna Carta 1215

atura Rights

FIGURE 3. The Evolution of Ethics and The Expanding Concept of Rights.

Discussions of "sustainable development" suggest that "Future Generations" shouldbe added to the top of the right-hand figure. (modified from Nash, 1989, pp. 5, 7)

The application of this philosophy major changes in the quality and extent ofwould result in radical changes in social, human modification of nature, recognizinglegal and economic systems, and definitions the mutual dependence and need forof "development." Its advocates promote cooperation between humans and nature.

- 14 -

While some of these principles can actually anti-growth "Eco-topia," of a constrained

be of use in future development planning "harmony with nature." While this may be

approaches, the extreme - to expect the organic, it tends not to be creative - one of

whole world to return to pre-industrial, rural the fundamental drives in the evolution oflifestyles and standards of living - has been both nature and human society. Table 3,

widely regarded as highly impractical, and to comparing this worldview directly with

most people, undesirable. Even if everyone Frontier Economics, is modified from the

wanted to, this would probably be impossible book Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature

at current population levels and rural land Mattered (Devall and Sessions, 1985).

degradation. The extreme imperative is of an

TABLE 3.Dominant Economic Worldview vs. Deep Ecology Worldview.

Dominance over nature Harmony with nature; symbiosis

Natural environment is a resource for All nature has intrinsic worth; biospecieshumans equality

Material/economic growth for growing Simple material needs, serving a larger goalhuman population of self-realization

Belief in ample resource reserves Earth "supplies" limited

High technological progress and solutions Appropriate technology; non-dominatingscience

Consumerism, Growth in consumption Do with enough; recycling

NationaUcentralized community Minority traditions/ bioregions

- 15-

C. Environmental Protection

The dominance of the frontier By "negative," it is not meant that the

economics paradigm began to weaken in the environmental protection approach explicitly

1960s, especially after the 1962 publication set out to harrn tht environment. On the

of Rachel Carson's book, Silent Spring. By contrary, environmental protection and

the end of that decade, pollution was a rmajor therefore, management, was now a much

concern in the industrialized nations. more explicit enterprise than it was during

Scientists began to study "environmental most of history, and this was certainly a

problems," usually related to pollution or the "positive" development. It is termed negative

destruction of habitats and/or species. The because it institutionalized an approach that

recognition of the pollution problem in the focussed damage control: on repairing and

polarized context of frontier economics setting limits to harmful activity. Rather than

versus the nascent deep ecology schools led focussing on ways to improve both

to the perception of the necessity to make development actions and ecological

compromises, or tradeoffs; the constrained resilience, this approach was inherently

perception of "Ecology versus Elconomic defensive or remedial in practice, concerned

Growth" became freshly explicit. mainly with ameliorating the effects of human

activities. It has also been described as the"Environmental impact statements" "end-of-the-pipe" or "'business-as-usual, plus

were institutionalized in some industrial a treatment plant" approach. To use a

countries as a rational means to assist in medical analogy, "land doctoring" is

weighing the costs and benefits of practiced rather than "land health." As in

development activities before they began. In human medicine, reimedial approaches are

actuality, statements often were added on usually much more expensive than

after project planning and design were well prevention. Economic analysis is still based

along, so that the late-coming environmental on the neoclassical model of the closed

concerns usually ended up being perceived as economic system (Figure 2).

"anti-development." This is the beginning of

what might be called the takeover of the Perhaps the principal strategy this

"negative, or defensive agenda" in practical paradigm is to legalize the environment as an

environmental management policies and economic externaliV. "Command-and-

actions, though the assumptions and values control" regulatory approaches are relied

implicitly underlying it go much further back upon in this paradigm to set limits on

in time. pollution or other damages. "Optimal

- 16-

pollution levels" were defined, more by In this approach, relatively small

short-term economic acceptability, and parcels of common property sometimes were

therefore, politics, than by what was converted to state property to be set aside for

necessary for the maintenance of ecosystem preservation or conservation as national parksresilience (admittedly, in part due to the fact and wilderness reserves. A more pervasive

that ecologically appropriate levels were/are conceptual tenet of this path, however, is thenot known, and even the definition of neoclassical belief in the privatization ofresilience is still debated by ecologists). The property as a principal solution to overuse oflimits enacted were thus often arbitrary from resources. Garrett Hardin's classic allegorya scientific- ecological point of view. of "The Tragedy of the Commons" has beenPollution dispersal continued to be a common widely accepted by researchers and

approach to amelioration, even when it development practitioners as a basis for thiscreated yet larger, more costly problems prescription (Hardin, 1968). Commondown the road, such as international transport property regimes are associated withof acid precipitation. In keeping with the "inevitable" resource degradation. This hasdominant paradigm of separation of issues become the dominant perspective from which

and fragmentation of responsibility in social scientists view natural resource issues.government, separate "Environmental However, "the Hardin metaphor is not onlyProtection Agencies" were created. They socially and culturally naive, it is historicallywere responsible for setting the limits, and in false" (Bromley and Cernea, 1989). Whatsome cases, cleaning up after limits were were actually open access property regimes

exceeded, but they were not responsible for with the stereotypical "tragic" consequences,planning development activities in ways that were lumped together with common property

did not pollute or impair necessary ecological regimes, under which specific usage rightsfunctions, or better still, that facilitate and duties apply to a finite group, and fromecological functions at the same time as which others are excludable. Scores of

taking advantage of them. As many pollution common property regimes which haveproblems grew, the after-the-fact, clean-up proven ecologically sustainable have beennature of this type of management grew identified, on all continents (e.g., Berkes,(e.g., the clean-up of the North American 1989). Unfortunately, it is difficult toGreat Lakes and the United States' determine the potential for replicating them,Superfund), as did the prescription of new as in many cases, the processes oftechnological solutions to mitigate pollution "development" have changed onceproblems (e.g., expensive smokestack sustainable cultures so that ecologically viable

"scrubbers"). systems of usage rights and duties may no

longer be socially or economically stable.

- 17 -

The Stockholm UN Conference on are harmed more by both pollution and

the Human Environment in 1972 signaJed the resource degradation than are the rich.

internationalization of the problem of

environmental disruption, and therefore, the This perception of unaffordability and

subject of explicit management. While it is unfairness is at least in part due to the fact

quite unfair to say that the conceptual that the environmental protection approach is

framework of the organizers of Stockholm basically a modest variation on the "frontier

and its follow-up (such as the creation of economics" paradigm of development, and

UNEP, and the Cocoyoc Conference in even that was at least in part thrust on

1974) was exclusively of the "remedial" developing countries by industrial nations.

focus described above, the predomninant Because economic analysis seeks only

practical consequences were still in this limited, monetary-based types of

mode. UNEP has no operational power and information, and ecological benefits are

no responsibility for truly changing the ways difficult to quantify, environmentalin which development activity is organized management in this variation of the modeland measured. It is an informiation-gathering only shows up as added costs. Development

agency, ensconsed in Nairobi, far frcm the activities that a,re ecologically benign or even

corridors of power, financial resources, and beneficial aye rarely recognized as such.

decision making. Most developing countries Impacts of excessive environmental

have been slow to implement comprehensive depletions (resouirce exploitation) or

and effective protective legislation, planning insertions (pollution) are considered to be

and enforcement, partly because they "externalities" to the economy. They are

believed they could not afford it (in the dealt with after they occur, if at all, and

neoclassical sense, excludling the usually paid for by the public at large, in the

externalities) and partly because it is forms of quality of life degradation and/or

perceived as unfairly restricting their increased taxes. The ecosystem in general isdevelopment potential. Governmfents often seen as external to thLe economy. The impacts

have seen environmental concerns, especially of pollution on human health and the aestheticpollution and land/wildlife protection, as the quality of the environiment are often the prime

pollutlon ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 44nvrnmntl conedn ofVldlf industriala thinterests of the elite class of rich countries, "environmental" concerns of industrial

and contrary to their needs and interests. country governments; for this reason, someSomewhat paradoxically, governiments do economists have claiimed that it is mainly the

usually bow to local rich, elite interest groups concern of the industrial middle class.when they resist land reform measures that Resource deple:tion and ecosystem services

might be useful in addressing some of the are still not perceived in policy-making circles

problems. Another paradox is that the poor as serious limiting factors, because of an

- 18-

unbridled faith in technological progress and primarily for human benefit, whether health-

substitution. The very use of the term or aesthetically-oriented. Economists still

