Expeditioning in local authority residential

outdoor education centres in Scotland:

Examining past and current beliefs

Eoin Keane

DISSERTATION PRESENTED IN PART FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF

SCIENCE IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH

MORAY HOUSE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Year of Presentation: 2006

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Abstract

This dissertation explores the changing nature of outdoor education programmes in

local authority residential centres in Scotland. It assesses the level of expedition

provision in 2003 and the perceived changes in this provision within the decade

(1993-2003). The research also highlights cultural changes and financial issues that

have affected expedition provision.

Research was initiated following a critical review of the literature on this subject,

from the themes that arose, interviewee criteria and interview questions were

developed. Primary data were collected by interviewing principals of local authority

residential centres and ‘experts’ who have a history of involvement in outdoor

education in Scotland. Qualitative data were analysed by coding interview

transcripts. Units of relevant meaning were clustered to enable emergent categories

such as ‘activity value’, ‘cultural changes’ and ‘financial issues’ to be noted.

This research provides a picture of expedition provision in the centres studied. Only

five of the nine centres provided expeditions in 2003 and the number of estimated

participants involved was less than 400. Two thirds of interviewees believed that

there had been a decline in this activity between 1993 and 2003, and only one

manager felt there had been an increase in provision.

Cultural changes such as a reduction in programme duration, the introduction of new

activities, and younger students attending centres have contributed to the decline in

expeditions. Financial issues such as budgetary cuts have similarly resulted in the

decline of this staff intensive, and what some would perceive as expensive, activity.

This research provided additional evidence that programmes are changing. Its

findings suggest a shift of outdoor education provision from education to recreation

activities, more centres appear to be moving towards short duration, high excitement

experiences and away from traditional outdoor pursuits which it has been argued are

of more benefit to participants.

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Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge the help and involvement of the interviewees, without their

contribution this dissertation could not be completed. The support and

encouragement of my family, friends and tutors proved invaluable.

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Contents Page No. Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3

1.0 Introduction 6

1.1 Rationale 8 1.2 Historical Context and Philosophical Underpinning 11 1.3 Current Context 14 1.4 Chapter Summary 17

2.0 Literature Review 18 2.1 Activity Value 18 2.2 Outdoor Education Provision: Cultural Changes and Financial Issues 28 2.3 Development of Expeditions in Outdoor Education Provision in Scotland 37 2.4 Chapter Summary 42

3.0 Research Design and Methods 43

3.1 Research Questions 43 3.2 Research Paradigms 43 3.3 Sample Groups 46 3.4 Ethical Issues 47 3.5 Research Methodology and Design 48 3.6 Chapter Summary 56

4.0 Presentation of the Data 57

4.1 Presentation of the Data: Sample Group One – Centre Managers 57 4.2 Presentation of the Data: Sample Group Two – Experts 64 4.3 Chapter Summary 70

5.0 Analysis of Data and Presentation of Findings 71 5.1 Activity Value 72 5.2 Cultural Changes 77 5.3 Financial Issues 82 5.4 Other Issues 86 5.5 Chapter Summary 88

6.0 Discussion and Concluding Comments 91 6.1 The Research Questions 91 6.2 Concluding Comments 96

7.0 References 101

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Contents Page No. 8.0 Appendices 108 1. Interview Cover Letter 108 2. Interview Questions and Prompts - Sample Group One - Managers 109 3. Interview Questions and Prompts - Sample Group Two – Experts 112 4. Interviewees- Sample Group One and Two 116 List of Tables Page No. 1. Dimensions Associated with Narrow and Broad Concepts of Adventure 25 2. Service Ownership 59 3. Time in Post 59 4. Number of Expeditions in 2003 60 5. Duration of Expeditions in 2003 61 6. Method of Transport 61 7. Change in Provision between 1993 and 2003 – Managers Response 62 8.Change in Provision between 1993 and 2003 –Experts Response Sub Group A 66 9.Change in Provision between 1993 and 2003 –Experts Response Sub Group B 68 10.Change in Provision between 1993 and 2003 – Combination of Responses 69

List of Figures Page No.

1. Number of Participants on Expedition in 2003 61 2. Factors influencing change 62

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1.0 Introduction

This chapter outlines the focus and rationale of this dissertation, in addition historic

and current literature is explored in order to set the context. The themes which are

listed below are introduced here and are developed in greater detail in subsequent

chapters:

• The value of expeditions.

• Cultural changes in local authority outdoor education centres.

• Financial issues in local authority outdoor education centres.

• Changing provision regarding ‘expeditions’ in local authority outdoor

education centres.

Focus of research

This dissertation investigates the changing provision of expeditions between 1993

and 2003 in permanently staffed residential outdoor education centres funded by

local authorities in Scotland. In 1999 Nicol reported that there were only nine

centres of this kind remaining. From research I have completed through the

Adventure Activity Licensing Authority1 (AALA) web site and telephoning Scottish

Local Authorities, I have confirmed that the nine centres Nicol noted are still open

and providing outdoor education programmes. These centres are the focus of my

research.

1 The Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA) is an independent, cross-departmental public authority, funded by the Department of Education and Skills, and operating under the written guidance of the Health and Safety Commission. In effect it is an independent watchdog on the delivery of outdoor adventure activities for young people. For further information on the AALA see Literature Review Section 2.2. (www.aala.org)

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Expedition criteria

Allison (2000) who has completed in-depth research into expeditions, states that

such activities can have many different meanings:

The word expedition is attributed a vast array of meanings and interpretations.

For some it involves an overnight stay in a tent or perhaps a week away, such as

for the Duke of Edinburgh’s Award Scheme. For others it refers to

environmental visits to clean up specific areas and for others it involves massive

physical challenges such as Shackleton or more recently Fiennes and Stroud

(Allison, 2000, p. 159).

The Oxford Dictionary (Hawker, 1996, p. 169) defines an expedition as a “journey

for a purpose”, similarly Kennedy (1992, p. 55) offers a “journey with a purpose”.

Considering the number of possible definitions, I decided that it was necessary for

the purpose of this dissertation to devise the following expedition criteria;

• It must have a journeying element.

• The duration has to be a day and night or longer.

The criteria were developed after completing my literature review. It provided

interviewees with a greater understanding of the type of expedition this dissertation

focused on, which I believe was crucial if this research was to be a success.

Expeditions involving students attending local authority centres traditionally took

place at the end of an activity week, Nicol (2002a) notes that historically 12 day

programmes, were structured towards a final expedition. At that time it was the

culmination of skills and planning developed during the programme. This

dissertation focuses on this type of expedition. It does not include expeditions that

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were provided as part of an award programme e.g. the Duke of Edinburgh Award or

part of national governing body award training or assessment. Programmes of this

nature could be considered to be ‘specialist’ and would not be available to all

participants that attended the outdoor centres studied.

1.1 Rationale

My main reason for completing this research is that I have an interest in programme

design and in particular expeditioning. I believe, like some other outdoor educators,

this activity is of value and because of this I am keen to assess the level of provision

in local authority centres. The rationale is developed further in this section.

Personal interest

My interest in outdoor education has developed over the last six years since I came

to study, work and live in Scotland. I now design programmes in the outdoors as part

of my work and because of this I became curious about the content of such

programmes. The particular aspect of outdoor education programming that I find

most interesting is the use of expeditions. I have facilitated expeditions in local

authority residential centres and became aware of the satisfaction participants gain.

Although my ‘evidence’ was only anecdotal, it encouraged me to investigate further

the provision of this activity.

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Activity value

A number of outdoor educators have argued the value of expeditions (Gair, 1988;

Grey, 1984; Maddern, 1990; Surtees, 2000). Research and literature review

completed by Allison, 2000; Beames, 2004; Hattie, Marsh, Neil and Richards, 1997,

have highlighted the opportunities that long duration (over several nights)

expeditions provide for participants’ positive development. Although expeditions of

this duration are not the focus of this dissertation their research is of interest as it

provides valuable contextual information.

However, Iida, Imura and Van Der Smissen (1986), Patterson, Watson, Williams,

Roggenbuck (1998) and Rubens (1999) provide research-based evidence that is of

greater importance to this dissertation, because their research focuses on expeditions

of a shorter nature, similar to those which take place at local authority centres.

Although their studies investigate different aspects of short duration expeditions,

their findings support the inclusion of such activities. Their studies and findings are

discussed at length in the Literature Review (Section 2.1).

Education Psychologists (Ames, 1992 & Dweck, 1986) have similarly identified the

value of activities that are challenging and novel and require participants to be

involved in decision making and have responsibility devolved to them. They believe

such activities can orientate students towards a ‘mastery goal’, students who adopt

this approach are motivated to understand their work and have a desire to improve

their competence. Through his research Rubens (1999) has identified

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expeditions/journeys by canoe or foot to be of educational value, as such activities

can encourage orientation towards a ‘mastery goal’ (c.f. Section 2.1).

Section 2.1 draws attention to studies that investigated expeditions in greater detail,

and explores the effectiveness and importance of including this activity in future

outdoor education programmes. If expeditions are considered to be of value, then it

is important that this dissertation assesses whether or not this activity is being

provided to students attending local authority centres.

Rationale for focus

Hunt (1989) noted in a detailed report “In Search of Adventure”, of outdoor

education provision in the UK that a number of organisations used expeditions for

different reasons. Considering the number (160 outdoor centres registered in

Scotland with AALA, 2005) of potential expedition providers I decided to focus on

local authority residential centres for the following reasons:

• Local authority residential outdoor education centres are the means by which

a high number of young people in Scotland gain access to outdoor education

activities (Higgins, 2002) in the absence of consistent school-based

provision.

• I was interested in investigating whether local authority centres continue to

use expedition activities to fulfil their original stated aims (discussed later in

this chapter).

• As an Outdoor Education Officer employed by a local authority, I have a

professional interest in expeditions of short duration and the factors that

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affect their provision. If they prove to be of value I am keen to develop these

activities further in my own practice.

Research time period

The rationale for basing this research on a 10 year period (1993 – 2003) is because

of three significant events that occurred in the 1990s, which I believe have had an

impact on the provision of expeditions;

• The introduction of the AALA Scheme in 1996, effectively regulates

provision of outdoor activities for young people under the age of 18. This

scheme may have made it more difficult to deliver activities such as

expeditions.

• The reorganisation of local government in Scotland in 1996, resulted in core

funding for outdoor education in some local authorities being reduced or

terminated. This might have constrained the provision of activities such as

expeditions which may be perceived to be expensive.

• The implementation of the European Union working time directive (EWTD)

in October 1998, affected the number of hours an employee could work

consecutively. This factor might have affected expedition provision, as an

instructor may have to work for a continuous 24 hour period or longer when

delivering this activity.

1.2 Historical context and philosophical underpinnings

Britain has a rich history of outdoor education, which was shaped by early

educational philosophers whose theories still influence current thinking and debate.

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Parker and Meldrum (1973) have reported on the early history of outdoor education

in Scotland from 19th Century to the 1970s. One influential educator was Kurt Hahn

a German émigré who was an advocate of expeditions. In 1934 in Scotland, Hahn

founded Gordonstoun School which sought to use the outdoors for educational

purposes. He subsequently established the first Outward Bound School in Wales.

Hahn’s schools included expeditioning in their programmes and their practice

influenced other Scottish local authority centres that were being established (Nicol,

2002a).

Nicol (2002b) and Higgins (2002) agree that two of the earliest attempts to provide a

philosophical underpinning of the use of the outdoors for educational purposes were

provided by Drasdo (1972) and Mortlock (1973, 1984). Higgins (2002, p. 155) says

“they [Drasdo & Mortlock] make a strong case for the creative developmental power

of outdoor adventure experiences but raise concerns about the dangers of a

‘utilitarian’ approach”. The origins of this approach lie in Kurt Hahn’s philosophy

for the Outward Bound movement which emphasised physical fitness, endurance,

craftsmanship and community service (see Skidelsky,1986). Higgins (2002, p. 155)

notes these approaches have been translated in modern terms into the ‘pursuit of

outdoor activities or sport’ and ‘personal and social education’. Higgins (2002, p.

155) believes “these are now the predominant approaches taken by the majority of

providers in the UK”. The development of expeditions in outdoor education

provision in Scotland is discussed in detail in Section 2.3.

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Local authority residential centres: Original aims and purpose

“The 1944 Education Act established a framework that, by consolidating previous

legislation and encouraging Local Education Authorities (LEAs) to increase the use

of the outdoors for educational purposes, extended outdoor education within the

statutory education system” (Cook, 1999, p 157). Higgins (2002) notes that the 1944

Act stated the value in direct experience of the outdoors and this resulted in the

encouragement by Local Education Authorities to establish camps for these

purposes. Nicol (2002a) reports that although the Scottish Education Act of 1945

made no explicit reference to outdoor education, it could be interpreted as including

residential outdoor education centres as “facilities for recreation and social and

physical training” (Nicol, 2002a, p. 32).

Even without explicit reference to outdoor education in the Scottish Education Act

of 1945 local authorities still established camps, that aimed to provide children with

time to extend their normal school work in a rural setting. Higgins (2002) notes that

during the 1960s and 1970s many local authorities purchased and converted old

mansions that were adapted and acted as a base from which outdoor education

activities could commence. These became some of the first residential outdoor

education centres in Scotland.

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1.3 Current context

Recent political context

In October 2004 Scotland’s Education Minister Peter Peacock announced that he

wanted to see schools move towards offering all pupils, at both primary and

secondary levels, an outdoor education residential experience during their careers.