"environmental" as a label for these types of focus almost exclusively on the marketproblems belies how small the change in economy. Little understanding of "nature'sattitudes which underlie the approach really economy" or the "survival economy" enters

are. Under a different set of assumptions into economic analysis or development

about the relationship between man and planning. The former is the ecology ofnature, they might be more properly called resource processes, such as the stocks and

"economic,". "resource," or perhaps most flows of nutrient cycles, ecosystem services,appropriately, "development" problems. throughput processing abilities of different

ecosystems, and the interdependence ofThe interaction between human ecosystems and climate (see Worster, 1977;

activity and nature can still be seen as Hall et al, 1986; Perrings, 1987), while the

negative from nature's perspective, hence the latter consists of the various human activities

dichotomous perception of "environment which do not enter into any market statisticsversus development." The basic purpose of but nonetheless support hundreds of millionsthis interaction is still unilateral or of people's lives (e.g., Chambers, 1987).

anthropocentric. Setting aside national parksand cleaning up of pollution are still done

D. Resource Management

The survival priorities of the poor poor who are most affected. Hence, in someusually supersede their environmental quality developing countries such as India, "ecologyinterests. In terms of actual health effects, movements" have risen from the lower

the impacts of degraded environmental classes (Bandyopadhyay, Jayanta andquality are probably most severe on the poor, Vandana Shiva, 1988). This is one of thehowever. The political economy and the major reasons for the emerging shift to frompractical concerns of environmental Environmental Protection to "Resource

management in developing countries are quite Management."

different from those of industrial nationsResource Management is the basicbecause resource depletion is often felt more

severely than pollution effects, and it is the theme of reports such as the Brundtland

-19 -

Commission's Our Common Future, the Global systems dynamics modelersWorldwatch Institute's annual State of the began in the early 1970s to model not just theWorld, and the World Resources Institute's resources of capital and labor, but also theannual World Resources reports. Itinvolves interactive supply and demand of otherboth a fairly natural theoretical extension of natural resources, including energy, valuableneoclassical economics and a substantial metals, fisheries, forests, soils, and water,

change in practice -therefore, it might be which were perceived as becoming scarcer,

termed "evolutionary," rather than and the existence. of "negative" resources"revolutionary." The basic idea is to such as pollution. The publication of the

incorporate all types of capital and resources Club of Rome's The Limits to Growth in

- biophysical, human, infrastructural, and 1972 was a landmark in this regard. Thismonetary - into calculations of national report, along with subsequent modellingaccounts, productivity, and policies for attempts such as the U.S. Global 2000

development and investment planning. It Report to the President in 1980, was widelydirectly contradicts the frontier economics vilified because it projected a future of "doomassertion that natural resource exhaustiorL is and gloom" based on linear extrapolation ofnot a matter of concern. Pollution can even trends without considering the positivebe considered a "negative resource" (causing potential of technological change, resourcenatural capital degradation), rather than as an substitution, and price mechanisms. Theseexternality. Climate and the processes "systems analysis" arguments then

regulating it may become regarded as a languished in policy-rnaking circles in thefundamental, vital resources to be mianaged early 1980s, amid a resurgent political climate

under this paradigm. Future rationales for of economic and technological optimism, andparks or reserves may focus more on their faith in free markets and trade growth.genetic resource and climate regulation Meanwhile, the debt crisis in developing

values. Again, these resources are intended countries were so acute that, rather thanfor potential use by humans; that is what the implementing even defensive or remedialterm "resource" implies. The Environmental Protection, the debt trapinterdependence and multiple values of sometimes led to increased rates of extractionvarious resources will be taken into greater and destruction of natural resources, in anaccount (e.g., the role of forests as attempt to pay off debt and meet thewatersheds, affecting hydropower, soil immediate needs of rapidly growingfertility and agricultural productivity, climate populations (George, 1988).

regulation and even fisheries productivity).

- 20-

Outside of major policy and decision- (1982). Many more conferences were held.

making circles, work continued along the Collaborative efforts such as the Tropical

lines of the systems analytical framework. Forestry Action Plan were launched (WRI, et

Methodologies, monitoring, and al, 1985). It was argued that increasing

documentation improved, particularly with efficiency of resource use, through

regard to resource depletion, population conservation, wise management, and policies

pressure, and the circular links with poverty. that integrated economic and ecological

In addition to ecology, other interdisciplinary principles, along with ever-relied-upon

fields such as the study of living systems and promises of technological advances, would

self-organizing systems developed more prevent disaster and ensure that "The Global

rigorous systems modeling methods. Many Possible" (Repetto, 1986) would be

of the threats predicted in earlier modeling achieved.

efforts have in fact come true, despite the fact

the one often reads statements that the doom New initiatives in global commons

and gloom scenarios have been law have already taken hold, with several"vanquished." "Global Commons" more possible.7 The combination of greater

resources, such as the atmosphere in general resource depletion, pollution, continued

and the ozone layer in particular, climate population growth, rising energy costs,

variation, biodiversity, and oceanic climatic changes, land destruction, and high

resources, have emerged as issues for which debt burdens have created economic and

current legal, economic, political, and social conditions in developing countries that

institutional structures and concepts are are much worse than they were ten, or in

completely inadequate. Resource managers parts of Africa, even twenty years ago.

view the stabilization of population levels in These conditions seriously threaten

developing countries and reductions in the possibilities for economic growth and

per capita consumption (via increased prosperity, not to mention survival, for large

efficiency) in the industrial nations as

absolutely essential to achieving 7 Previous efforts included: The Antarctica Treaty,

sustainability. the Convention on the International Trade ofs*stainability. Endangered Species (CITES), the stalled Law of

the Sea, the Nile Waters Agreement, and theNon-governmental and international U.S.-Canada Boundary Waters Treaty.

Contemporary measures include the 1988organizations, such as the International Montreal Protocol on Ozone and subsequent

Union for the Conservation of Nature and efforts to strengthen it, International Trade ofHazardous Wastes, a renegotiated Antarctica

Natural Resources (IUCN) and the UN, Treaty. Other possibilities include an"International Law of the Atmosphere", a

prepared the World Conservation Strategy "Biodiversity Conservation Agreement",

(1980) and the World Charter for Nature recognition of World Court jurisdiction by thenations of the UN Security Council, etc.

- 21 -

numbers of people. The new discipline of subject of several Working Papers by the

"risk management," whereby the magnitude World Bank's Environment Department and

and probability of various threats are reports by the World Resources Institute and

analyzed so that they can be prioritized for UNEP). Calculations of Hicksian income,

action according to their degree of danger to which is by definition sustainable (Hicks,

society, is now a major aspect of 1946), need to iincorporate natural, or non-

environmental management (Kleindorfer and man-made capital as well as man-made

Kunreuther, 1986).8 economic resources such as labor, money,

infrastructure. Perhaps even moreConcern for the environmenc no significant, ecosystena processes, rather than

longer implies that one is anti-development; just stocks of physical resources, need to be

in fact, sustainable development depends on considered as resources and capital which

it. It is understood that the scale of human should be conseived -- as well as used more

activity is so large that it now affects nature effectively through new technology. The

as much as nature affects man, and tihese approach is still anthropocentric at its core; all

impacts feed back on the quantity arid quality this concern for nature is based on the fact

of human life that is achievable. The that hurting nature is beginning to hurt

neoclassical imperative of economic growth economic man. Thus, the instrumental

is still perhaps the primary goal of economic paradigm prevails, only it is

development, but sustainability is viewed as a enlarged to encompass some basic ecological

necessary constraint for green growth principles in an attempt to maintain

(Pezzey, 1989). ecosystenmlife support system stability for the

Despite the fact that ecology and support of sustainable development.

economics come from the same Greek root This approach has been called the

- oikos, meaning "house" - the sciences of "Global Effcienc" path (W. Sachs, 1989).

ecology and economics have diffe3rent Management strategies that will probably be

concepts of what production, capital, health, implemented on a large scale include energy

resource, etc. mean. Much work is being efficiency in particular and resource

done to integrate understanding of the conservation (or efficiency improvement) in

economy of nature with the economy of general, restoration ecology, ecosystem and

markets, and to improve the UN System of social health monitoring, and the "polluter

National Accounts accordingly (e.g., the pays principle" of internalizing the social

costs of pollution, rather than mandating

8 The World Bank hosted its own conference on particular clean-up technologies (Kapp,risk management and industrial developmenit in 1950, 1971; Beckerrrman, 1975/90; OECD,October, 1988.

- 22 -

1975). Correcting incentive systems in order system of logic by which society makes itsto harness market forces for efficient choices (decisions). When they are fully

environmental management is a major theme. internalized, they can be conceived of as

Tradable emissions permits are a prime "resource problems," but this too hasexample. In essence, ecology is being limitations, some of which will be discussed

economized. Much of the work is focussed below. The characteristics of problematicon "getting the prices (of all resources) situations of practice, which increasingly canright." be seen in the myriad "problems" of

development, are frequently mismatched withThe mislabeling of various societal the nature of technical-economic rational logic

messes as "environmental problems" is in and its tools on which professionals have

many cases what helps to perpetuate them, come to rely. This leads to the need for abecause it enables professionals to conceive new, mutually positive synthesis ofof them as "externalities" to be solved, development and management of human-cleaned up, or managed by different people nature interactions for the future.

from those who were responsible for creatingthe messes, rather than as evidence of a faulty

E. Eco-Development

The existence of tradeoffs inherent to those paradigms. It morebetween environmental managementand economic growth can not be explicitly sets out to restructure thedenied, but their pervasiveness and relationship between society and nature into aintensity have been overrated, to thedetriment of a search for the best of "positive sum game" by reorganizing humantwo worlds. -Ignacy Sachs, 1984. activities so as to be synergetic with

Eco-Development is perhaps the ecosystem processes and services, asparadigm for the longer term future. It opposed to the back-to-nature "simpleinvolves a larger, more discontinuous shift in symbiosis" advocated by deep ecologists. Itthinking and practice than either sees most development activity as a form ofEnvironmental Protection or Resource management of this relationship;Management, though again, it can be said to environmental management, economicfollow eventually from the limitations development, and socio-ecological

development might virtually become semantic

- 23 -

distinctions for the same subject: the effect make actual systems of economic

integrated coevolution of conscious production and consumption operate closer to

civilization and nature. "Eco-" signifies both the ideal of the neoclassical circular model of

"economic" and "ecological," since both the environmentally closed economy (Figure

words come from the same Greek root. The 2). The potential for decoupling biophysical

use of "Development" rather than "Growth," throughput from economic growth remains a

"Management" or "Protection" connotes an hotly debated issue (see Costanza, 1980;

explicit reorientation and upgrading of the Gever et al, 1986; Hall et al, 1986).

level of integration of social, ecological and Ultimately, there are limits, due to the

economic concerns in planning. physical Laws of Thermodynamics and the

complementarity of input factors - there areEco-Development would expand the energy and physical resources embodied in

system boundaries considered under all labor and man-made capital; maintenance

Resource Management, just as Environmental of the status quo alone requires energy and

Protection did for Frontier Economics, and as materials. But there is also room for great

Resource Management is now doin1; for improvement, riot just in efficiency as it is

Environmental Protection. The model of the conventionally thought of, but in terms of

closed economic system is replaced with the synergies gained from designing agricultural

"biophysical economics" modlel of a and industrial processes to mimic (and to use)

thermodynamically open economy embedded ecosystem processes (e.g., turning the

within the ecosystem: biophysical resources unused byproducts of one production process

(energy, materials, and ecological processing into the inputs for another; see Figure 5).

cycles) flow from the ecosystem into the Ecosystem-specific differences in the area of

economy, and degraded (non-usefull) energy rate limitations on the physical flow of matter

and other by-products (pollution) flow iback and energy through the economy are

out to the ecosystem (see Figure 4). It would important in determining sustainable

attempt to move from polluter pays to throughput levels. This "carrying capacity,"

"pollution prevention pays" by restructuring always difficult to determine, is affected by

the economy according to ecological an interacting miix of factors, including the

principles to reduce this "throughput." capacities of ecosystems to regenerate new

Such decoupling of growth in resources and assimilate wastes, and the

biophysical scale (as measured by per capita technologies employed to enhance theseresource consumption times population) from capacities - the production of which may.or

economic growth and developmient (as may not decrease local or distant ecosystem

measured by the flow of currency) would in capacities.

-24 -

FIUE4.EoomcPodiUNIVERSE

/ ~~~~ECOSYSTEM\

/ ] DIRECT\A co u uStO L oRR, ECONOMIC SYSTEM yng STE m

/ | ~FOSSIL, D HR [ g ~~RTOMIC ,. iLOW

rSOurces, drivin th iclrfo ewe oueod n im ntepoces

tzNE G¢ 1RTERP OLLUTI ON T RRGy

OEGRROEO The fuECOSYSTEM Human Producion 8 Seervices ne RTEt s

X SEflSEUCE

FIGURE 4. Economic Production from a Biophysical Perspective.

A^ continuous input of high-quality/low entropy fuels, varying entropy material("natural" resources), and ecosystem services enter the economic system from thelarger ecosystem. The economy then uses the fuels to upgrade the naturalresources, driving the circular flow between households and firms in the process.The fuel, materials, and services are degraded and returned to the ecosystem as lowquality, high entropy heat and matter and impaired ecosystem process functioning.(Colby, 1990a; modified from Hall et al, 1986; and Daly, 1977.)

- 25 -

*-~~~~ Products

0 ,# I0 00I0 energy flows

y ~~### biotechnology

FIGURE 5. A Rural Agro-Industrial System Design.(mo(lifiedl from Sachs and Silk, 1988.)1

This is my interpretation of what them to create it. "Steady-flow," as hinted at

Hierman Daly's "steady-state" economics in Leopold's Round Riiver (1953), would be(Daly, 1977) is about, though it rnighil: be perhaps less problematic politically and ess

worth debating whether the termn "steady- restrictivepsychologically.

state," accurate in its physical meaning, is too

mnisleading a label in terms of the economic In additicon to reliance on efficient,

and developmental consequences to be useful clean, renewable energy sources, sustainable

in the everyday political world. For IIIOSt development might be based more on

people, unused to the distinction Ibetweven increasing the informnation intensiveness,

biophysical growth and economic growth, community consciousness, and experiential

and not understanding that it doesn't quality of economnic activity, rather than on

necessarily mean stagnation, "steady-statet" is increased material-energy intensiveness.

not a creativity-inspiring goal. But this is Eodvlpetwudas tep

crucial for development; people must have a toincorporatemanyf the so u

to~~## biopoae ayoitehn oiloguiyan

vision of a desirable future which inspires tura oncerns radyin hedvar-dvo nlultural 2-ncergy ses sustainable

in~~~~~~~~~ ~ th26-dypltca ol.Fo ros eeomn ihtb ae oeo

schools of deep ecology. In Sustainable resilience, and uncertainty, to reduce the

Development: Exploring the Contradictions, occurrence of nonlinear ecological surprises

Michael Redclift (1987) argues that if the caused by crossing over unknown ecospheric

work of the Brundtland Commission is to be stock, flow-rate, and process thresholds.

taken seriously, the direction of the Ecological uncertainty needs to be

development process itself must be redirected incorporated into economic modeling and

to give greater emphasis to indigenous planning mechanisms; risk management

knowledge and experience. Other major (trying to figure out how much can be gotten

problems of the economic paradigm that still away with) is not sufficient (Perrow, 1984).

need to be resolved are the impacts on The Resource Management strategy of the

sustainability of time scales and discount polluter pays principle, and methods for

rates, and integrating returns on different implementing it such as tradable pollution

types of investments (e.g., financial, permits, do not incorporate ecological

ecological, and social). uncertainty and social equity issues well at

all. Tradable emissions permits not onlyEco-Development would thus move create a market for "bads," they also create a

on from economizing ecology to ecologizing new property regime, as in the right tothe economy, or whole social systems. From pollute. Once new property rights have been

the conflict between anthropocentric versus created (a politically sticky allocation problem

biocentric values, it attempts to synthesize in its own right), they are very difficult to

ecocentrism: refusing to place humanity either take away; this is demonstrated by the

above nature (as in frontier economics, difference between environmental valuation

environmental protection, and resource as calculated by the "willingness to pay"

management), or below it (deep ecology). method versus the "willingness to accept"

The goal is to integrate the ecological techniques of environmental economics under

relationships among people and nature in the Environmental Protection paradigm (see

communities, among communities sharing Knetsch and Sinden, 1984; Knetsch, 1989).