Peacock (Scottish Executive, 2004b) said “Not only can it enrich their school life, it

can help pupils develop skills and interests that will stay with them for the rest of

their lives”. To help schools and pupils make the most of the opportunities offered

by outdoor education he stated a new Scottish development officer would be

appointed.

A month before Peacock’s announcement, David Bell chief inspector of schools in

England and Wales similarly asserted the benefits and the importance of these types

of excursions. In the Education Supplement of The Guardian, Bell (2004, p. 10) said

“The benefits of outdoor education are far too important to forfeit, and by far

outweigh the risks of an accident occurring”. Bell’s comments are based on the

findings of the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) report “Outdoor education

– Aspects of good practice” (September 2004, reviewed in detail in Section 2.1).

Considering these statements of support and the introduction of new Scottish

guidance (Scottish Executive, 2004a) on Health and Safety on Educational

Excursions (HASEE) perhaps schools will have the confidence to make greater use

of outdoor education centres.

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Potential participants

Britain has the most extensive system of outdoor education centres in the world.

There are over 1,200 day and residential centres provided by local authorities,

voluntary and commercial organisations. It is estimated that 2-3 million young

people take part in a vast range of outdoor education programmes. (Cooper,

1999, p. 43)

Though Cooper estimates the number of young people taking part in outdoor

programmes to be in the millions, he makes no reference to the type of programme,

its duration or his source for the figure. However, Higgins (2002) agrees that the

number of outdoor education student days per year is substantial and significant, his

recent estimate puts this at around 200,000 – 300,000 student days per year in

Scotland. There is some correlation between these figures as Higgins’ (2002)

estimate is approximately one tenth of Cooper’s (1999) estimate and Scotland’s

population is approximately one tenth of the UK’s population. This suggests that

local authority residential centres in Scotland have significant numbers of young

people participating in their programmes. If their time spent at these centres is to be

worthwhile it is crucial to provide programmes, which help participants develop in a

positive manner by maximising the opportunities afforded them.

Financial issues

The majority of residential centres involved in this research receive some core

funding from their local authority (c.f. Centres or AALA web sites), over recent

years this has been reduced by budget cuts (this is further documented in Section

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2.2). To supplement shortfalls managers have had to draw in monies in alternative

ways. Some strategies implemented have included increased commercial

programmes, corporate programmes and instructor training schemes.

In recent years some managers have resorted to grant aid, attracting financial support

from agencies such as the New Opportunities Fund (NOF), recently renamed The

Big Lottery Fund. Part of the requirements for NOF funding was that programmes

had to be monitored and evaluated. In my post as outdoor education officer I had to

complete NOF evaluations. With limited funding and possible budget cuts, it is

important activities are investigated further, so the cost effectiveness and educational

value of programmes is apparent to funders, educators and inspectors.

Centre based cultural changes

…the trend in outdoor education is towards the provision of short duration, high

excitement experiences…. Furthermore outdoor activity courses at outdoor

centres have become shorter in recent years, reducing the prospects of even a full

week ‘apprenticeship’ (Higgins, 2003, p. 138)

Having reviewed current literature and following discussions with colleagues

involved in outdoor education in Scotland, there appears to be a perceived decline in

expeditioning type activities in local authority outdoor education centres.

Promotional material advertises summer play schemes or school activity weeks

which suggests that there is more focus on multi-activity programmes. My research

investigates whether this trend is occurring and examines possible reasons for this.

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Centre based cultural changes are discussed in more detail in the Literature Review

(Section 2.2).

1.4 Chapter summary

• This dissertation investigates the change in expedition provision between 1993 and

2003 in the nine remaining local authority centres in Scotland.

• There is empirical and anecdotal evidence (detailed further in Section 2.1) that

suggests expeditions / journeys of a short duration are of value to participants. For

this reason I believe it is important to research whether the provision of

expeditions has declined in the centres studied.

• Residential outdoor education centres were originally established so that children

could extend their normal school work in a rural setting and use the outdoors for

educational purposes. This research assesses whether the centres under survey are

still using expeditions to achieve this aim.

• Today outdoor centres attract significant numbers of young people. There is

anecdotal evidence to suggest that the provision has changed with the introduction

of new activities, the reduction of programme duration and the possible decline of

activities such as expeditions.

• This chapter has noted some of the centre based cultural changes and financial

issues that have affected outdoor education provision, this is discussed in greater

detail in Section 2.2.

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2.0 Literature Review

2.0.1 Introduction

This literature review is divided into three sections:

Activity Value – reviews literature that is concerned with the value of expeditions.

Outdoor Education Provision: Cultural Changes and Financial Issues – reviews

literature that focuses on the changing nature of outdoor education provision.

Development of Expeditions in Outdoor Education Provision in Scotland – reviews

literature that reports on the inclusion of expeditions in outdoor education

programmes.

2.1 Activity value

This section explores literature, on the potential value expedition activities may have

for outdoor education programmes. Empirical evidence based research is limited. As

Barrett and Greenaway (1995) point out, there have been few serious attempts to

assess programme effectiveness and more recently Higgins and Nicol (2002, p. 29)

report “outdoor adventure education in its various forms has so far received

relatively little research attention”. This lack of research attention has not stopped

academics and practitioners commenting on what they see as important aspects of

providing worthwhile outdoor education.

Greenaway (1997, 1998) has questioned what “high quality adventure” looks like

and has gone “in search of respectable adventure”. In both cases he argues the

importance of outdoor educators carefully considering all elements of the

programmes they provide if they are to be of value. Higgins and Nicol (2002)

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provide a more structured approach to evaluating outdoor education programmes by

using an assessment framework they have devised. They suggest that key

programme objectives can be examined in relation to aims, assumptions, methods,

content, evaluation and claims. This could result in a more solid foundation which

can help to evaluate the programme rationale and content. Using this method

Higgins and Nicol critically analyse three objectives:

• The development of self-esteem

• The development of self-awareness

• The development of interpersonal relationships

They make a strong case for the effectiveness of this form of audit. By following

these logical approaches I believe programme designers may increase their ability to

provide outdoor education experiences of high quality.

Using such an evaluation tool could be helpful when confronted with difficulties in

funding and curricular constraints or addressing arguments such as that proposed by

Furedi (2002) a professor of sociology at the University of Kent, who in “The

Times” newspaper posed the question “Can self-esteem be bad for your child?” He

argued that an inflated sense of self-worth can do more harm than good, Higgins and

Nicol (2002) also argued this point. Furedi (2002) believes that confident children

are more likely to be racists, bullies and engage in drink driving and speeding. His

argument is based on findings from the Joseph Rowntree Foundation and reviews of

scientific journals. If Furedi’s (2002) claims prove to be true, then it is important that

programme designers use “a logical framework and sequence for thinking about

their work” (Higgins and Nicol, 2002, p. 36) so they have clear objectives when

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designing and evaluating their programmes. As a result outdoor educators can meet

students’ needs effectively and can justify their programmes / courses in theoretical

terms.

A report – “Outdoor education – Aspects of good practice” commissioned by the

Department for Education and Skills (DfES) in September 2004 similarly advocates

the use of an evaluation framework. The first “point of action” in the report is “to

achieve further improvements in provision for outdoor education, schools and

centres should, develop the systems for evaluating the impact of provision on

improving students’ attitudes and achievements”(DfES, 2004, p. 3). This report, one

of the most recent studies available, was completed over a five year period. Over 60

lessons were observed, and discussions and interviews were conducted with heads of

centres, staff and students from 15 outdoor education centres in England and Wales.

However it should be noted that the report provides only limited information on how

the inspectors evaluated the impact of activities on student learning and gave no

details of the inspectors’ expertise.

The value of outdoor programmes is also commented upon in this report “outdoor

education gives depth to the curriculum and makes an important contribution to

students’ physical, personal and social education” (DfES, 2004, p. 2). Some of the

activities listed in the report under ‘curriculum provision’ could form the basis for an

expedition training syllabus , and include; the ability to orientate maps, read

compasses, plan and navigate mountain walks, make important decisions about

terrain and weather, work safely and reasonably with specialist equipment in

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different challenging contexts. Bell’s (2004, p. 10) comments based on the findings

of the DfES (2004) report reaffirms these activities value, “Pitching a tent, cooking a

meal and navigating a mountain walk are new experiences for many pupils. These

activities can help to contribute towards their personal and social development”. The

reports findings are of value, however no details are provided of any long term

positive changes in young people that can be attributed to participating in the

outdoor programmes studied.

Some academics have investigated long term participant change, and although the

expeditions they studied were of longer duration than the expeditions that are the

focus of this dissertation, it is still worth considering their evidence-based research.

Reviewing such research provides additional contextual information in a subject area

that has had limited research attention. A number of authors have commented on the

importance of youth expeditions Gair, 1988; Grey, 1984; Maddern, 1990; Surtees,

2000. Only a few (Allison, 2000; Beames, 2004, Hattie et al., 1997) have completed

in-depth literature reviews and research that has provided further evidence to support

their value. Hattie et al., (1997) reviewed 96 studies into the effectiveness of outdoor

programmes (including expeditions), and they found gains in personal and social

educational outcomes both during and after programmes. Meta-analyses such as

those completed by Hattie et al., (1997) should be interpreted with caution as they

can be prone to issues of validity, can be selective and may misrepresent the original

research findings. Allison (2002) completed a case study on how expeditions

facilitated the development of young people’s values, he concluded individuals

“grow in a multiplicity of ways during and after the expedition experience" (2002, p.

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165). Beames (2004) asked the question are “overseas youth expeditions with

Raleigh International a rite of passage?” , he reported that these programmes

successfully included two out of the three stages of ‘rites of passage’ as described by

Van Gennep (1960). These studies provide evidence that expeditions of a long

duration can be of value to participants. Is it possible that participants of long and

short duration expeditions may share some common experiences, some organisations

use short expeditions in preparation for a long duration expedition.

One agency that believes shorter expeditions (one to three nights) are of value to

their participants is the Scottish Qualifications Authority. They have produced a

“core skills unit”, entitled; “The Duke of Edinburgh’s Award Expeditions and

Working With Others” (SQA, 2003). This focuses on young peoples’ involvement in

the Award’s Expedition phase. The unit booklet highlights the many different

tasks/stages which an expedition team complete. As part of the requirement for this

qualification participants must record their progress in the booklet. Guy (1985)

similarly believes that this activity has benefits and he provides valuable but

anecdotal evidence from a case study that focuses on participants of a younger age.

This involved 20 primary school students on a self-reliant expedition in the Lake

District. Guy (1985, p. 21) describes that once he had overcome such “headaches” as

“security versus self-reliance” (leaders gradually allowing students to shoulder more

responsibility and decision making) and “staff intensity issues”, a number of positive

outcomes could be reported. They included teachers observing noticeable progress

in levels of confidence, self-image, resourcefulness, fitness and physical stamina in

expedition participants when compared to others in their class who were not

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involved. More tangible outcomes included the way in which this programme

incorporated the curriculum in a practical manner – “to take one small example, the

volume of maths problem-solving in terms of route cards and menu-planning

running through the scheme has been quite phenomenal, and vigour and enthusiasm

for it outstrips any maths lesson” (Guy, 1985, p. 23). Little detail is provided about

whether the changes in the participants were sustained after the expedition, however

Guy (1985, p. 22) remarks “I hope we have influenced them in terms of

environmental awareness, self awareness and group consciousness. It may be,

however, that the benefits will not be seen for a number of years”.

An empirically based study in Japan in 1986 similarly found that outdoor education

programmes that included a short duration (three days) expedition resulted in an

improvement in participants’ self concept. Iida et al., (1986) believe that

participating in adventure activities in the natural environment can result in stressful

situations. Coping with and confronting such situations provide participants with an

opportunity to re-evaluate themselves and to discover their potential, and to improve

their self concept. The programme studied was eight days in duration with a three

day mountain trek, it involved 155 students aged 11-14 years. The research

instruments used were the Children’s Self-Actualisation Scale and the State Anxiety

Inventory for Children. The participants were assessed on the first and last day of

camp and before and after the three day mountain trek. There is no reference to a

follow up study to determine if the improvements in self-concept endured.

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The expeditions focused on by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (2003), and

Guy (1985) involved participants partaking in training and preparation over a

number of months prior to the event. This preparation process may have increased

the likelihood of positive outcomes such as those described by Guy (1985). Would

this be the case for expeditions that did not include such preparation, e.g.

programmes that have less student/instructor contact time or programmes that take

place in outdoor education centres that may not provide such generous time

allocations? An investigation that may provide some answers to this question is one

completed by Patterson et al., (1998). They took a hermeneutic approach to studying

the quality of recreation experiences. It focused on participants who completed a

seven-mile canoe trip down Juniper Run a slow moving stream in Florida. The

participants rented canoes from the concessionaire, the majority of trips were self-

led, however there was no information of participants’ prior training or whether

over-night camping occurred.

Although this study focused only on recreational experiences its findings should be

considered as Patterson et al., (1998) noted interviewees reported four “coherent

dimensions” as a result of involvement in this activity:

• Challenge

• Closeness to nature

• Decisions not faced in everyday environments

• Stories of nature

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After completing their research the authors viewed “recreation as an emergent

experience motivated by the not very well-defined goal of acquiring stories that

ultimately enrich one’s life” (Patterson et al., 1998, p. 423). In the same paper

further analyses of interviewee’s responses demonstrated how these experiences

affected them, not all accounts are positive and there is little detail as to how long

participants were affected by such experiences, but as Patterson et al., (1998) report

it ultimately enriches ones life. Could a similar journey such as a canoe expedition

from a local authority centre result in outcomes that would enrich a student’s life?