ecoregions, and among ecoregions Given the extreme uncertainties involved in

cooperating to sustain the shared ecosphere calculating sustainable levels of pollution, or

of the planet (Tokar, 1988, p. 139). even resource harvest, it is highly possible

Recognizing the aspirations of all, placing that permit levels would need to be changed,

equal value on ecology and creativity, is which could be very difficult. Ecologizing

essential. tax codes, by increasing taxes on resource

Eco-development requires even extraction and polluting activities, while

longer term management of adaptability, simultaneously decreasing taxes on otheractivities that should be encouraged (labor,

- 27 -

savings, investment, recycling resources, "how can we create? and then how can we

increasing efficiency, protection of ecosystem remedy?" leads one toward the use of

functions, etc.) might be a more flexible as ecologically sound common property regimes

well as socially more equitable meanrs of and indigenous knowledge (such as

attaining sustainability (Colby, 1990b). The sustainable extractive forest reserves, rather

true costs of development would be ifully than clear-cutting for timber, cattle, and

integrated, allocated socially and short-term croppinLg; careful common

internationally, perhaps according to management of tribal drylands such as by the

cumulative benefits, ecological uncertainty, nomadic Samburu of Kenya; and the

and means (ability to pay). Sources on the involvement cif local peoples in the

theories and strategies for Eco-Development management and benefit-sharing of national

include Riddell (1981), Glaeser (1984), parks and eco-tourism, as with the Maasai in

Sachs (1984a, 1984b), Norgaaird et al Kenya).

(1987), Norgaard (1988), and Colby (1990a,

1990c). Parallel to the rise of the "systemsanalysis" schools of thinking used in

Environmental management and Resource Managernent came another

development under Eco-Developmnent will approach to planning and action which

sometimes still involve "trade-offs," but with recognized the limitations of centralized

better accounting of the true values of planning (Ozbekhan, 1969; Ackoff & Emery,

functioning natural systems to economties, 1972; Ackoff, 1974; Passmore and

and more learning about the opportunities for Sherwood, 19783; Vergara et al, 1981).

synergy between ecological and economic There have been several variations on this

systems, this necessity will decrease. E.co- "synthesizing systems"' approach, some more

development would make explicit social, directly focussed on the integration of

ecological, and economic criteria for the ecological and developmental goals than

development and use of technology and others (see especially, Hawk, 1979, 1984).

production systems: e.g., renewable, clean A basic commonality between them is the

energy sources and energy conserving idea that planning ought to be embedded in

techniques; integrated pest management and the total environment of the systems being

low input agriculture; agro-forestry; planned for, including all of the parties

appropriate uses of biotechnology). In so affected (stakeholders). In order to achieve

doing, eco-development attempts to provicle a improved conditions for both the system

positive, interdependent vision for both being directly planned for and its

human development and nature. Asking environment, global systems awareness must

"how can we create ecologically?" rather than be coupled withi local responsibility for

- 28 -

action. This direct involvement of all has proposed a new science of

concerned parties in the setting of goals, "geophysiology," based on the marriage of

planning of means, and sharing biology, geochemistry, and atmospheric

accountability and benefits, is why sciences. Much research that should prove

decentralization is required, and what makes very useful- on climate change, for instance

the process of "planning" more effective - has been spawned as a result of ideas

(Sagasti, 1978). Interdependent autonomy, generated by this hypothesis.

which may seem like an oxymoron, ispromoted. Thus, the positive vision of eco-

development is for integrated, co-

An early attempt to apply a evolutionary development of humans and

synthesizing systems type of planning for nature (Norgaard et al, 1987; Norgaard,

environmental management was the 1988). The idea of co-evolution comes from

International Joint Commission (IJC) of the studying the evolution of complex

U.S. and Canada's "Ecosystem Approach" ecosystems with a high degree of species-

to resolving environmental disputes along the specific symbiosis, or mutual dependence

4000 mile border between those two nations. (e.g., tropical rainforests and coral reefs). Its

Though the "systemic design" aspect is application to the theory of environmental

sometimes limited by the dispute resolution management and development is based on the

character of the IJC's charter, the 1909 recognition that man and nature are not nearly

Boundary Waters Treaty (Caldwell, 1988), so separate as Western philosophy and

the IJC now explicitly uses a stakeholder, approaches to governance have supposed. In

positive-sum perspective in its approach. It fact, all human cultures have been altering

is working on developing the ability to ecosystems for millenia, while nature

monitor and manage for ecosystem health, simultaneously exerted evolutionary pressure

rather than for the doctoring of ecosystem on human biology and on social systems. In

dis-ease (Bandurski et al, 1986). the past few decades, however, humans have

succeeded in altering ecosystems to a farRelated to the idea of ecosystem greater extent, and in the process, have begun

health, James Lovelock (1979, 1988) is the to degrade their capacity to function

father of the controversial "Gaia Hypothesis" effectively. Eventually, perhaps quite soon

that the Earth is a self-organizing, self- given the strong likelihood of accelerating,

regulating living system in which life actively discontinuous changes in the ozone layer and

develops and maintains the environmental climate, the circle will close, leading to a

conditions which sustain it. (This does NOT "natural" degradation of human civilizations'

require purposeful consciousness.) Lovelock functioning capacities. Table 4 is a summary

- 29 -

of some major distinctions between Resource Management and Eco-Development.

TABLE 4.

Major Differences Between the ResourceManagement and Eco-Development Paradigms.

Resource Management Eco-Development

Economize Ecology _______ Ecologize Economy/ whole Social SystemEconomize Ecology

Global Efficiency/Growth Imperative Co-development, Nature & Humans

Nature as resource for man; Ecocentric ?

Man manages nature Man manages self first, then nature

Resource Degradation/Depletion, Poverty + Ecological Uncertainty, Global Change;______________________________ _____ _ .Poverty & Affluence

Change SNAs to reflect resource depletion & + Ecological Economics - 2nd Lawdefensive expenditures Thermodynamics, different assumptions about

"Eco-Reality "*

Polluter pays to internalize social costs; Pollution prevention pays;Tradable emissions permits; Environmental taxes & policies to ecologizePolicies to Get Prices Right entire economy/social system, Reduce

biophysical throucjhlput to sustainable levels

Freer Trade; Privatize everything, including Ecologically Regulated Trade;Global commons Common Property regimes too

Incremental planning forward, Idealized redesign; set community goals & planassume current goals backwards (participatory)

*Critical Assumptions about Eco-Reality such as: the role of ecosystem services &processes in economy/ life support; substitution and complementarity; systems and signals;time, uncertainty, and external effects; entropy, scale, and sustainabiljity; renewability anddiscount rates (Colby, 1990a, 1990c).

- 30-

III. Changing Conceptions of National Security

"Environmental stress" has become a introduced immediately, due to lags of

major source of political tension and military decades between emissions and upper

action in the world. Amongst the several atmosphere effects.

ecological threats which may force aredefinition of "national security" are: * the broad-scale loss of biodiversity and

in situ genetic resources, particularly of

* growing numbers (millions per year) of the tropical rain forests and coral reefs,

"ecological refugees," often mistaken as whose true economic and ecological

political or military refugees, in many values (as well as aesthetic and

countries (Jacobson, 1988). intrinsic) are unknown and

underappreciated but certainly vast.• the very real possibility of regional

conflicts over resources, particularly Past concepts of national sovereignty

water, in the coming decades. (e.g., in are no longer sufficient for a world altered by

the Middle East, where water shortages ever-increasing interdependence among

are becoming a more serious threat to nations on economic, ecological, and security

peace than conflict over access to the fronts (Lebel & Hane, 1989). At the same

region's petroleum; Myers, 1989). time, major geopolitical forces

(demilitarization of the East-West superpower* the possibility of reaching the limits of conflict, directly in the North and indirectly in

the proportion of the Earth's net the Southern proxies) may complement anprimary productivity (photosynthesis) accelerating political will to divert attention

that may be safely expropriated by man, and resources to this highly-needed

perhaps sometime in the next half redefinition. Additionally, another record-

century as the world population doubles breaking summer in Washington, DC or

once again (Vitousek, et al, 1986). drought in the U.S. bread basket will

• discontinuous global climate variations probably do much to accelerate the political

causing disruptions in the world's most feasibility of such a redefinition. The much-

productive agricultural zones. heralded, if tenuous, "resolution" of the East-West Cold War may free up vast financial,

* major health crises due to ozone layer scientific/engineering, and diplomatic

damage -- even if safe replacement resources that could be redeployed to

products could be sweepingly eventually lead to a resolution of a more

-31-

significant North-South "Sileni: Resource management and/or eco-development

War" which has been brewing for a long paradigms, this would give the South more

time, but whose expression was hardly freedom to utilize its natural resources

allowed due to the self-absorption of the sustainably for its own development, rather

North in its East-West ideological and than for simple export to Northern markets.

geopolitical conflict. Even if this does not It could also allow far more equable forms of

translate to more direct transfer of resources collaboration and a search for new economic

to the South (desperately needed), if i: were roles for all nations to play in creating an

to lead to a redefinition of development and integrated, sustainable relationship between

massive restructuring of the industrial civilization and nature, which would benefit

economies along the lines of the resource all concerned.

IV. Possibilities for Convergence

It is easy to think of environmental technological production systems, as well as

management as a remedial cost. However, innovative ways of organizing the social

there are great economic and social benefits, factors of production. While the United

not just environmental ones, that would States had almost no competition in the first

accrue, particularly from the types of changes couple decades after the war because its

that a redefinition of development along the production systems had not been destroyed,

lines of good resource management and/or they eventually suffered in the newly

ecodevelopment would help promote, In competitive world marketplace of the 1970s

many cases, institutional and both indiviidual and 80s, at least in part because their

and organizational behavior factors are more technological as well as social production

important than the economic ones cited in systems were outdated. Change is often

preventing the development of more resisted due to behavioral and cultural inertia,

ecologically sound economies. One of the despite economic imperatives. It is possible

major factors contributing to the "economic that by restructuring along the lines of eco-

miracles" of post-war West Germany and development, companies and economies

Japan is that fact that they were forced to might develop new comparative advantages

completely rebuild their economic that will help to rmake those that are quickest

infrastructure with new, state-of-the-art to adjust more competitive and prosperous in

- 32-

the long run, rather than less so, as is issues were virtually ignored by both. Butfrequently heard today. Some developing neither free market nor socialist economics is

countries might even be able to "leapfrog" sustainable. Perhaps a major part of what isover the "environmental protection" phase to needed for Eco-Development to emerge is aa much more sustainable as well as self- new economic synthesis that re-integrates alldefined state of development. three types of concerns. Ecological

Economics would thus appear to be more like

Figure 6 below depicts the Classical Economics than the three

progression in how economics has intermediary economic paradigms, albeit

considered three types of concerns: providing much more sophisticated, powerful

allocation, distribution, and scale (Foy and techniques and concepts (Martinez-Alier,Daly, 1989). Since the late 1800s, they have 1987). While this synthesis has yet to be

been seen as separate and conflicting, with a achieved, work on Ecological Economics isfundamental battle raging between allocative underway (e.g., the International Society forand distributive economics, while biophysical Ecological Economics and its journal).

0 %

, O s ~~~~Economics _

5 X aa { ~Distribution Allocation Scale, Energy

-*H Neoomarxist Neoclassical Neomalthusia/00Cco00

N am \ ~~~~~NeClassical Nemlhs

Yl- co

EE ~~~~~EconomicsE E

FIGURE 6. The Evolution of Economic Paradigms.

- 33 -

V. Conclusions

So, paradigms of the relationiship two types of evolution entwined in this

between environmental management and discussion: that of the historical evolution of

developmentare in a period of flux. The the concepts and tools within the particular

defensive (remedial) agenda is breaking paradigms, presented here somewhat

down, in no small part because of its artificially as separate, for purposes of

ineffectiveness in dealing with the negative distinction, and that of the historical

consequences of unmodified frontier progression in the dominance of their use. If

economics and development. The serious the paradigms are thought of as separate

push at the more neutral (resource populations, rather than species, it may be

management, systems analysis) agenda very seen that each is evolving through changing

recently has begun to get uncler way, "selective pressures" imposed by different

politically. The widespread perception al this and changing user groups and problems.

time is still one of tradeoffs between Depending on the user group and the

environment and development. However, problem(s) they are concerned with, each

this is a pernicious and unnecessary paradigm is influenced differently by the

assumption. There are great economic and introduction of new ideas. In addition, the

social benefits to be obtained from fully user groups themselves are also evolving in

integrated approaches to environmental the context of both their paradigms and their

management. perceived problems (or realities), which feeds

back to both the evolution of the paradigmsFigure 1 and Table 2 provide a and of their use.

working summary of the five paracligms of

the relationship between environmental Still on the fringes are small but

management and development. It should be growing pockets of advocacy for the imore

remembered that the paradigms presented positive approach, be they through the

here are not separate species. As is synthesizing- systems planning methodologies,

appropriate in times of great change, there is or the contextual, philosophical and values-

an increasing amount of fluidity between based approaches of what are today some

them. No single paradigm has the best leading edges of science. It is possible that the

answer to every type of environmental growing sense of alarm about global climate

management or development problem. As change and ozone layer disruption may cause a

the newer paradigms evolve, they more rapid evolution from Resource

incorporate much of the older. There are also Management to Eco-Development than it is

- 34 -

politically expedient to advocate at this time. presented here, or it may occur as a moreThe co-evolutionary approach would require revolutionary change to one of these five (or

inclusion of all user groups, or stakeholders, in yet another) becoming predominant in its

the development of future environmental own right. Widespread political paralysismanagement and development strategies. which will prevent effective cooperation and

institutional innovations of the magnitudeIt is hypothesized here that three sets needed to meet the great challenges of the

of conditions may combine to provide the coming decades may be the result if some

necessary and sufficient forces for a synthesis does not surface as a vision for the

synthesis or convergence to a paradigm along future development of both industrial and

the lines of eco-development: (1) tphe developing societies. Time might appear to

unprecedented degree of threat of global be on the side of ecodevelopment. On the

changes in the ozone layer and climate issues, other hand, it may be that paradigms are

(2) widespread problems of resource impervious to evidence, institutions and

depletion/degradation, and (3) the easing of societies too difficult to change, and the

the military and ideological competition adherents to each will go on talking past each

between the superpowers. The path to such a other, avoiding the real discussions (and

synthesis may involve evolutionary learning conflicts) that are necessary to ultimately

and cross-over between the paradigms achieve a synthesis.

- 35 -

References

Ackoff, Russell, 1974. Redesigning the Future: A Caldwell, Lynton K., 1988 (ed.). Perspectives onSystems Approach to Societal Problems. Ecosystem Managementfor the Great Lakes.Wiley-Interscience, New York. State University of New York Press, Albany,

NY.Ackoff, Russell, and Fred Emery, 1972. 0 n

Purposeful Systems. Aldine-Atherton, Carson, Rachel, 1962. Sil'ent Spring. HoughtonChicago/ New York. Mifflin, Boston.

Bandurski, Bruce L., 1973. "Ecology and Charnbers, Robert, 1987. "Sustainable livelihoods,Economics- Partners for Productivity." Environment, and.Development: Putting PoorAnnals of the American Academy of Politiical Rural People First." Institute of Developmentand Social Science, 40S: 75-94, Philadelphia. Studies, University of Sussex, UK, 30pp.

mimeo.Bandurski, Bruce L., Peter T. Haug, & Andrew L.

Hamilton (Eds.), 1986. Toward a Colby, Michael E., 1990a. "Ecology, Economics,Transboundary Monitoring Network 7 A and Social Systems: The Evolution of theContinuing Binational Exploration. (2 Relationship Between EnvironmentalVolumes) International Joint Commission, Management and Development." Ph.D.U.S. & Canada, Washington, DC. Dissertation, The Wharton School, University

of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 370pp.Bandyopadhyay, Jayanta and Vandana Shiva, 1988.

"Political economy of ecology movements." Colby, Michael E., 1990b. "Economics andEconomic and Political Weekly, June 11, Environmental Management: The Case for1988, pp 1223-1232. Environmental Taxes." Paper presented at

International Society for Ecological EconomicsBeckerman, Wilfred, 1975/90. "Pricing for Conference, "The Ecological Economics of

Pollution." Hobart Paper 66, Institute of Sustainability," May 21-23, 1990,Economic Affairs, London. Washington IDC.