Rubens (1998, 1999) believes this may be the case and reports the value of the

“broad adventure”. His qualitative research investigates the links between outdoor

education, adventure and learning. This research is based on a comprehensive

review of education psychology literature and interviews with twelve outdoor

education practitioners. He argued that a “broad” concept of adventure can

encourage a mastery approach towards learning and improves student motivation.

He also believes problems may arise in programmes where a narrow concept of

adventure dominates. Table 1 details the dimensions associated with each view.

Broad View of Adventure Narrow View of Adventure

Long timescale of experience Short timescale of experience

Many challenges – varied in nature High thrill challenges

Some or much effort involved Little or no effort involved

Responsibilities devolved to students No responsibilities devolved to students

Table 1: Dimensions Associated with Narrow and Broad Conceptions of Adventure,

(Rubens, 1999, p. 26)

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He cites zipwires, ropes courses and abseiling as examples of “narrow adventure”

and journeys or expeditions by canoe or foot as “broad adventure”. Rubens provides

a strong argument for the inclusion of “broad adventure” in outdoor education

programmes. If they are to be of value, he believes they encourage a “mastery” of

skills which can result in students taking responsibility for their actions in later life,

“narrow adventure”, he suggests, struggles to achieve such outcomes.

Education psychologists Ames (1992) and Dweck (1986), provide further empirical

evidence that broad based activities are of value when motivating students to learn.

They believe classroom environments influence students’ views about the nature and

purpose of learning. It is thus possible to construct a learning environment that

influences students’ orientation towards learning. Ames (1992) identifies two

contrasting goals that students can adopt towards learning, they are a mastery goal

and a performance goal.

A mastery goal is associated with an orientation towards learning characterised by

the belief that outcome and effort are directly linked. Students who adopted this

approach are motivated to understand work and have a desire to improve

competence. A performance goal is associated with an orientation towards learning

characterised by the belief that outcome is directly related to ability. Students can

view learning as a method of achieving public recognition coupled with a concern

about feelings of self worth, and this may focus less on understanding and more on

rote learning.

27

Rubens (1998) believes that as outdoor educators we should attempt to orient

students towards a mastery, rather than a performance goal. We can attempt to do

this by encouraging the use of a broad concept of adventure, such as expedition

activities. By adopting an ‘effort’ based strategy towards achievement (reaching a

summit when hillwalking), students’ theories that learning goals can only be attained

through their ability are challenged. This is facilitated by providing students with

tasks which are challenging and novel, and therefore stimulating. Students should

also be involved in decision making and have responsibility devolved to them.

Rubens (1998, p. 68) states “ the broad concept of adventure is a powerful method of

encouraging this approach to learning”.

In summary:

• Empirical evidence based research into the value of short duration expeditions is

limited. However, Guy (1985) provides valuable anecdotal evidence that short

duration expeditions can result in positive educational outcomes for participants.

These findings are supported by in-depth evidenced based research completed by

Iida et al., (1986) and Patterson et al., (1998), the positive outcomes they

describe are of value to participants, but may be short lived. Rubens (1998,

1999) gives further weight to the importance and educational value of ‘broad

adventure’ activities such as expeditions for young people in the outdoors. He

argues if such an educational approach is adopted students can make ‘long-term

gains’. The value and inclusion of broad-based activities such as expeditions can

be further justified if empirical evidence provided by education psychologists

such as Ames (1992) is also considered.

28

2.2 Outdoor education provision: cultural changes and financial issues

This section reviews literature that concerns the changes in outdoor education

provision, it highlights the extent of the changes and possible reasons for this. It

gives anecdotal evidence, single case studies and research reports that support these

findings. Two significant centre-based changes have been noted, firstly a reduction

in the duration of programmes, and secondly a change in activities provided.

Noble (1995), a centre warden, provides valuable anecdotal evidence, he comments

on the decrease in programme duration. In the 1970s he ran eight-day courses, this

reduced to seven days, then five and was later reduced to 48hrs in the 1980s. He

believed this was insufficient time for even a modest camping trip. Noble reported in

the 1950s and 1960s that “one was allowed to offer a single activity without feeling

guilty and that a chocolate box selection of other taster activities should also be

available”(Noble, 1995, p. 20). It would prove difficult because of the duration and

nature of an expedition to include it in a chocolate box selection. Noble (1995)

provides important insights into the changing nature of programmes at his centre.

The Association of Heads of Outdoor Education Centres (AHOEC,1988 ) and

Loynes (2002) similarly agreed that the content of outdoor education programmes

has changed. The AHOEC believe that there has been an expansion of the range of

activities provided. Loynes (2002) supports this view “the standard programme

shifted from one that encouraged a progressive development of skills leading to the

undertaking of a self-reliant journey on to a series of tasters of each activity, the

multi-activity programme.”

29

Loynes (2002) argues that the introduction of new activities, equipment and artificial

facilities has contributed to this shift which has resulted in programme

diversification. Becker (1996, p. 70) writing from Germany, has commented on the

consumer’s increasing hunger for excitement, he reports they “have found a remedy

by cutting down the duration of the events while simultaneously intensifying them”

by purchasing “excitement kits”. He describes an ‘excitement kit’ as offering several

thrill-producing activities all packed into a few days.

Some of the above is anecdotal, however Higgins (2003) provides a valuable

research based case study which demonstrates the changing nature of provision in

Scotland. For example when Glenmore Lodge was opened on behalf of The Scottish

Education Department, its stated purpose was “to use the excellent natural

surroundings offered by mountain, loch and forest, to experiment with forms of

education” (Loader, 1952, p. 14). The centre is now run by “Sport Scotland” and

provides training and assessment of outdoor leaders in National Governing Body

Awards (NGBA) and coaching of elite outdoor sports people. Higgins (2003) noted

that their biannual brochure reveals an increasing emphasis on courses which are,

essentially, recreational. He reported that in the last 50 years the emphasis has

shifted from education to recreation, training and competition and he comments that

this “change from experimental education to recreation is something of a pattern

which may be seen in much formal outdoor education provision in the UK”

(Higgins, 2003, p. 136). He argues that such a change may be reasonable for

Glenmore Lodge, but that the stated purpose (noted in Chapter 1) of formal outdoor

education is somewhat different, he raises this central question; “is the contemporary

30

approach to outdoor education likely to achieve its stated intentions?” (Higgins,

2003, p. 136).

Academics have also commented on factors that may have contributed to changes in

provision. Loynes (2002) highlights four factors that have been dominant within the

last fifteen years, they are:

• Funding

• Commercialisation

• Bureaucratisation

• Safety

Nicol (2002b) agrees that financial rather than curricular issues dominated the

changes between 1980s and 1990s. The Department for Education and Skills (DfES)

report “Outdoor education – Aspects of good practice” 2004 (discussed in-detail in

Section 2.1) notes that safety issues and curricular constraints affect teachers’

attitudes when organising outdoor education excursions, “some schools remain

unconvinced of the benefits when weighed against the pressures on curriculum time,

lack of specialist expertise, concerns about taking risks and fears of litigation”

(2004, p. 14).

The DfES report comments on teachers involvement in outdoor education

excursions “in the majority of cases where school teachers have a long-standing

relationship with the centre, they play a supporting role in the lessons” however in

other cases “school teachers keep to general supervisory duties and do not exploit

these opportunities to use their skills” (2004, p. 9). This highlights how, when well

31

established relationships are present, learning opportunities can be maximised by a

teacher. Alternatively if relationships are not long-standing because of short

programme duration, curricular constraints and fear of litigation, it may prove

difficult to educate and inform teachers as to the most suitable activity for their

group’s needs rather then just provide them with an off-the-shelf multi-activity

experience.

Financial issues are commented on in the DfES report. Budgetary cuts have resulted

in the role of the outdoor education adviser diminishing in some local education

authorities (LEAs), and a number of LEAs have reduced “funding arrangement, thus

inhibiting the role of centres in curriculum-related provision” (DfES, 2004, p. 14),

“Several heads of centres reported concerns about funding” and have had to “offer

commercial courses in order to raise funds” (DfES, 2004, p. 15). This report again

highlights the shift of outdoor education programmes from curriculum-related

provision to commercial courses dictated by funding constraints. To make matters

worse a number of centre managers reported changes in ownership of the centre,

“for example, transference of the centre between different LEA departments such as

lifelong learning, education or leisure”, which “inhibits development planning over

the long term” (DfES, 2004, p. 15). It is further noted that ownership issues can

result in poor accountability, and staff morale problems. These findings provide an

indication of the powerful external factors that have affected centre based provision.

Legislation and policy changes like the introduction of the Adventure Activities

Licensing Authority (AALA), the reorganisation of local government, and the

32

implementation of the European Union working time directive (EWTD) may have

also contributed to programme changes in centres between 1993 and 2003. The

AALA was formed following the Activities Centres (Young Persons’ Safety) Act

(1995). The Act made it a criminal offence to provide, certain adventure activities

for young people under the age of 18 for payment, unless the provider had a licence,

such activities include Canoeing, Kayaking, Hillwalking and Mountaineering. The

centres under review require an AALA licence. Higgins (2002, p. 162) commented

on the impact of the Act, “Whilst some small providers have suffered and in some

cases the range of activities provided has been reduced, there is little doubt the Act is

now generally well regarded in Scotland”, he further believes it has encouraged

providers, technical advisers and AALA inspectors to engage in dialogue about safe

practice.

In an attempt to provide the most efficient system of local government,

reorganisation took place in Scotland in 1996, the original two tier system was

replaced by a single tier system of councils. Nicol (2002b, p. 95) reported “the

reorganisation of Scottish local authorities in April 1996 inflicted the greatest loss on

residential outdoor education centres since their establishment”, six centres closed.

Similarly Higgins (2002, p. 162) provided valuable evidence on the impact of

reorganisation on centre provision, “it is clear that whilst much activity continues in

this sector Council Advisors report a great deal has been lost (primarily as the result

of financial pressures and ‘Local Government Reorganisation’) over the past 10

years or so”.

33

In September 1999 the Joseph Rowntree Foundation, an independent social policy

and development charity, completed a report on the impact of local government

reorganisation on social service work in Scotland, England and Wales. The report

provides little information on the research methods used. Although based on

different provision to outdoor education this research provides valuable findings.

Some of the negative effects reported included;

• Financial crises – most new local authorities were smaller than their

predecessors and with the loss of economies of scale, some found it

impossible to maintain certain forms of provision.

• Loss of expertise - officer experience was considerably diluted.

• Refocusing service provision - the disaggregation of historically determined

distributions of services in ancestor authorities left some descendent

authorities relatively heavily over-provided, others under-provided.

(Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1999)

The smallness of new local authorities revealed new gaps in service provision. These

findings are similar to those reported by Higgins (2002) and Nicol (2002b). If

centres were affected by financial crises or refocusing of provision could these

factors impact on programme design and alter the activities available?

Since the EWTD was introduced in 1998 there has been little literature on its effect

on outdoor education provision. However this legislation will affect all of Scotland’s

work force and cannot be ignored. Its implementation resulted in “a maximum 48

hour working week, a minimum daily rest period of 11 consecutive hours” and night

work which “must not exceed eight hours a night” (Eubusiness, 2004).

34

If a manager is to implement this directive s/he needs to be aware of what constitutes

working time. This does not seem to be a problem until periods of working time

such as expedition sleep-overs are considered. A judgment passed on the 3rd of

October 2000, at the European Court of Justice (ECJ) concerning the status of on-

call time for trainee doctors, indicated that on-call time is considered to be working

time when a worker is on site. The ECJ judgment on the 9th September 2003 in the

“Jaeger” case confirmed this judgment. The implications for the National Health

Service is that time spent resident on call for clinical purposes will count as working

time in its entirety, even if the doctor in training is resting (or even sleeping). The

full implications of the ECJ judgment on Jaeger are still being considered

(Department of Health, 2004). Similarly if an expedition sleep over is considered to

be working time as in the case of resident doctors who are on call, it will increase the

cost of delivering this activity.

Currently, a person can opt out of the directive providing they are not a night shift

worker, this will allow them to work more than a 48 hour week. If opting out is not

possible, a person can average a 48 hour week over a 17 week period. This would

allow for activities that require a sleep over to occur. Even if a sleep over does not

constitute working time, an earlier start and a later finish extends the normal

working day and often occurs when facilitating expeditions, so working hours

accumulate quickly. In order to comply with the working time directive, delivering

an overnight expedition requires extra staffing and extra expense, similarly it might

prove costly to employ an instructor who has opted out of the directive.

35

Anecdotal evidence suggests that child protection procedures and health and hygiene

issues when camping, are additional factors that have affected the provision of

expeditions. Discussions with other practitioners and articles about such issues in

“Horizons” and coaching newsletters (The British Canoe Union’s “Code”) provide

further supportive evidence. To obtain further information on these concerns a

search of the Scottish Executive, AALA and the local authorities websites was

completed.

“From April 11, 2005 it is an offence for an organisation to offer work (paid or

unpaid) in a child care position to anyone who is disqualified from working with

children” (Scottish Executive, 2005).This legislation is the result of The Protection

of Children (Scotland) Act 2003. The implications of this legislation are difficult to

assess, as few local authority websites provide an initial and direct link to their child

protection policies. One local authority that provided access to their Child Protection

Management Circular was Glasgow City Council. The management circular states

that an earlier Act - “The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 places a statutory duty upon

the local authority as a whole to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in its

charge” (Glasgow City Council, 2002, p. 3). The AALA similarly recognises this

issue’s importance, and provide guidance and advice on the suitability of activity

leaders. They report that it is becoming increasingly advisable to have a child

protection policy. It is evident that there is increased awareness of child protection

legislation in local authorities however there appears to be little guidance on how

best to implement these measures during outdoor activities.