Berkes, F. (Ed.), 1989. Common Property Colby, Michael E., 1990c. "The Economics ofResources: Ecology and Community-Based Ecology and the E_cology of Economics."Sustainable Development. Belhaven, London. Strategic Planning and Review Dept.

Discussion Paper, The World Bank.Berman, Morris, 1981. The Reenchantment of the

World. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. Costanza, Robert, 1980. "Embodied Energy andEconomic Valuation." Science, 210; 1219-24.

Blueprint for the Environment, 1988. "Advice to thePresident-Elect from America's Environmental Cronon, William, 1983. Changes In the Land:Community." Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New

England. Hill amd Wang, New York.Boulding, Kenneth, 1966. "The Economics of the

Coming Spaceship Earth." in H.E. Jarrett, ed., Daly, Herman E., 1977. Steady-State Economics.Environmental Quality in a Growing Freeman, New York.Economy, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.

Daly, Herman E., 1988. "Sustainability." (unpubl.),Bromley, Daniel W. and Michael M. Cernea, 1989. 5pp.

"The Management of Common 'PropertyNatural Resources: Some Conceptual and Daly, Herman E., 1989a. "Steady-State VersusOperational Fallacies." World Bank Growth Econornics: Issues for the NextDiscussion Paper No. 57, Washington, DC. Century." Paper for the Hoover Institution

Conference on Population, Resources andBrown, Lester R. et al., 1984, -85, -86, -87, -88, -89. Environment, Stanford University, February 1-

State of the World. W.W. Norton, Newv Yor]k. 3, 1989.

- 36-

Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania,Daly, Herman E., 1989b. "Sustainable Philadelphia.

Development from concept and theory towardsoperational principles." Population and Hawk, David, 1984. "Regulation of The Non-Development Review, Hoover Institution, in Rational: Approaches to the Management ofpress. Environmental Quality." Unpubi. Manuscript,

55 pp., N.J. Institute of Technology, SchoolDaly, Herman E., 1989c. "Sustainable Development: of Architecture.

Towards an Operational Definition." (unpubl.)4pp. Heilbroner, R.L., and L.C. Thurow, 1981. The

Economic Problem. Prentice-Hall, EnglewoodDevall, Bill, and George Sessions, 1985. Deep Cliffs, NJ.

Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered.Peregrine Smith Books, Salt Lake City. Hicks, John R. 1946. Value and Capital. 2nd Ed.

Oxford University Press, Oxford.Foy, George, and Herman Daly, 1989. "Allocation,

Distribution and Scale as Determinants of ICSU (International Council of Scientific Union),Environmental Degradation: Case Studies of 1983. Scientific Committee on Problems ofHaiti, El Salvador, and Costa Rica." the Environment (SCOPE).Environment Dept. Working Paper No. 19, TheWorld Bank, Washington DC. IIASA (William C. Clark & R. E. Munn, Eds.),

1986. Sustainable Development of theGeorge, Susan, 1988. A Fate Worse Than Debt. Biosphere Cambridge University Press, NY.

Penguin Books, London, Chapter 10: "Debtand the Environment: Financing Ecocide", pp. IUCN (Intemational Union for the Conservation of155-168. Nature and Natural Resources), 1980.World

Conservation Strategy. Gland, Switzerland.Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas, 1971. The Entropy

Law and the Economic Process. Harvard Jacobson, Jodi L., 1988. "Environmental Refugees:University Press, Cambridge, MA. A Yardstick of Habitability." Worldwatch Paper

No. 86, Worldwatch Institute, Washington DC.Gever, John, Robert Kaufmann, David Skole, &

Charles Vorosmarty, 1986. Beyond Oil: The Kapp, K. William, 1950, 1971. The Social Costs ofThreat to Food and Fuel in the Coming Private Enterprise. Schocken Books, NewDecades. Ballinger/ Harper & Row, York.Cambridge, MA.

Kleindorfer, Paul K. and Howard C. Kunreuther, eds.,Glaeser, Bernhard, ed., 1984. Ecodevelopment: 1986. Insuring and Managing Hazardous

Concepts, Policies, Strategies. Pergammon Risks: From Seveso to Bhopal and Beyond.Press, New York. IIASA and Springer-Verlag, Berlin/New York.

Goodland, Robert, and George Ledec, 1987. Knetsch, Jack L., 1989. "Environmental Policy"Neoclassical Economics and Principles of Implications of Disparities betweenSustainable Development." Ecological Willingness to Pay and CompensationModelling, 38: 19-46. Demanded Measures of Values." mimeo,

World Bank Seminar on Economic Analysis ofHall, Charles A.S, Cutler J. Cleveland, & Robert Environmental Issues, May 1989, Washington

Kaufmann, 1986. Energy and Resource DC.Quality: The Ecology of the EconomicProcess. Wiley-Interscience, New York. Knetsch, Jack L., and J.A. Sinden, 1984.

"Willingness to Pay and CompensationHardin, Garrett, 1968. "The tragedy of the Demanded: Experimental Evidence of an

commons." Science, 162; 1243-8. Unexpected Disparity in Measures of Value."Quarterly Journal of Economics, XCIX: 507-

Hawk, David, 1979. "Regulation of Environmental 521.Deterioration." Ph.D. Dissertation, The

- 37 -

Kuhn, Thomas S., 1970. The Structure of Scientific Naess, Arne, 1973, 1988. "Deep Ecology andRevolutions. 2nd Edition. University ol Ultimate P'remises." The Ecologist 18: 4/5;Chicago Press, Chicago. 128-131.

Lebel, Gregory G. & Hal Hane, 1989. Sustainable Nash, Roderick F., 1989. The Rights of Nature: ADevelopment: A Guide to Our mmro History of Environmental Ethics. UniversityFuture. Global Tomorrow Coalition, of Wisconsin Press, Madison WI.Washington, DC

Norgaard, Richarcl B., 1988. "SustainableLovejoy, Thomas, August, 1988. Remarks in an Development: A Co-Evolutionary View."

address to the American Institute cf Biological Futures, 20: 6; 606-620.Sciences. quoted in Wicker, Tom,, 2-28.89,"Decade of Decision." NVew York' Times, Op- Norgaard, Richard B., Suzanne Easton, George Ledec,Ed column. and Laurel Prevetti, 1987. "Social

Organization for Sustaining RenewableLovelock, James, 1979. GAIA: A New Look at Life Resources." Paper prepared for the World

on Earth. Oxford University Press, New York. Bank.

Lovelock, James, 1988. The Ages of Gala: A Odum, Eugene, 1953. Fundamentals of Ecology.Biography of Our Living Earth. Norton, New Saunders, Philadelphia.York.

OECD, 1975. The Polluter Pays Principle. Paris.

Martinez-Alier, Juan, 1987. Ecological Economics: Ozbekhan, Hasan, 1969. "Toward A General TheoryEnergy, Environment and Society . Basil of Planning." in Jantsch, Erich (ed.),Blackwell, NY. Perspectives in Planning. OECD, Paris.

Mathews, Jessica Tuchman, 1989. "Redefining Passmore, William A. and John J. Sherwood, 1978.Security." Foreign Affairs, 68; #2, 162-177. Sociotechnical Systems: A Sourcebook.

University Associates, San Diego, CA.McNaughton, SJ., and Larry L. Wolf, 1973, 1979.

General Ecology. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, Pepper, David, 1984. The Roots of ModernNew York. Environmentalism. Croom Helm, Dover NH/

London.Meadows, Donella H., Dennis L. Meadows, J0rgen

Randers, & William W. Behrens III, 1972. Perrings, Charles, 1987. Economy and Environment:The Limits to Growth. Potomac Associates/ A Theoretical Essay on the Interdependence ofUniverse Books, New York. Economic and Environmental Systems.

Cambridge University Press.Miller, Alan, 1985. "Technological Thinking: Its

Impact on Environmental Management." Perrow, Charles, 1984. Normal Accidents: LivingEnvironmental Management 9: 3; 179-190, p. with High-Risk Technologies. Basic Books,179. New York.

MIT, 1970. Man's Impact on the Global Pezzey, John, 1989. "Economic Analysis ofEnvironment. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA Sustainable Grrowth and Sustainable

Development." Working Paper #15, March,Myers, Norman, 1989. "Environment and Security." 1989, Environment Dept., World Bank.