36

A search for health and hygiene policies on local authority websites provided little

information. The AALA website reported one case of food poisoning that resulted

from poor basic camp hygiene. One issue that received attention was the use of

camp stoves, advice was provided by the AALA on how to avoid stove accidents.

Guidance on stove use also features in a Glasgow City Council management

circular, where they advise appropriate training should be in place prior to use. Their

guidance notes do not appear too restrictive and provide a good example of best

practice.

In summary;

• Over the last decade practitioners and academics have reported that outdoor

education programme content, duration and in some cases purpose has changed.

Some of the factors that have contributed to this are financial issues, increased

safety and bureaucracy, commercialisation, and legislation and policy changes. It

is evident that such factors have affected many aspects of outdoor education

provision – one being programme design. The review of literature provided little

evidence on whether the provision of expeditions has been directly affected.

37

2.3 Development of expeditions in outdoor education provision in Scotland

This section reviews the literature that refers to the development and delivery of

expeditions and camping activities. The literature reports on expedition provision

over the last six decades from the opening of a government funded centre, Glenmore

Lodge in the late 1940s, to the closure of local authority residential centres, noted by

Nicol (1999) in the late 1990s.

One of the first accounts of expedition activities taking place in residential centres in

Scotland is reported by Loader (1952), she provided valuable but anecdotal evidence

of the programmes at Glenmore Lodge. In “Detailed Programme for Holiday

Training Course” Loader (1952, p. 28-29) described the courses that took place

there, she noted over 50% of the activities included an expeditioning element. She

described field studies commenting that “Expeditions are designed to give a

complete view of the environment and natural life in the five distinct regions at

Glenmore”. In reference to hill walking she stated “A graded series of expeditions

are arranged, one stronger and the other for more moderate walkers” (Loader, 1952,

p. 28). Descriptions of camping and bivouacing provide further evidence of this type

of activity taking place “The final two days of the course are spent under canvas or

in one of the Cairngorm mountain shelters, including the famous Shelter Stone of

Loch Avon” (Loader, 1952, p. 29). She also reported that students had Wednesdays

as a day to select, plan and begin their own expeditions.

Though Glenmore Lodge was not funded by a local authority it was a forerunner for

future local authority residential centres, the “Lodge” which was funded by public

38

money through the Scottish Education Department, used the outdoors for education

purposes and provided residential courses based in Scotland’s natural environment.

Loader’s (1952) accounts provide evidence of expeditioning playing a significant

part in a number of different activities that took place at the centre during this

period.

The Department of Education and Science (DES) Report (1983) noted that in the

1950s the Board of Education (both the DES and Board of Education were at this

time, responsible for education matters in England and Wales) encouraged camping

and mobile camping at a national level. They produced a series of pamphlets, which

helped to promote this interest. The pamphlets included such titles as “Organised

Camping”, later supplemented by “Mobile Camping” which appeared in 1954 and

then were replaced by “Camping and Education” in 1961(DES, 1983, p. 2). The

Board of Education promoted this activity and as a result it began to get wider

recognition. In 1963 the Newson Report, “Half Our Future” (DES, 1983, p. 2) drew

attention to the value that camps, expeditions and residential courses held. “The

report [Newson] confirmed the conviction of many teachers that these activities

provided opportunities for general education stimulus, personal and social

development”(DES, 1983, p. 2). The promotion and acknowledgement of the value

of camping and expeditioning activities in England and Wales by such a powerful

body [the Board of Education] could have contributed to their inclusion in outdoor

education programmes that were provided at that time in residential centres in

Scotland.

39

Though this suggests a link between the Board of Education’s promotion and the

introduction and inclusion of expeditions, it is difficult to identify fully the factors

that were responsible for the development of these activities in Scottish residential

centres. Nicol (2002a) provided more substantial information about this, based on

interviews he carried out, he noted that expeditioning activities came to play a

substantial role in the introduction of outdoor education in Scotland at one particular

centre. He reported that in 1966 Scotland’s first local authority centre was opened, it

was called Benmore Adventure and Expedition Centre. Through personal

communication with Roger Mansfield (previous principal at Benmore) Nicol

(2002a) discovered that the first principal at Benmore was Ralph Blain, whose

background experience was entirely with Outward Bound. Possibly as a result of

Blain’s prior experience the courses provided at Benmore had a similar format to the

Outward Bound 28 day courses, which were structured towards a final expedition.

In the late 1970s Cheesmond and Yates completed a detailed research report on the

Outdoor Education Programme in Lothian Region Secondary Schools – 1978/79. It

provided an indication of the provision of expedition and camping activities in this

region. In the “residential provision” section it is reported that:

The researchers believe that much more encouragement could be given to and

equipment made available for camping – the amount of residential experience at

present which is under canvas is too small a proportion of the total residential

provision by the region (Cheesmond & Yates, 1979, p. 16).

40

Cheesmond and Yates were concerned about the lack of experience under canvas.

Although this is specific evidence based on just one region, it is still important as the

Lothian region during this period was particularly successful in developing outdoor

education provision. The region also funded four outdoor education centres

(Higgins, 2002, p. 157), two were residential.

The DES Report (1983), provided results of HM Inspections made over a series of

visits to local education authority centres. They noted interesting findings, they

considered it possible that longer centre programmes could include an expedition,

and they formally observed a three-day hill and mountain walking expedition. From

this it can be ascertained that expeditioning type activities were taking place in the

early 1980s in local authority outdoor education centres in England and Wales,

however there is little detail of the frequency of such programmes. One of the

‘general’ concluding comments made in this report was (DES, 1983, p. 47)

“camping remains one of the simplest and most valuable ways of giving experience

of communal living and it has much to offer in an educational context”.

In 1999 Nicol produced research on Scottish local authority residential outdoor

centres, this study should be noted because he reported there was a reduction in the

number of local authority residential outdoor education centres, from fifteen to nine.

As a result of centre closures it is reasonable to assume, providing all other factors

remained the same, that there was a reduction in the opportunity for expedition

activities to take place in local authority residential centres in Scotland.

41

In summary:

• There is limited literature that focuses on the provision of expeditions in

local authority centres. However it is apparent that expedition and camping

activities were promoted by the Board of Education from the 1950s to the

1960s and a number of authors (Cheesmond & Yates 1979, DES 1983,

Loader 1952, Nicol 2002) have made reference to development. In 1999

Nicol reported the closure of Scottish centres which seems to have affected

expedition provision. There appears to be little evidence that the inclusion of

expeditioning in outdoor education programmes in the 1950s was based on

research into its value. It seems more probable that like other activities

provided at this time, it was included because outdoor educators believed it

afforded valuable opportunities for ‘education stimulus, personal and social

development’ (DES, 1983, p. 2).

42

2.4 Chapter summary:

• Limited research has been conducted into short duration expeditions and

their long term outcomes. However research completed by Patterson et al.,

(1998) and Rubens (1998, 1999) suggests that using expeditions / journeying

may result in positive outcomes for participants. Rubens (1999) believes

adopting such an approach can result in long term gains.

• Section 2.2 highlights the cultural changes and financial issues that have

affected provision. The factors identified are based on the expectation that

increased safety precautions, legislation and policy changes will be

mandatory and an increase in bureaucracy and commercial constraints will

continue. As a result of such factors programme design has evolved.

• The development of expeditions is discussed in Section 2.3. Having a greater

understanding of this, provides the context for my research. It demonstrates

how expeditions historically came to play an important part in outdoor

education programmes. It also provides an indication as to how such

activities became integral to these programmes.

43

3.0: Research Design and Methods

3.0.1 Introduction

This chapter details the research questions addressed, the research paradigm

adopted, and the sample groups interviewed. In addition, the ethical issues

considered and the research methodology and design are elaborated.

3.1 Research questions

The following questions were considered when choosing the most appropriate

research method and design:

• How many permanently staffed local authority residential outdoor

education centres in Scotland provided expeditions in 2003?

• Why were/ are expeditions included in programmes in these centres?

• Has there been a change in provision of expeditions in these centres

between 1993 and 2003?

• If a change in provision has occurred, what factors brought this about?

3.2 Research paradigms

Bell (1999) argues the importance of understanding the major advantages and

disadvantages of each research approach, in order that the most appropriate

methodology can be selected. To increase my knowledge and understanding in this

area I reviewed the research literature. To inform my decision further I assessed past

studies (Allison,2000; Beames,2004; Patterson et al.,1998; Rubens, 1999) to see

which research approach they adopted. I assessed these studies because they focused

on different aspects of expeditioning, and because empirical research in this subject

44

is limited. I believe this process provided me with valuable background information.

I then refined my investigation to studies with similar sample groups and subject

areas (to my dissertation), such as those completed by Nicol (1999, 2002a&b) and

Higgins (2002). I also considered the main objective of my research in its broadest

form; i.e. to investigate changes in a specific culture (outdoor education centres).

Following this I chose to adopt a primarily qualitative approach because I believed it

would result in the collection of richer and more detailed data that could be used as

valuable evidence and contextual information. As Bell (1999, p. 7) remarks

“researchers adopting a qualitative perspective are more concerned to understand

individuals’ perceptions of the world. They seek insight rather than statistical

analysis”. An approach that involves understanding and insight before statistical

analysis was required in order to answer my research questions. Cohen, Manion, and

Morrison (2000) believe research into historical studies is largely qualitative in

nature, because the subject matter consists to a great extent of verbal and symbolic

material emanating from a society’s or a culture’s past. This research focuses on a

ten year period and involved investigation into the past culture of the centres in

question.

In addition to the qualitative approach adopted, the section on current expedition

provision was analysed using quantitative methods. A quantitative approach was

more suited to the numerical nature of the results and would allow me to compare

expedition provision in the centres studied with greater ease.

45

Bell (1999) describes quantitative researchers as those who collect facts and study

the relationship between one set of facts, and another. Such a factual approach, I

believe, would prove to be effective when assessing current expedition provision.

Using a quantitative approach for this section would allow me to determine

questions and response categories in advance. Cohen et al., (2000, p. 271) state that

when this approach is adopted “data analysis is simple; responses can be directly

compared and easily aggregated”.

The two styles used were narrative inquiry and survey. Narrative inquiry uses stories

as a valuable source of data, informants often speak in story form during interviews,

“a narrative approach to inquiry is most appropriate when the researcher is interested

in portraying intensely personal accounts of human experience” (Gray, 1998, p. 1).

This style was used when interviewees were questioned about their past experiences

of expeditions, and when recounting their opinions on changes in provision,

particularly in relation to financial issues that they believed affected their centre.

The quantitative section on current expedition provision adopted a survey style, this

allowed for ease of analysis and comparison between centres. Bell (1999) suggests if

the main emphasis is on fact-finding then a survey, if well structured and piloted,

can be a relatively cheap and quick way of obtaining information and this approach

was taken.

46

3.3 Sample groups

The two sample groups interviewed were ‘Centre Managers’ and ‘Experts’. The

sample groups were deliberately selected, particularly the participants in the first

group, held vital information about the outdoor education programmes taking place

in the centres studied. Silverman (2000, p. 234) acknowledges such an approach can

be effective, “qualitative researchers can work fruitfully with small bodies of data

that have not been randomly assembled”.

Sample group one consisted of the managers of the nine remaining local authority

residential outdoor education centres in Scotland. Sample group two consisted of

eight ‘experts’. I decided to interview this group, because I believed ‘The Experts’

would provide another credible source of valuable information. Their involvement

would increase convergent validity by means of triangulation, e.g. I was able to

check if there was collaboration of responses between the two sample groups on

subjects such as current expedition provision. Denzin (1970, p. 113) refers to this as

‘combined levels of triangulation’. In addition they could provide an overview of

Scottish outdoor education provision. Unlike sample group one this group may not

have had allegiances to particular centres or local authorities and so could be more

objective.

Sample group one – Centre Mangers (in post or recently retired)

These individuals were chosen because they were a credible source and would

provide reliable information about:

• Why expeditions were/ are used at their centre.

47

• Their views and opinions on the value of expeditions.

• The current provision of expeditions at their centre.

• Whether the provision of expeditions had changed within the last ten

years.

• If a change in provision had occurred, their opinions on the factors

responsible.

A recently retired manager was included in this sample group, as one manager had

only just taken up the post. The details of this sample group are listed in Appendix 4.

Sample group two – Experts

For somebody to be considered an expert they had to fulfil the following criteria:

• Have a depth and breath of experience of local authority outdoor

education centres.

• Be aware of current and past provision in local authority outdoor

education centres.

• Be involved in a working group/organisation that addresses issues that

affect the provision of activities in outdoor education centres. The details

of this sample group are listed in Appendix 4.

3.4 Ethical issues

It was important to consider potential ethical issues during my research. There were

no major concerns, as the study was not overly controversial, but I took into account

the following issues as suggested by Cohen et al., (2000, p. 246).

48

• Respondents are not passive data providers, they are the subjects not the

objects of research, and this has to be acknowledged.

• Informed consent was required and obtained at the outset of every

interview.

• They had the option to withdraw or not complete any section of the

research, and when two managers decided not to be involved I respected

their decisions.

• It was important to guarantee confidentiality, anonymity and non-

traceability and to this end I coded the interviewee responses in such a

fashion that this was guaranteed. I also respected any requests made

about confidential information.

• Methodological rigour is vital, the respondents had the right to expect

reliability and validity.

3.5 Research methodology and design

In choosing the appropriate research method I considered four different factors:

• I compared and contrasted a number of techniques: observation,

documentation, experiment, questionnaire and interview, to assess their

strengths and weaknesses.

• I assessed practical constraints such as; limited accessibility to sample

groups, data and records, limited time and the geographical location of

participants.

• I reviewed research methods previously used in similar studies.

49

• I considered the qualitative approach that I needed to adopt and my

research questions.

Bearing these factors in mind I decided to investigate interviews and questionnaires

in greater detail. Trochim (2000) suggests that the conditions for research may limit

ones methodology choices. In view of the small sample groups and the in-depth data

I required, I chose to use interviews as I believed they would provide the best option

for collecting a wide range of data. Bell (1999) reports the major advantage of

interviews is their adaptability. A skilful interviewer can follow up ideas and probe

responses, which the questionnaire can never do. This adaptability proved invaluable

when interviewing because it allowed me to probe further significant issues.

Tuckman (1972, p. 269) also provides a helpful summary of some of the relative

merits of interviews versus questionnaires. He believes the rate of return is good for

interviews but poor for questionnaires, the opportunities for asking are extensive for

interviews but limited for questionnaires, the relative magnitude of data reduction is

great for interviews (because of coding) but limited for questionnaires.

However interviews can be problematic, Bell (1999) reports that they tend to be

time-consuming, and can be highly subjective and therefore there is the danger of

bias. Analysing responses can present problems, and wording questions is almost as

demanding for interviews as it is for questionnaires. Even so, she believes the

interview can yield rich material and can often include the ‘bones’ of the

questionnaire. Considering the strengths and weaknesses of this method and the

50

arguments made by Bell (1999) and Tuckman (1972) reaffirmed my decision to use

interviews as my research method.

Kvale’s (1996, p. 88) “seven stage procedure of interview investigation” is used to

describe the interview method I adopted. The seven stages are detailed below:

1.Thematising is formulating the purpose of the investigation, the why, and the

what, should be clarified before the question of how – the method – is posed. This

point is addressed above and in Section 3.2.

2.Designing is the preparation of the interview schedule itself. I “translated” my

research objectives into questions that formed the schedule. When developing

these questions I considered issues such as, the nature of the subject matter, how to

differentiate facts, opinions and attitudes, and whether specificity or depth was

required. I used mainly open-ended questions (schedules in Appendices 2 & 3) to

give interviewees the opportunity to voice their opinions. I structured the interview

schedule in a sequence, starting with the introductory/demographic section,

moving on to expedition provision, and then further questions of a more

confidential nature. I finished by inviting participants to add any

information/comments they felt appropriate.

The interview schedules were piloted on colleagues working in local authority

centres. I made changes they suggested, e.g. improving my interview prompts and

developing an interview script which I read at the start of each interview. This

51

outlined who I was, the focus of the study, the different sections of the interview,

and recapped on the expedition criteria.

I adopted the following data collection timetable:

• Phase 1 (May – July 2004)

The initial phase commenced with posting the interview questions with an

explanatory letter (Appendix 1) to the nine centre managers and one recently

retired manager, I thought if participants were aware of the questions they would

be better prepared for the interview. This was followed up by a phone call to

arrange a date, time and location for the interview.

• Phase 2 (July – September 2004)

To complete the second phase I emailed the interview questions and cover letter to

the eight experts. The letter and interview questions were followed up with an

additional email to arrange interview details.

3.Interviewing was the next stage in the procedure. I planned to conduct face to

face or telephone interviews depending on the participants’ choice. The majority

of centre managers I contacted chose to complete the interview by phone mainly

because of time constraints. Harvey (1988) and Miller (1995) report that these type

of interviews tend to be shorter, more focused and useful for contacting busy

people. There were benefits using this technique, but I needed to consider concerns

such as those reported by Miller and Cannell (1997) who identified problems with

this method; the absence of non-verbal cues and the significance of silences and

52

pauses. Despite this the telephone interviews for the first phase were so successful

I decided to use this approach for the second sample group. I used a telephone call

“interface” with a mini-disc player to record the interviews. Before commencing

recording I obtained consent from each of the interviewees. The mini-disc player

was very effective, particularly when typing the transcripts as it is a digital

recording and can be stopped and started with more accuracy than an analogue

tape.

Prior to completing an interview I considered Whyte’s (1982) six point scale

classifying the “directiveness” of the interviewer. The scale develops from point

one - the least directive: making encouraging noises, to point six - the most

directive: introducing a new topic. By using this scale I could, if necessary, draw

out interviewees’ responses. I also used Field and Morse’s (1989) advice to try and

prevent possible problems such as interruptions from outside, minimizing

distractions, summarizing too early or closing off an interview too soon.

After addressing the practical concerns I focused on what Kvale (1996, p. 145)

refers to as the “quality criteria” for the “ideal” interview. As I completed the

interviews I compared the finished transcripts with some of the criteria he had set.

I checked for the extent of spontaneous, rich, specific, and relevant answers from

the interviewees, I assessed whether my questions were longer than the subject’s

answer, and the degree to which I followed up and clarified the meaning of the

relevant aspects of their answers. By using his advice and the other suggested

strategies, I completed 16 telephone interviews of 40 to 60 minutes duration.

53

I encountered three difficulties when completing the interviews. The first was

trying to arrange interviews. It proved difficult to get some of the centre managers

and experts to agree to a specific time. The second difficulty was underestimating

the time required to complete the interviewing process. The third problem was my

inexperience in using interviews as a research tool.

4.Transcribing is described as a crucial stage by Cohen et al., (2000), there is

potential for data loss, distortion and reduction. I completed the transcription from

recorded oral speech to typed text. I took account, not only of what was being said,

but also the tone and inflection of the voice, the use of emphasis, any pauses, the

mood of the speaker and the speed of talking. I listened to the audio recording a

number of times before completing each transcript.

5.Analysing -in order to generate further meaning from the data collected the

transcripts were coded as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994). The text was

highlighted and a descriptive code was written by each piece of datum. They

describe coding as an effective way of reducing data overload, which can occur in

qualitative studies.

I refined and modified the codes I used in the beginning, in light of the codes that I

used later. Miles and Huberman (1994) suggest this process makes codes more

discriminating or conflates codes that are unnecessarily specific. The codes that I

developed when analysing the manager’s interviews were then used to analyse the

expert’s interviews, this process proved successful.

54

When the transcripts were coded the interview data were interpreted, this was done

by counting the frequency of concurrences of opinions, ideas and words. By

clustering units of relevant meaning, it enabled me to note emerging patterns and

to determine themes. The themes that occurred most frequently were ‘Activity

Value’, ‘Cultural Change’ and ‘Financial Issue’. I then summarised each transcript

and incorporated the themes that had been derived from the data, as suggested by

Hycner (1985). These three themes provided the main data categories, any

recurring themes that did not fit into these categories are reported in the Other

Issues Category in Chapter 5. At this stage I asked three colleagues to act as

validators, they assisted me by independently inter-rating chosen quotes into the

four categories, this method is recognised by Hycner (1985) and Kvale (1996) as

an effective way to improve validity.

6.Verifying, Kvale (1996) believes verifying must take place at all seven stages of

the investigation. Reliability and validity in interviews is a problem that needs

constant monitoring, if results are to prove credible, Lansing, Ginsberg and

Braaten (1961) believe that overstating or understating the true value of an

attribute results in an invalid interview. Hughes (1976) argues that because

interviewers are humans interacting with humans it is inevitable that the researcher

will have some influence on the interviewee and on the data.

To improve reliability I used a structured interview schedule, with the same format

and sequence of questions for each respondent. I completed all interviews myself,

and recorded each one, Silverman (1993) recognises these steps as an effective

55

technique to increase reliability. He further suggests that each interviewee should

understand the questions in the same way, I addressed this issue by completing

pilot interviews with colleagues and acting on any comments made. I also ensured

interviewees were aware they could ask for further clarification. Nias (1991), and

Miller and Cannell (1997) both suggest that because telephone interviewing is not

face–to-face, participants may be more forthcoming with information and so

reliability may have been increased.

To increase validity I took the following measures:

• I triangulated interviewee responses from different sample groups, as

described above in Section 3.3.

• After I developed the interview schedules I sought the opinions of

colleagues and refined the schedules/interviews.

• I coded the qualitative data I collected in a rigorous manner as suggest by

Miles and Huberman (1994)

• I completed additional checks on policies discussed in interviews, e.g. I

contacted Government Agencies for further clarification on the EWTD.

• I declared my own beliefs regarding expedition activities, so this

dissertation should be read in this light.

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7.Reporting, Cohen et al., (2000) believe the method adopted is mainly decided

on by the type of data that is collected, for example numerical data may be

reported succinctly in tables and graphs, whilst a qualitative, word-based, open

ended interview will yield word-based accounts that take up considerably more

space, this was the case for this research.

3.6 Chapter summary:

The choice of research design and methods was based on a number of factors. In

particular:

• After reviewing research literature I concluded that interviewing

participants would provide me with the data required to successfully

complete this dissertation.

• I found that past studies that have investigated similar sample groups have

used interviews successfully.

• When considering the dissertation’s aim and research questions, interviews

appeared to be the most suitable technique to complete this study.

• Constraints such as time and location of interviewees also influenced my

choice of research design and method.

The data collected are presented in the next chapter by means of a brief summary

of the respondent’s answers and where appropriate interviewee responses are

presented using quantitative methods. The data are then analysed further in

Chapter 5 using qualitative methods, and are presented in the four categories

already described.

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4.0 Presentation of the Data

4.0.1 Introduction

Interview responses from both sample groups are presented here in two main

Sections;

• 4.1 Presentation of the Data: Sample Group One – Centre Managers

• 4.2 Presentation of the Data: Sample Group Two - Experts

The data in Section 4.2 are presented in two further sub groups; Sub group A, the

members of working groups and the senior Adventure Activities Licensing

Authority (AALA) inspectors and sub group B, the local authority outdoor education

advisors. The interview responses are presented in this way because the interview

questions differed for each group, and the data, if separated, can be summarised

more effectively. The interview questions asked are detailed below. Responses are

then presented by way of brief summary and where applicable quantitative methods

are used. For full interview schedules see Appendices 2 and 3 and for details of

interviewees see Appendix 4.

4.1 Presentation of the data: sample group one – Centre Managers

Ten centre managers were contacted, eight agreed to be interviewed, two declined.

Of the eight interviewed; six were centre managers, one a senior instructor (he was

asked by his manager to partake in the interview), and one was a recently retired

manager. The inclusion of the senior instructor and the recently retired manager may

have increased convergent validity by means of triangulation, (discussed in Section

3.3). Unlike the other centre managers it is possible that they may not have had as

strong an allegiance to their centre, or to the management style now in place at that

58

centre and so could be more objective or alternatively, they may have had the ‘rosy

glow of distance’ from the centre.

Of the two managers who declined to be interviewed, one reported the centre he

managed had no current or history of provision of expeditions. The other manager

made no comment and said he was not available to be interviewed. To gain

information on this centre’s provision I completed an internet search, I accessed the

Principal’s Annual Report which contained information on the centre’s provision in

2003. The data from the two managers who declined to be interviewed are also

included in this section, where this occurs these managers are referred to as non-

respondents.

4.1.1. Interview responses: sample group one – Centre Managers Section A: Centre Details 1) Is your centre residential or does it provide residential courses? Summary of responses Seven of the interviewees said their centre was residential. One reported his centre was not, however alternative accommodation was used and 75% of the programmes provided by this centre were residential. 2) Is your centre registered with the Adventure Activity Licensing Authority? Summary of responses All centres were registered. 3) Please can you name the local authority(ies), which fund the centre? Summary of responses (Non-respondents included) Edinburgh City Council (two centres) East Dunbartonshire Council North Lanarkshire Council Glasgow City Council North Ayrshire Council Fife Council West Dunbartonshire Council Dumfries and Galloway Council It should be noted that both the retired manager and his successor worked for the same local authority.

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4) What service in the local authority is the centre responsible to? Summary of responses (Non - respondents included), The majority of centres were funded by Education Services.

Table 2: Service Ownership Service Number of Centres Education 5 Education and Cultural 1 Education and Community 1 Community 1 Connect* 1 *Connect Services was responsible for one centre, it is a commercial service and was considered to be self funding. 5) How long have you been in post? Summary of responses Managers have been in post from six months to twenty five years.

Table 3: Time in Post Time in Post Number of Managers Over ten years 5 Over seven years* 1 Over one year 1 Over six months* 1 *The manager that had been in post for over seven years had been employed at that centre for over 30 years. The retired manager was interviewed to provide supplementary information on the centre where the manager had been in post for over six months. Section B: Opinions and Experiences 1) Can you tell me about your own experiences of the type of expeditions I am surveying? Summary of responses All of the interviewees provided accounts of expeditions they had been involved in. They described different expedition experiences as an instructor and a centre manager. Seven managers provided reasons as to why this activity was provided at their centre. Two managers also commented on the decline and difficulty in providing expeditions and identified some constraints that had led to this. 2) What are your views on the use of expeditions at local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Summary of responses Seven of the interviewees believed expeditions had a part to play in outdoor education programmes at some level. Five supported the inclusion of such an activity, two reported that ideally expeditions should be included but practically they couldn’t be and one believed there is not a lot of call for them.