Foreign Policy, #74, 23-41.Redclift, Michael, 1987. Sustainable Development:

Naess, Arne, 1973. "The Shallow and the Deep, Exploring the Contradictions. Methuen,Long-Range Ecology Movements: A London and New York.Summary." Inquiry 16; 95-100, Oslo,Norway. Renner, Michael, 1989. "National Security: The

Economic and Environmental Dimensions."

- 38 -

Worldwatch Paper 89, Worldwatch Institute,Washington DC. Vergara, Elsa, Jarnshid Gharajedaghi, & Russell

Ackoff, 1980. "A Guide to InteractiveRepetto, Robert (ed.), 1986. The Global Possible: Planning." S-Cubed Papers, 80-4, 51pp.,

Resources, Development, and the New Social Systems Sciences Dept., TheCentury. World Resources Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Washington, D.C.

Vitousek, Peter M., Paul R. Ehrlich, Anne H.Riddell, Robert, 1981. Ecodevelopment: Economics, Ehrlich, and Pamela A. Matson, 1986. "Human

Ecology, and Development: an Alternative to Appropriation of the Products ofGrowth Imperative Models. Gower, London. Photosynthesis." BioScience 34: 6; 386-373.

Sachs, Ignacy, 1984a. "Developing in Harmony with Weiskel, Timothy C., 1989. "The EcologicalNature: Consumption Patterns, Time and Lessons of the Past: An Anthropology ofSpace Use, Resource Profiles, and Environmental Decline." The Ecologist 19: 3;Technological Choices." in Bernhard Glaeser, 98-103.ed., 1984, Ecodevelopment: Concepts,Policies, Strategies. Pergammon Press, New Westman, Walter E., 1977. "How Much AreYork. Nature's Services Worth?" Science 177: 960-

963.Sachs, Ignacy, 1984b. "The Strategies of

Ecodevelopment." Ceres, 17: 4:17-21, White, Lynn Jr., 1967. "The Historical Roots of Our(FAO). Ecologic Crisis." Science, 155: 1203-1207.

Sachs, Wolfgang, 1988. "The Gospel of Global World Commission on Environment andEfficiency: On Worldwatch and other reports Development, 1987. Our Common Future.on the state of the world." IFDA Dossier 68: Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York.33-39 (November-December).

World Resources Institute, 1985. "Tropical Forests:Sachs, Ignacy, and Dana Silk, 1988. The Food- A Call for Action." report of a task force of

Energy Nexus Programme, Final Report. United WRI, the World Bank, and the UNDP,Nations University, Paris. Washington, DC.

Sagasti, Francisco, 1978. Science and technologyfor World Resources Institute, 1987, -88, -89. Worlddevelopment: main comparative report of the Resources Report. Washington, DC.Science and Technology Policy InstrumentsProject. International Development Research WorldWatch Institute's annual State of the WorldCentre, Ottawa, Canada. Reports, (Lester Brown et al, 1988. etc.),

W.W. Norton, New YorkSmil, Vaclav, 1987. "A Perspective on Global

Environmental Crises." Futures, 19: 3; 240- Worster, Donald, 1977. Nature's Economy: A253, p. 241. History of Ecological Ideas. Univ. of

Cambridge Press, Cambridge, U.K.Speth, James G., 1989. "A Luddite Recants."

Amicus, Spring 1989, 3-5.

Thurow, Lester, 1980. The Zero-Sum Society. BasicBooks, New York.

Tokar, Brian, 1988. "Social Ecology, Deep Ecology,and the Future of Green Political Thought."The Ecologist, 18: 4/5; 132-141.

US Council on Environmental Quality, 1980. Global2000 Report to the President. Washington,DC.

- 39-

Distributors of World Bank PublicationsARGENTINA FPLLAND MALAYSIA For cetfdrC .SirechESRL Akatenipijk-AY P Univeeity ofMalCyooperative Inteztis alStabrriptio SWrviCaIeri Guoses PO BOX 128 Bookahop, Limited P.O. Boo 41095Floaida 165,4th loar-Oc. 453/465 SF-401D PIO. Soe 1127, blan Psnta an Crigh1333 Bueno Ai Helainki 10 Ku." Iamnpw laathw 23D24

AUSTRALIA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA, FRANCE MEXICO SPAINFIJL,SOLOMON ISLANDS. Wolid Bnk Publiatioa INFDTEC Mundi-Penta Ubrete S.VANUATU, AND WESTERN SAMOA 66, avereed 1d6u Apabdo Pota 22-60 Caztello37DA. Boa &Jouesval 75116 Pans 14060TnpMesM D.F. 2J101M Madrid645Whitehon,eRoadMildars 3132 GERMANY, FEDERAl. REPUBLIC OF MOROCCO Ubrerfa Iteanadotal AEDOSVictoria UNO-Verlg Sodde dEtude Markefng Martcaine CM.ai de Cet, 391

Poppelodoafe ADee 55 12 oteMo-e Bd. ddAnfa MCOW9 Baecal.stAUSTRIA D53.100 St I CmasbtscaCGesod and Co. SRI LANKA AND THE MALDIVESGraho 31 GREECE NETHERLANDS Lke Hou eBookhopA-1011 Wien KEME fnOr-Publi}tie bh. PO. Box 244

24, ppodamu Street Pati Pa tir_ PO. Box 14 100. Si, Chitbtepala A. CGdiseBAHRAIN Athens11635 7240BALomhme MaseathaBzhrrin Rerch and Coota.s.cy Cdoors 2

Asidatei Ltd. GUATEMALA NEW7ZEALANDP.O Boo 22103 Ubrei NPedra Santa HIls Ubrry od Informatiom Sorvire SWEDENMmsma Town 317 CestoC,.hlta1 Pieda!;..ta Fa4te S Fo,rim8k aIrs

II .11e6-0Oozra I New Market Fritzer Fakbfoeof gtBANGLADESH Guatema City A.selsd Regmingsgta- 12, Bs 16356Micar ndustres Devdopmnnt 5-103 27 Stodeholm

Arsitance Sodety (MIDAS) HONG KONG, MACAlD NIGERIAHouseS,Rood16 Ais MlUd Umivevity Prem Limited Fori orDhanmondi R/Ae Moogkok Po t Offie T eC-o 11s,oldinsgJedHo Wernergnrv-Wili,armABDhlak 1209 BAeStreettN,.37 PrivateMsagsms BSK 2803

Mogr K-,vkman Ibadat 5-10425StockholmBrsj cffcx Hong K&g156, NurAlrted Sarak NORWAY SWITZERLANDChitg-oog 40dl HUNGARY Narveim,n ffirmatioo Ceotoe Frei.gk titks

Kultues BeftandNaemesnvd2 UbrinrieP yot76 KDA. Aveue P.O. Box 139 P.O. Boo 6125 Ettentad 6nrGeCreuKWlno 139 Budapest 62 N-060201. 6 Cse postal 381

CH 1211 CG-er 11BELGIUM INDIA OMANPubcahotn desN Ntis Unit. Alied Publiobh Pnv-te lAd. MEMRB Isfatatin nServices Farojei$or rinsAv d Roi 202 751 M-unt Ro-d P.O. Bo. 1613 SeebtAtpoet Libririe Psyot1060 Bru-sel Madra-6000D2 Mfct Servicede-Abnrnneent

Case poa 3312BRAZIL Sesoc), PAKISTAN CH 1002 LauannePublicacoerT-enicsu 1lrnanonai-i S1N. Heredi Mar 0 M B.&ookAgorqr

lIda. Ballard Estab 65,Shahrsh-e-QuwideAzam TANZANIAIta Peiuoto Conide, 209 Bbrhay - 400 038 P.O. Boo No. 729 Ofd University Pees01409 Sao Paulo. SP LS1ore 3 P.O. B. 52J99

13/14 Asa Ali Rod Dar- SalsoCANADA Ne Ddhi- 110 002 PERULeODtfuoeur EditorisDearaoloSA THAILANDCP, 55,15BElrue As-e 17 Chitararant Aroere Apwtado 3924 Central Departmet StoreBtoucihrviDe, Ouehec Calcutta -700 072 ULms 3D6 Idem Road)4B SE6 Bangkok

Jayadeva Hstel Building PHILIPPINESCHINA 5th Main Rad Candhinagar Naaional Book Store TRINIDAD & TOBAGO, ANTIGUAChina Finandal & Ern ic Pubhhhi,g Bngaorie -5600D9 701 RizlaAvenue BARBUDA,BARBADOS,

House P.O. Bx 1934 DOMINICA, GRENADA, GUYANA,n DO FPo9 Dong Jie 3-5-1129 Kachuda Cross Road Mete Mmnil. JAMAICA, MONTSERRAT, Sr.Betieng Hyde,absd.-5sn 027 KITTS & NEVIS, ST. LUCIA,

FOLAND ST. VINCENT & GRENADINESCOLOMBIA Pranthaa Fbtc 2ndFPoor ORPAN Syotemati Studies UnitEnlace Ltd. NearThakore.. uB..NaNragpura Pats) (KhuyiNaukd #9WahttsreetApartado A-ea 34270 Ahmedaha. -380 009 OD-91 Waroaa CurepeBogota DE. Trinidad, West Indies

Psttala House PORTUGALCOrE DIYVOIRE 16-A Ahok Marg IoA-tia Psh6Sgal TURKEYCente d'Editon r de Diffusion Luclkner- 226001 Ru Do Csrmo 70-74 Haset Kitapei, AS.