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3) In your opinion how do expeditions compare to other activities available at your centre? Summary of responses Activities provided should be suitable for each group’s needs. Expeditions can involve a combination of skills often at a high level, and an intense experience in a new environment. 4) Since you came to post have expeditions been provided in your centre? Summary of responses Six managers said yes and two said no. 5) If you do/did offer expeditions why do/did you do so? Summary of responses The activity provided; an amalgamation of different skills, extended length of contact time with participants, acquisition of skills, meeting customer’s requests, removing challenging clients from centre, at the time it was the norm. 6) What do you see as the advantages of providing expeditions? Summary of responses A number of reasons were provided, most cited participant development. The flexible nature of expeditions was also highlighted and the intense and immediate nature of the experience was commented on again. 7) What do you see as the disadvantages of providing expeditions? Summary of responses Managers identified a number of different factors. Four interviewees believed that the amount of time and effort required to deliver expeditions was a disadvantage. Three managers reported staffing issues as a potential problem, and two drew attention to funding and equipment issues. Section C: Current Provision 1) Did expeditions take place in 2003 in your centre? Summary of responses (Non –respondents included) – Five managers said yes, four said no. 2) How many expeditions took place in 2003? Summary of responses (Non- respondents included),Table 4 shows the reported number of expeditions in 2003, 5 of the centres had expeditions in 2003, 4 centres did not.

Table 4: Number of expeditions in 2003 Number of Centres Number of Expeditions 4 0 2 1 to 4 2 5 to 10 1 11 to 15

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3) How many of these expeditions were? 1-2Days* 3-4Days 5+Days *1-2 Days - refers to part of 1 day and 1 night and part of the next day as detailed in the interviewee cover letter (Appendix 1). Summary of responses Table 5 shows the majority of expeditions were 1 to 2 days in duration.

Table 5: Duration of expeditions in 2003 Number of Centres Duration of Expeditions 4 1 to 2 days 1 3 days or more 4) Can you name the method(s) of transport that were used when completing these expeditions? Summary of responses Some centres used more than one method of transport when completing expeditions.

Table 6: Method of transport Number of Centres Method of transport 1 Power Boat* 1 Cycle 4 Canoe/Kayak 3 Walking *Power boat was used to drop a special needs group to an island. 5) Excluding centre employees can you estimate how many people in total participated in these expeditions in 2003? Summary of responses Figure 1 shows the difference in the number of expedition participants in each centre in 2003, centre seven had the most participants involved in these activities.

30

12

40

85

220

0

50

100

150

200

250

Centre 1 Centre 3 Centre 5 Centre 6 Centre 7

Nu

mb

er

of

pa

rtic

pa

nts

Figure 1: Number of participants on expedition in 2003

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Section D: Changes in Provision 1) In your opinion has the number of expeditions that have taken place in your centre between 1993 and 2003 increased, decreased or remained the same? Summary of responses Table 7 shows that 4 of the managers reported that the provision of expeditions between 1993 and 2003 had decreased, 3 believed it had stayed the same and 1 believed it had increased.

Table 7: Change in provision between 1993 and 2003 Number of Managers Change in Provision 4 Decreased 3 Remained the Same 1 Increased 2) If a change has occurred can you name the factor(s) that have contributed to this? Summary of responses Reasons cited included financial issues and cultural changes in schools and centres. The only manager who reported an increase in expeditions felt it was a result of the New Opportunities Fund (NOF) and a stable staff team. After interviewees commented on the factors they believed had contributed to a change in expedition provision, they were then asked if the introduction of the European Union working time directive (EWTD), AALA and Local Government reorganisation had affected provision. These issues had been identified as potential expedition constraints when completing the literature review (Section 2.2). Figure 2 shows the responses from the 4 managers who believed expedition provision had decreased. Three of the four managers agreed local government reorganisation affected the provision of expeditions. One felt that the introduction of the EWTD had an affect on provision and three managers believed the AALA had no effect on changing provision.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

EWTD AALA REORG

Nu

mb

er

of

Ma

na

ge

rs

Yes

No

Unsure

Figure 2: Factors influencing change

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3) Can you explain how each factor affected the number of expeditions provided? Summary of responses Changes in funding (like those as a result of local government reorganisation) affected staffing levels and centre budgets, which in turn impacted on programme design. Curricular constraints in schools resulted in a change in the age of students attending centres further impacting, on programme design. 4) If there are any possible changes (funding, legal, staffing, etc) which would allow you to run more expeditions, what would these be? Summary of responses Six of the managers believed that staffing issues would have to be addressed before more expeditions could take place. This was closely linked to five managers identifying funding as a factor that would require attention.

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4.2 Presentation of the data: sample group two – Experts The eight experts who were contacted all agreed to be interviewed. Their responses are presented in this section in sub group A and sub group B. The interview responses are presented in this way because the interview questions differed somewhat for each sub group. Results are presented as in Section 4.1.1. 4.2.1 Interview responses: sample group two – sub group A Section A: Interviewee Details 1) What is your job title? Summary of responses Two Senior AALA Inspectors, an Outdoor Education Staff Tutor and chairman of the Scottish Advisory Panel for Outdoor Education (SAPOE), a Centre Manger and ex-chairman of the Association of Heads of Outdoor Education Centres (AHOEC). 2) Can you briefly describe the organisation you work for? Summary of responses

• AALA – is the licensing authority for adventure activities in the U.K. • SAPOE* - is a network representative of all local authorities in Scotland,

they exist to promote the sharing of good practice and to safeguard the interests of outdoor education within local authorities.

• AHOEC* – is a professional association for heads of residential and non residential outdoor education centres. It includes both local authority and non-local authority

*The chair of SAPOE and AHOEC are honorary positions. 3) Can you briefly describe your main responsibilities in this post? Summary of responses Senior AALA Inspectors – Inspect providers and submit reports, provide an advisory service, manage, train and monitor other part time AALA inspectors. The SAPOE Chairman and AHOEC members all attend and contribute to respective meetings. 4) How long have you been in post? Summary of responses Over a year (honorary post) up to eight years. Section B: Opinions and Experiences 1) What are your views on the educational merits of expeditions? Summary of responses Each expert felt expeditions were of educational merit. They considered the activity of value because it consisted of a number of elements such as journeying, planning, self sufficiency and required a higher level of skill.

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2) What are your views on the use of expeditions at local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Summary of responses Interviewees opined that expedition provision has diminished, because of increased child protection issues, hygiene legislation and changing customer demands. When expeditions do take place they are of value and can maximise the aims and objectives of centres. 3) In your opinion how do expeditions compare to other activities available at centres? Summary of responses They can provide a high point of a programme that can be a novel continuous experience that participants work through. Expeditions can include a combination of activities and therefore provide a breadth of experiences. 4) In your opinion why did/do local authority residential outdoor education centres offer expeditions? Summary of responses three of the four experts said expeditions were provided because they are of value in terms of educational, personal and social development. 5) What do you see as the advantages of providing expeditions? Summary of responses Teaching young people to camp provides them with a life skill. A programme that includes an expedition provides a meaningful conclusion, it is a way of applying what has been learned. 6) What do you see as the disadvantages of providing expeditions? Summary of responses The disadvantages stated were expense, the heavy use of resources, logistical problems, time consumption, bureaucratic problems, and increasing legislation. Section C: Current Provision 1) Do you know of any local authority residential outdoor education centres that provided expeditions in 2003? Summary of responses Except for one expert the majority were not sure of any centre that was providing expeditions. This did not necessarily mean they were not taking place. 2) If yes, can you name the centres that provided these activities? Summary of responses One expert identified West Dunbartonshire Outdoor Education Service. 3) Do you know of any other (non-local authority) residential outdoor education centres that provided expeditions in 2003? Summary of responses Two of the experts were aware of non-local authority residential centres that provided expeditions.

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4) If yes, can you name the centres that provided these activities? Summary of responses Some of the centres named were; Outward Bound, Venture Trust, Airborne Initiative [recently closed], Wild Island Exploration and John Ridgeway. They also reported that expeditions are taking place as part of the Duke of Edinburgh’s Award Scheme. Section D: Changes in Provision 1) In your opinion has the number of expeditions that have taken place in local authority residential outdoor education centres between 1993 and 2003 increased, decreased or remained the same? Summary of responses Three of the experts felt the provision of expeditions between 1993 and 2003 had decreased.

Table 8: Changes in provision between 1993 and 2003 Number of Experts Change in Provision 3 Decreased 1 Remained the Same 0 Increased 2) If a change has occurred can you name the factor(s) that have contributed to this? Summary of responses Three experts stated the local government re-organisation, one believed teacher’s fears of litigation and changing customer demands had contributed to a change. One expert felt the introduction of AALA had contributed to a change in provision. 3) Can you explain how each factor affected the number of expeditions provided? Summary of responses Local Government Re-organisation resulted in the closure of many centres, the EWTD regulated the number of hours worked, fears of litigation and changing customer demands influenced different programme design. 4) If there are any possible changes (funding, legal, staffing, etc) which would allow centre managers to run more expeditions, what do you think these would be? Summary of responses An increase in staffing and funding and a relaxing of current policies and curricular constraints in Secondary Schools would be required.

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4.2.2 Interview responses: sample group two – sub group B This group included a retired council advisor who relinquished his post in 1994, for this reason he was unable to answer questions on current provision. He was interviewed to provide a historical perspective. Section A: Interviewee Details 1) Which local authority are you employed by? Summary of responses Highland Council, Lothian Region later employed by Edinburgh City Council, Central Region later employed by Clackmannanshire Council, Scottish Borders Council. 2) What is your job title? Summary of responses Community Education Officer (Outdoor Education), Advisor in Outdoor Education, Outdoor Education Advisor and Consultant, Principal Teacher of Outdoor Education. 3) Can you briefly describe your main responsibilities in this post? Summary of responses The development of outdoor education and to maintain the AALA licence. Oversee outdoor education facilities, programme and curriculum. Provide a consultancy service, approve excursions and monitor policy. Manage facilities and instructional work. 4) How long have you been in post? Summary of responses 18 to 28 years. Section B: Policy and Provision 1) What is your local authority’s policy on expeditions and camping activities? Summary of responses Three said the only policy their local authority had was health and safety guidelines. 2) Are expeditions involving young people promoted within your local authority? Summary of responses There were a variety of responses to this question. One expert felt promote was too strong a word to use, however in another local authority expeditions were encouraged and supported, by providing training and camping equipment. 3) What are your views on the educational merits of expeditions? Summary of responses All experts were positive about the use of expeditions, one commented that the activity is probably one of the best methods of experiential learning and are of huge benefit if properly conducted. 4) What are your views on the use of expeditions at local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Summary of responses If an expedition is included in a residential programme it is a bonus. This activity has an enormous amount of potential particularly if young people have responsibility for planning and running it.

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5) In your opinion has the number of expeditions that have taken place in local authority residential outdoor education centres between 1993 and 2003 increased, decreased or remained the same? Summary of responses Three of the experts felt the provision of expeditions between 1993 and 2003 had decreased.

*Table 9: Change in provision between 1993 and 2003 Number of Experts Change in Provision 3 Decreased 0 Remained the Same 0 Increased *This group included a retired council advisor who relinquished his post in 1994, so he did not comment.

Section C: Excursions to local authority residential outdoor education centres 1) Do you give approval for Outdoor Education Excursions for the local authority that employs you? Summary of responses All the experts gave approval or provided advice on outdoor education excursions. 2) In 2003 did you approve any excursions to local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Summary of responses Three of the experts had given approval for excursions or provided education excursion advice. 3) If so, did the young people who participated in these excursions partake in expeditions at the local authority residential outdoor education centre? Summary of responses Two of the experts believed excursions to these centres did not involve expedition activities. One stated that if it occurred it would be in the minority of cases. 4) If not, do you know the reason(s) why they did not partake in expeditions during these excursions? Summary of responses Changes in centres were reported; e.g. the activity was not offered to groups attending, more activities were based in centre grounds and centres were becoming more commercialised. Section D: Excursions and Expeditions in 2003 1) In 2003 did you give approval for excursions to non-local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Summary of responses Three of the experts had given approval for excursions or provided education excursion advice.

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2) If so, did the young people who participated in these excursions partake in expeditions at these residential outdoor education centres? Summary of responses Two of the experts believed excursions to these centres did not involve expedition activities. One stated that if it occurred it would be in the minority of cases. 3) If not, do you know the reason(s) why they did not partake in expeditions during these excursions? Summary of responses Most activities happen on site, one respondent believed there has been a ‘dumbing down’ of activities, more packages are offered and programmes are not always tailored to fit student’s needs. 4) In 2003 did you approve any other excursions that involved young people participating in expeditions? Summary of responses Experts had given approval to other expeditions that took place out with outdoor education centres. 5) If so, who led the expeditions and did they have a particular purpose? Summary of responses Alternative provision included the Duke of Edinburgh award expeditions, a school in Peebles completed expeditions to Iceland and expeditions took place under sail with Ocean Youth Trust. 6) If there are any possible changes (funding, legal, staffing, etc) which would allow your local authority to run more expeditions, what do you think these would be? Summary of responses There needs to be changes in schools and centres, similarly there needs to be a ‘hard sell’ of this activity, an increase in staffing and resources and a recognition that education can take place outside the classroom. A national strategy should be put in place that would provide young people with an outdoor education entitlement. Table 10 provides the responses from both sample groups as to whether the provision of expeditions has changed between 1993 and 2003, the majority felt that provision had decreased.

Table 10: Change in provision between 1993 and 2003 (Combination of respondents)

Number of Experts Change in Provision 10 Decreased 4 Remained the Same 1 Increased

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4.3 Chapter summary This section provides a brief summary of the data presented.

• Seven of the nine centres were funded by Education Services.

• Four of the nine centres had no expedition provision in 2003, two centres ran 1 to 4 expeditions, two centres ran 5 to 10 and one centre ran 11 to 15.

• The majority of expeditions provided in 2003 at these centres were carried

out over two days and one night.

• The majority of centres used canoe/kayaking when completing expeditions.

• The estimated number of participants involved in expeditioning activities was 387.

• Four of the eight managers reported expedition provision had decreased

between 1993 and 2003. • Three of the four managers who reported expeditions had decreased believed

local government reorganisation was a contributing factor. • Six of the seven experts believed expedition provision had decreased

between 1993 and 2003. • Ten of the 16 interviewees believed expedition provision had decreased

between 1993 and 2003.

• One of the 16 interviewees believed expedition provision had increased between 1993 and 2003 because of NOF monies.

• Four of the 16 interviewees believed expedition provision had remained the

same between 1993 and 2003. Various reasons were reported as to why provision had remained the same, these included; changes in funding and recent legislation.

• One of the 16 interviewees relinquished his post in 1994 so did not comment

on the change of provision between 1993 and 2003. The data are analysed using qualitative methods in the next chapter. 5.0 Analysis of Data and Presentation of Findings

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5.0.1 Introduction

In this chapter the data presented earlier are further analysed, using qualitative

methods. This is an attempt to draw out shared meaning and where possible note

alternative opinions, but still allows for unusual and original comments to be

reported. The data are presented in four categories. Three of the categories were

derived from the themes that occurred most frequently when analysing the interview

transcripts. Any recurring themes that did not fit into these categories are reported in

the fourth category ‘Other Issues’. The development of the categories is discussed in

greater detail in Section 3.5. The categories are:

• Activity Value • Cultural Changes • Financial Issues • Other Issues

Within each category are sub-categories that were developed by noting the most

frequently cited opinions, ideas and words. The data are discussed in this way to

allow for greater understanding and order. Brenner, Brown, and Canter (1985)

believed that it is as important to be selective when presenting findings as it is

impossible to report everything. For this reason quotes were selected from interview

transcripts to faithfully represent both positive and negative opinions. The quotation

selection process incorporated the following stages;

• Interview recordings were listened to thoroughly, to hear quotes in context.

• Interview transcripts were read and reread.

• The data were broadly coded, and then re-coded as part of the analysis

process.

• Validators provided feed back on quote selection after reviewing draft

chapters.

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Quotes are labelled CM1 to 8 or E1 to 8 in order to maintain anonymity, CM1 refers

to Centre Manager 1 and E1 refers to Expert 1. Any comment/data I have added is

bracketed, I have done this to improve understanding of quotes.

5.1 Activity value

This category has three sub-categories that were derived from the most frequently

cited opinions, ideas and words. The data are discussed in this way to allow for

greater understanding and order.

• Activity Merit

• Activity Comparison

• Activity Considerations

5.1.1 Activity merit

All interviewees believed expeditions were of merit, but gave different reasons for

their opinions.

Reasons for provision

The majority of reasons given as to why expeditions were provided at centres were

value based:

Whatever the aims and objectives of an outdoor programme are, an expedition brings it to a meaningful conclusion... E4 …to enhance the programme and to meet the actual educational objectives... CM6

Some provide alternative reasons:

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... we used to camp…purely and simply to... get them out of the centre because these kids...were quite troublesome CM7

…they were either skill based, fun, they didn’t have the teamwork and educational emphasis on them CM6 …well probably at the time it was the norm CM4

Educational merit

Educational merit was the main reason given as to why expeditions were considered

to be of value, in particular respondents believed they provided opportunities for

personal and social development:

[Challenging clients] …are actually taken away from a lot of the distractions that they would normally have. They are put into a totally different environment which ... affects their emotions, the whole being,…it actually gives them the chance to reflect on life, where they are now, what they want to do...CM6

I think it [expeditioning] did have a good positive focus on their personal development. And it is very difficult to say how many may have gone on to greater things but...after 30 years here you do meet people who are now sending their children to the centre saying ‘oh I remember this!’ It was a cracking experience yes, we did this, we did that, we did the other CM4

Teamwork is another important element particularly with the camping,… just being together, consideration, cooperation all these elements are benefits of them CM7

One expert had an alternative opinion about the educational merit of expeditions and

reasons for their provision:

I would like to think it was for all the educational stuff I have just talked about, but my inkling would be that it was because those of us who are engaged in outdoor education have come from an outdoor practitioner perspective, and we hold onto it being ‘ a good thing.’ Now, I think it is a good thing, and having established a good thing we all then hedge it round with theories, although we already had the theories that are why it is a good thing! But now we have started to articulate them in more educationally understandable jargon. [Laughs] Gosh did I sound slightly cynical then? E4

Other educational benefits reported:

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Technical skill development:

[Expeditions provided] an extension to the acquisition of skills that the youngsters picked up during the week CM4

Learning opportunities in a new environment:

...they actually will learn more about the environment by being in it longer and [they] have to face some things that they haven’t dealt with before ... like not being able to wash have a shower, not being able to change, they will actually get a lot more out of it, they will see the whole, you know the outdoors throughout the whole day and at night time is just fantastic for them. CM2

Physical and mental challenges:

… a lot of them find out about their own fitness levels. They find out about their own mental attitudes, when they get tired, they will learn about themselves and the others around them, working together as a group. CM8

5.1.2 Activity comparison

Interviewees were asked to compare expeditions with other activities they provided,

in an attempt to further gauge their educational value. There were contradictory

opinions as to whether expeditions could achieve a centre’s educational aims more

effectively than other activities:

Most of the work we do here is through…personal and social development and expeditions are good at that but so are lots of other areas, you know, just living and working around the centre, having to do duties in the centre, having to make your own bed. The residential element,…can be as important with some groups as doing the activities. CM1 … in educational terms it [expeditioning] is far and away of more value than most other things we do. E4 …most of the educational aims that you would expect to get from expeditions, you could also get from many of the other activities….So the educational

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benefits are very similar but I would say they tend to be more intense and more immediate with the expedition. CM7 I think that they are undoubtedly good but I do also think that you can achieve an awful lot in a short space of time with young people even on a half day session CM2

Short duration high excitement activities A number of respondents reported concerns about the educational quality of some of

the activity programmes currently being provided.

… one of my concerns for the whole industry,… is that we have so many people out there reporting to deliver educational experiences within quite a vast array of frameworks... CM4 Outdoor education tends to be now, there's less education, there's a lot of childminding where they keep the kids occupied for a week but don’t prepare them for a life outside the outdoor centre E2

There was particular concern over the educational quality of on site short duration

high excitement activities.

It seems to be almost more of an entertainment session, to give them a buzz, rather than in fact teaching them some life-long competencies. E7 ...there is a danger of it [on site facilities] becoming , just a playground. All we are doing is having artificially created gymnastics courses or whatever…We sometimes have a struggle… it is easier to offer a seemingly attractive activity - but in terms of learning, I don’t think there is as much learning involved as there would be in expedition work. It is the way things are going unfortunately. E5

Nature of activity

Respondents highlighted valuable elements of expeditioning that are not as easily

achieved in other activities, they included an amalgamation of factors:

…I think probably, you would have to say that there is group type activity involved in this [expeditioning], there is individual activity involved in it, it amalgamates a whole load of different things in some respects that you would only get from a range of activities CM5

Extended duration:

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…it is actually one of the few courses where you actually get to spend any reasonable time with a group getting to know them, and over three days you are putting them through quite a lot of physical effort, you are challenging them both mentally, and physically so you get to know [them] better than maybe on a five day multi activity course where you are just seeing them during the day. CM8

Self sufficiency:

…once you have got away from the centre you don’t get confined by the…timetable constraints that a centre has to have, you know what time meals are and what time things happen, having to work to a timetable. The big advantages of expedition are that once you leave the centre you are self sufficient…hopefully…ish! And you can plan, the group itself can choose when to do things. It has to take much more responsibility CM1

Journeying element:

…people think it is good to go and camp and be away because they can get...a more in depth experience and the idea that you have your journey and you travel somewhere using your skills to get you to that location CM2

Life skills:

…if you teach a kid to pitch a tent and look after themselves, cooking their own food over their own stove I think you're giving them a skill for life. You've given them something, they can go on canoeing trips, climbing trips, mountain biking. Without that wee core skill there, without actually having done it they're less likely to get involved in these other activities. It's a bit like swimming – camping – it's a skill that opens a lot of doors. E2

5.1.3 Activity considerations Some respondents believed a number of factors should be considered for an activity to be of educational merit: Activity rationale:

…you have to think very carefully about all of the activities which you are exposing people to these days, right? So you have to have a purpose and a reason behind that. I don’t think there are many centres,…who are actually looking to what there is, I would be surprised… to hear about many outdoor educationalists who really think about the blend of activities that they are delivering and how important they are… CM5

Activity suitability:

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…what you need to be aware of, I think, quite strongly is that the lesser able children can quite easily fail, and it can have totally the opposite effect to what you are trying to achieve and in fact, might make things much worse, you need to be very careful about the level that you pitch it at and…the physical ability of the children that are taking part – and mental capabilities as well. CM7

Participants’ involvement in decision making:

One of the things that we have struggled with ever since outdoor education seemed to be set up was how much responsibility you could pass on to the young people for planning and running their expeditions, and how much of it should have to be retained by expert staff. And I think it is a real dilemma. And it does affect the quality of the education experience. E6

5.2 Cultural changes

A variety of cultural changes have affected the provision of expeditions, they are

presented in three sub-categories that were derived from the most frequently cited

opinions, ideas and words. The data are discussed in this way to allow for greater

understanding and order.

• Centre Based Changes

• Customer Based Changes

• Legislation / Policy Based Changes

5.2.1 Centre based changes

Wide and varied cultural changes in centres were reported.

Changes in programmes:

…it’s [the programme] become more frantic, people want to pack more into the thing now, than they used to. CM1

…the centres, are going down the road of a Heinz 57 variety course where the kids do a bit of this activity, a bit of that activity and a bit of another activity, and

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it is all very much taster sessions which a camping activity doesn’t readily lend itself to… E3

Changes in activities:

…the old idea of outdoor pursuits,...the activities which was walking and climbing and kayaking, orienteering, these things...they maybe don’t have such a significant place than they used to. E7

it is very much easier to have activities set up on site than it is to have to put people in transport and take them away to venues, and that seems to be the way it is going, more and more centres are developing more and more on-site facilities. E5

Changes in work ethics:

… in a lot of LEA centres these days – the instructors generally have been in these centres for a long time, and as they get older they tend to get [their own] families...and you are saying to somebody ‘I want you to do an overnight in a centre.’ And well ok it is not so bad I have got my own room. Say ‘I want you to go away camping for two days’ and they say I’m not interested very much. So I think that is increasingly difficult as well with the staff. CM2

…the instructors attitude to work, as I said before in the old days, you just went and did it, if you did a weeks expedition it was a weeks work whereas if I sent my staff to do a weeks expedition now, it would probably be two weeks work CM6

One manager provided an alternative view:

I think if then was now - if you can follow the logic in that - we would probably still be doing them because we do have staff, or a number of staff who are quite enthusiastic about that aspect of the work. CM4

5.2.2 Customer-based changes

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Other cultural changes that were customer based and impacted on provision

included:

Changing students:

The main customer-based change reported was the shift from older secondary to

younger primary school students:

…formerly in the eighties this centre dealt mainly with 14-15 year olds,...whereas that has definitely fallen and we deal more with P7/S1 now. CM1

Some felt this client group was too young for expeditions:

…of course understandably the teachers are going to say they are too young, …just big enough to stay in an outdoor centre never mind going out camping while they are there. E4

One expert believed this issue could be resolved:

…primary school kids say up to 11, carrying big rucksacks, heavy tents,... it is not as easy as say when they are say 14, 15. There's a lot of issues there. But I think that can be overcome with maybe just somebody taking the heavy stuff out and dropping it off at a rendezvous. So it's not an insurmountable thing, a lot of people use it as an excuse. E2

Some felt students’ capabilities had changed:

…it would be interesting to know how many centres are taking kids out hill walking!! [Laughs] I mean I think there is a massive decline. It is partly to do with fitness but it is also partly to do with short attention spans. E4 They [students] want instant gratification, and they do find it difficult to sustain concentration and stamina E3

Changing teachers

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Respondents commented on a change in teacher’s choices over programmes offered:

…teachers ask for the multi-activity programme now, rather than the specific programme. CM4 …most centres now respond to the wishes of the schools that come, the teachers that make the decisions about what the children are going to experience increasingly want short bursts of 2 hours, introductions to this that and the other, and the expeditioning aspect is just diminishing all the time. E1

A change in teachers’ participation in activities was reported:

I think the teachers valued them [expeditions] but whether or not all the teachers would want to take part would be another matter, and they would perhaps tend to shy away from the kids doing them if it involved them [teachers] going out, which it often did. CM7 Sometimes just getting [teaching] staff to come to an outdoor centre in itself is a pretty major coup. CM5

Some interviewees provided reasons for the change in teacher’s attitudes:

So sometimes [teachers] personally they find it, expeditioning hard, you know camping, and sleeping on the ground CM6 In a lot of cases teachers see expeditioning as having more risk involved in it, they would rather have wee contained activities within the centre grounds E1

5.2.3 Legislation / policy based changes

Interviewees reported cultural changes that were legislation and policy based that

impacted on centre provision.