Afhicaine. (CEDA) 120D Uibon otidl Cadded No. 46904 B.P. 541 INDONESIA BeyogduAbidpnO4 Plateau Pt. Indir Umited SAUDI ARABIA, QATAR lolbhul

JI. Sam Ratlrgi 37 Juit Bok StoreCYPRUS P.O. Boa 181 P.O. Bo 3196 UGANDAMEMRBInfoation Services Jakarta Pusot Riyaddh 11471 Uganda Bo.dkahopP.O. Boo 209b P.O. Boo 7145Nic-ia IRELAND MEMRB WInattos See-ioe Kampala

TDC Publihes BuorAofDENMARK 12 Noth Frederc, Sret AlAl. iStret UNITED ARAB EMIRATESSasftnd.Uttfftaur DublIn I Al luahn Center MEMRB Gulf Co.ReorenoernaAl1611 FPat Floor P.O. Bo 6097DK-197O FrederikobegC ITALY P.O Box 718 Shaah

Limrs Contmissinnara Sasmios SPA RiyadhDOMINICAN REPUNUC Via Benedetto Fortini. 120/10 UNITED KINGDOMEditor Talle,, C. prA. Case-Ua Pootale 0R2 Hap Abdulat Alirea Buildirtg MicroinfoULd.Restarsdon e IahelIs lCato3ica309 03125Forrence King Khled Street P.O. Box3Aprtado Pustal 2190 P.O. BX 3969 Alht-, Harpohire GU34 2PCSant. Doningo JAPAN D tan Enland

Eastern Book Ser-ncaEL SALVADOR 37-3, Hoogo 3-Chomne Bunl.yo-ka 113 33, Mahasmed Hasan Aead Street URUGUAYPusades Tokyo P.o. Box 5978 hsituto NaKional dd UboAvenida Manuel EnriqeeAr,uxu 3530 Jeddch San Jose 1116Edifido SISA,ler. Pi KENYA MrsertdroSan Salvador Atics Book Soi(EA) Ltd. SINGAPORE TAIWAN, MYAN3MAR

P.O. Bo. 45245 BRUNEI VENEZUELAEGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF Nairobi lofrmaldon Publication Ubreria dd El4eAl Alta Private. Lid. Aptdo. 60337AlCaaI-Stueet KOREA,REPUBLICOF 0M-061lt Fl. Pei-Fu Indual Cracs 1060-ACairo Patn Ko Book C-psad- Bldg

P.O. Box 101, K-argwbamsr 24 New Industial Rood YUGOSLAVIAThe Middle East Observ Seoul Singp 1953 Jugoslovende kXnjgS Ch3ewarbi Street PO. Box 36Cairo KUWAIT SOUTH AFRICA, BOTSWANA TrR Reprblike

MEMRBAt Inrorm tonServis FSirS 1 sIlia YU-110D0BelgradePO. Box 5465 COnford Usivenaty Pree Sothern

Ahei.P.O. Boo 1141CapeTown R0D

Recent World Bank Discussion Papers (continued)

No. 48 Contract Plans and Public Enterprise Performance. John Nellis [Also available in French (48F)]

No. 49 Improving Nutrition in India: Policies and Programs and Their Impact. K. Subbarao

No. 50 Lessons of Financial Liberalization in Asia: A Comparative Study. Yoon-Je Cho and Deena Khatkhate

No. 51 Vocational Education and Training: A Review of World Bank Investment. John Middleton and Terry Demsky

No 52 The Market-Based Menu Approach in Action: The 1988 Brazil Financing Package. Ruben Lamdany

No. 53 Pathways to Change: Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries. Adriaan Verspoor

No. 54 Education Managersfor Business and Govemment. Samuel Paul, Jacob Levitsky, and John C. Ickis

No. 55 Subsidies and Countervailing Measures: Critical Issuesfor the Uruguay Round. Bela Balassa, editor

No. 56 Managing Public Expenditure: An Evolving World Bank Perspective. Robert M. Lacey

No. 57 The Management of Common Property Natural Resources. Daniel W. Bromley and Michael M. Cernea

No. 58 Making the Poor Creditworthy: A Case Study of the Integrated Rural Development Program in India. Robert Pulley

No. 59 Improving Family Planning, Health, and Nutrition Outreach in India: Experiencefrom Some World Bank-Assisted Programs.Richard Heaver

No. 60 Fighting Malnutrition: Evaluation of Brazilian Food and Nutrition Programs. Philip Musgrove

No. 61 Staying in the Loop: InternationalAlliancesfor Sharing Technology. Ashoka Mody

No. 62 Do Caribbean Exporters Pay Higher Freight Costs? Alexander J. Yeats

No. 63 Developing Economies in Transition. Volume 1: General Topics. F. Desmond McCarthy, editor

No. 64 Developing Economies in Transition. Volume II: Country Studies. F. Desmond McCarthy, editor

No. 65 Developing Economies in Transition. Volume I*I: Country Studies. F. Desmond McCarthy, editor

No. 66 Illustrative Effects of Voluntary Debt and Debt Service Reduction Operations. Ruben Lamdany andJohn M. Underwood

No. 67 Deregulation of Shipping: What Is to Be Learnedfrom Chile. Esra Bennathan with Luis Escobar and George Panagakos

No. 68 Public Sector Pay and Employment Reform: A Review of World Bank Experience. Barbara Nunberg

No. 69 A Multilevel Model of School Effecaiveness in a Developing Country. Marlaine E. Lockheed and Nicholas T. Longford

No. 70 User Groups as Producers in Participatory Afforestation Strategies. Michael M. Cemea

No. 71 How Adjustment Programs Can Help the Poor: The World Bank's Experience. Helena Ribe, Soniya Carvalho, RobertLiebenthal, Peter Nicholas, and Elaine Zuckerman

No. 72 Export Catalysts in Low-Income Countries: A Review of Eleven Success Stories. Yung Whee Rhee and Therese Belot

No. 73 Information Systems and Basic Statistics in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review and Strategyfor Improvement. Ramesh Chander

No. 74 Costs and Benefits of Rent Control in Kumasi, Ghana. Stephen Malpezzi, A. Graham Tipple, and Kenneth G. Willis

No. 75 Ecuador's Amazon Region: Development Issues and Options. James F. Hicks, Herman E. Daly, Shelton H. Davis, andMaria de Lourdes de Freitas [Also available in Spanish (75S)]

No. 76 Debt Equity Conversion Analysis: A Case Study of the Philippine Program. John D. Shilling, Anthony Toft, andWoonki Sung

No. 77 Higher Education in Latin America: Issues of Efficiency and Equity. Donald R. Winkler

No. 78 The Greenhouse Effect: Implicationsfor Economic Development. Erik Arrhenius and Thomas W. Waltz

The World Bank

Headquarters European Office Tokyo Office E l1818 H. Street, N.W. 66, avenue d'lena Kokusai BuildingWashington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. 75116 Paris, France 1-1 Marunouchi 3-chome

Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100,JapanTelephone: (202) 477-1234 Telephone: (1) 40.69.30.00Facsimile: (202) 477-6391 Facsimile: (1) 47.20.19.66 Telephone: (3) 214-5001Telex: wus 64145 WORLDBANK Telex: 842-620628 Facsimile: (3) 214-3657

RCA 248423 WORLDBK Telex: 781-26838Cable Address: INTBAFPRAD

WASHINGTONDC

ISBN 0-8213-1559-5