Increased bureaucracy

…you would need to go back 30 years ago and [when] you could take kids out without worrying about all the, AALA regulations, and everything else that you need to abide by. Things tend to be stifled by bureaucracy,…so much so that you are almost writing a risk assessment for getting the kids across the road to go orienteering CM7 I think from a purely academic educational perspective they do have a part to play. I think from a practical sense in this day and age, of working time

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directives, all the rules and regs, should we say, that govern our operation now it is more difficult to fit them into a programme. And I think with the difficulties that exist, we tend not to go down the road of expeds. CM4

Other changes reported:

The implementation of the European Union working time directive (EWTD):

…undoubtedly things like the working time directive has an impact on the work that you get people to do, because if they are out doing multi-day things then, you know, with your members of staff you could end up losing them for large portions of the time CM1 [Did the EWTD effect provision?] A big major effect, because your staff are constantly working on duty, there is a limit to their working hours and again if you can sort that problem out there is a time back issue as well, there is not enough time in the day. CM3

Some managers provided an alternative view:

I would say that we haven’t quite taken it [EWTD] on board yet CM2 …well basically because there is two of us working out there on an expedition, even with ten kids, we just split the workload. So it [EWTD] doesn’t become such a big issue, you are not working every hour of the day, you have got somebody covering – so you get time off. CM8

Increase in awareness of child protection issues:

…if you are out on expedition you have got to make sure you have got a male and female member of staff, and in some cases two female …that is a major problem. CM3

An alternative view on this issue was reported:

I don’t actually think it has affected provision because I think people have bailed out of the expedition frame of mind long before they have remembered child protection E4

Very few interviewees commented on the impact of the Adventure Activities

Licensing Authority (AALA), one expert felt:

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…initially I think people were probably put off a bit by knowing whether or not they had to have a licence, and the paper-work involved would make them pause until they knew where they stood. Then there may well have been a rethink on what qualifications people need to be able to do these things, and whether that made a difference or not. I wouldn’t be 100% sure- but I suspect it may have put some people off. E3

Two interviewees reported that an increase in insurance premiums and an increase in

health and safety issues regarding camp cooking may have affected provision.

5.3 Financial issues

A number of financial issues were reported as having an effect on the provision of

expeditions, they are presented in three sub-categories that were derived from the

most frequently cited opinions, ideas and words. The data are discussed in this way

to allow for greater understanding and order.

• Core Funding Changes

• Counting the Cost

• Funding Initiatives

5.3.1. Core funding changes

Respondents reported how core funding has changed over time and centres have had

to respond to this.

National and local level support

Respondents felt outdoor education was not supported at a national level:

…Fundamentally the problem we have in Scotland is we don’t have a national strategy for outdoor education and we don’t have any concept of national entitlement. ...that needs to come from education ministers basically…it [outdoor education] will always be some kind of Cinderella service while it is non statutory E8

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It was reported that financial support has changed at a local level, thus impacting on

centres:

…most local authorities previously subsidised centres, and I think virtually every authority expects the centre to be at least wiping its face. In other words it has to generate enough income to cover its costs E1 …the education service was looking for a way of saving money...so we sort of slid across to stay open, slid across from education to community education CM6

Local government reorganisation

Many believed that reorganisation had a negative effect on centre funding and

expedition provision:

…there were all sorts of financial pressures to do with local government reorganisation: the cost of reorganisation wasn’t funded by central government and therefore local authorities had to meet the cost of reorganisation from within their own resources, and any non-statutory provision was bound to be vulnerable. E3 …when the closures all took place, everybody kind of drew in their horns a wee bit and tried to do the things that they could do efficiently and effectively with a small staff. CM5 …as a result of that reorganisation, certainly as far as we were concerned, it sort of changed the financial status in that we needed to become virtually self financing in order to exist. So obviously that has implications in that it costs you to run expeditioning courses CM7

One centre manager provided an alternative opinion, when asked if local

government reorganisation affected provision of expeditions:

No because I think it [expeditioning] had probably already died by then. CM 1

Commercial pressures

Respondents reported that a number of financial factors resulted in an increase in

commercial pressure, these included:

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Market survival:

…the closures of centres actually reduced staff massively, those that actually managed to stay alive had hardly any staff in the place - so expeditioning was pretty staff intensive and pretty time intensive, you are driven more by your market when you try to stay alive, than what you feel is correct [laughs] you know CM5

Customer’s demands:

…in the past, centres used to tell their clientele what they were getting ...that doesn’t happen like that any longer, in my experience, we are a client based service, and the customer gets what they want CM1

Senior management’s expectations:

…I don’t think some of my senior managers would mind if I played football with them, or went climbing its no difference whatsoever in their mind. All I’ve got to do is keep the kids safe and amused for a week and get the money off them… CM2

One manager reported how commercial pressure affected educational objectives:

The ethos of the centre really remained the same in terms of educational benefits and what we were trying to achieve, but the emphasis became more and more about getting people through the door, and in terms of my bosses...at the council, they were not interested at all, well I say not interested at all, they had never asked me about the educational objectives of what we were trying to do… CM7

5.3.2 Counting the cost

Activity expense

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A large number of interviewees believed expeditions are an expensive activity to

provide:

I think they [expeditions] should be used,...but the main thing is to do with money, they are expensive to run CM2

Various reasons as to why expeditions are so costly were reported:

It would have to be staff accruing more time for running expeditions, which obviously has an impact on the cost of the expedition CM 6

There is a lot more preparation involved because, apart from the camping side of things...you have got the catering side of things to organise. CM3

One manager provided an alternative view about the preparation required:

They worked well, they were no hassle. We worked it in such a way that it was relatively easy to get the gear we needed together and to get the food together and go at what would be relatively short notice. CM5

Best value

Respondents reported that it was important to seriously consider how best to invest

limited funding, staff time and resources:

Anybody in my position of managing a service has to consider carefully where we provide support, and how we use our resources and there is always a feeling in the back of the mind if people are involved in fairly intensive expeditions there is too much time, too much resources being focused on just a very small number of participants. E8

It is a question of whether you get more benefit out of having a member of staff here for eight hours of the working day…, or if you have a member of staff who can’t be here for eight hours a day for the whole week because they are doing an expedition. It is a best value sort of situation. CM4

5.3.3 Funding initiatives

New opportunities fund

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A number of interviewees reported that New Opportunities Funding (NOF) had

allowed provision to develop:

Next year is the last year it [expeditioning] will be funded, and we are then hoping that with the response from the groups this year and next year, that the groups themselves...might be willing to pay a little bit towards it. So that we can carry it on, but we certainly wouldn’t have started it without the funding from NOF. CM8

The NOF funding has really kick started a lot of outdoor education in the local authorities. E1

One expert was concerned about the longevity of this funding package:

One of my big fears about these NOF projects [is] that at the present time there seems to be no indication of any follow on funding, and I have to say, what is the point in investing in something in the short term that the minute the funding is pulled just falls apart? E3

5.4 Other issues

Two other issues did not fit into the three main categories above:

• Increasing Expedition Provision

• Alternative Expedition Provision

5.4.1 Increasing expedition provision

Interviewees highlighted a number of factors, that if addressed could lead to an

increase in expedition provision. Funding and staffing increases were the main

issues reported.

Staffing and funding:

… if we could afford to have more staff…it might make it a bit easier, but funding at the moment is just the biggest issue. CM8

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To provide that we would probably need to find a staff who are quite happy to volunteer to work all the hours God sends us without payment [laughs], it is very much a budget or economic issue. CM4

Other factors reported included:

Increased statutory recognition:

Possibly if there was some kind of accreditation involved where it [expeditioning] fitted into a PSD [Personal and Social Development] programme and there was some kind of SQA [Scottish Qualifications Authority] accreditation… because everything is in competition with all the other demands for resources, and you have to have a justification to blow your nose these days. E3

Improved marketing:

...well I guess we could market them more heavily to the users if we chose to…people often do come back and say, well you are in the best possible position to know what programme would suit us…what would you suggest? And I guess at that stage we would say, why don’t you go camping and expeditioning? - We would strongly influence them, and at the moment we don’t really do that… CM1

5.4.2 Alternative expedition provision

Respondents reported that other agencies are currently providing expeditions for

young people. The Duke of Edinburgh’s Award scheme was the provider which was

named by most interviewees:

Duke of Edinburgh [Award] seems to be the only real place where they are running regularly – and that is because it is part of the actual course, you have to do an expedition to be on the course, so therefore people accept the cost and the time involved in doing it. CM2 …it [The Duke of Edinburgh’s Award Scheme] happens with virtually all the local authorities, either with schools doing their own thing or by open award centres E1 …I am predicting that Duke of Edinburgh award will continue to expand. Now if that is the only way that we are going to be able to justify expeditions then fine! That is better than not having any expeditioning going on at all. E3

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Other expedition providers included:

Schools:

…the really big good adventure stuff is being done by private providers for private schools...because they can charge three times the rate, that’s exactly why they do it. CM2

...we have schools going to France you know to do tour cycling, mountain biking and sometimes that involves journeys...I've mentioned sailing, you know things like Ocean Youth Trust where we get several groups doing that every year. E8

Non – local authority outdoor centres:

Yes absolutely organisations like Outward Bound, who have held onto that …they have continued to use expeditions as a central part of what they do. E1 John Ridgeway up in the far north, there is a lot of expeditioning happening up there... and there is a chap, Wild Island Exploration called Torquil,... I have never met him I just know of him - he runs things out at Rioa Fiola. E4

Apart from say the Outward Bound centres they do a lot and Venture Trust. They are the ones that do the sort of journeying ethic a bit more. E2

5.5 Chapter summary

The main findings of this chapter are summarised below:

Activity value

• All interviewees agreed expeditions were of value, the main reason they gave

was because of their educational merit. In particular this activity provided

opportunities for the personal and social development of participants.

• When expeditions were compared to other activities there were mixed

opinions as to which was more educational. However respondents did report

concern over the educational quality of short duration high excitement

activities. Interviewees highlighted a number of valuable elements specific to

expeditioning.

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• Some respondents believed for an activity to be of value the rationale,

suitability and level of students’ participation should be considered.

Cultural changes

• There was agreement that centre programmes have changed by offering more

multi-activity packages involving taster sessions. Some centres were

developing more on-site facilities and focusing less on traditional outdoor

pursuits.

• The main customer-based change reported was a shift to a young client base

which impacted on activities provided. Some teachers choose multi-activity

programmes and tend to shy away from programmes that involve

expeditions.

• There has been an increase in bureaucracy and regulations affecting outdoor

activities. Interviewees report that the implementation of the EWTD and

child protection issues had affected expedition provision.

Financial issues

• A change in core funding was reported by interviewees, local government

reorganisation was a prime example of this. Some respondents believed

changes in core funding resulted in an increase in commercial pressure.

• The majority of interviewees felt expeditions were costly to run. Some felt

that an investment of limited resources in this activity should be considered

carefully.

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• A few interviewees reported that increased funding, in this case Lottery

monies (NOF) had allowed them to provide expedition programmes. There

was concern about its sustainability.

Other issues

• There was agreement that a change in funding and staffing would have to

occur for expedition provision to be increased in centres.

• Many interviewees reported the Duke of Edinburgh’s Award Scheme was the

main agency providing expeditions.

6.0 Discussion and concluding comments

6.0.1 Introduction

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This chapter brings together all relevant research findings. The relationship between

the data analysed, the original research questions and previous work discussed in the

literature review is also highlighted.

6.1 The research questions

1. How many centres provided expeditions in 2003?

Five of the nine centres provided expeditions in 2003. The number of expeditions

that took place was low, with only one centre providing more than 10 expeditions.

The number of expedition participants was estimated at 387. The experts’ interview

responses similarly provide a picture of limited expedition provision. The majority

of local authority advisors interviewed reported that in most cases education

excursions that took place in 2003 to these centres did not involve expeditions.

Nearly half of the centres provided no expeditions in 2003, only one manager

reported an increase in provision. This manager reported the increase in the

provision of expeditions in 2003 was as a result of New Opportunities Fund (NOF)

monies and a stable staff team. If NOF monies had not funded this programme,

expeditions would not have taken place at this particular centre in 2003, and the

overall participant numbers would have dropped to 167 students. This was a very

small cohort when compared to the number of potential participants attending the

centres.

2. Why were/ are expeditions included in programmes in these centres?

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Interviewees agreed expeditions were included in outdoor education programmes

because they were deemed to be of value. Different reasons were given for this

opinion ranging from the ‘removal of challenging clients from the centre’ to it being

‘the norm’. The majority agreed that the main reason expeditions were offered was

because they were considered to be of educational merit – in particular they believed

this activity provided opportunities for the participants’ personal and social

development, Bell (2004) and Guy (1985) also believe this to be the case. Some

respondents believed that activities provided should be evaluated, and their rationale,

content and suitability should also be considered if they are to be of educational

value. Higgins and Nicol (2002) have put forward a similar argument.

Respondents highlighted additional educational benefits expeditions provided, these

included: an increase in the acquisition of skills, different learning opportunities in

new environments and feeling closer to nature. Some managers believed this activity

challenged participants physically and mentally. Iida et al., (1986) also draw

attention to the importance of different challenges in new environments – such

experiences can provide opportunities for participants to re-evaluate their

capabilities.

Interviewees believed expeditions were included in programmes because they offer

an amalgamation of experiences that are not as easily achieved in other activities.

These included: extended activity duration – additional time to build relationships,

more chances for self sufficiency, it provided a journeying element and further

developed life skills. Rubens (1999) also argued that activities like journeys by

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canoe or foot provides a “broad view of adventure” and can incorporate different

elements such as a long timescale of experience, many varied challenges, and tasks

that require students to invest effort and take responsibility for their learning.

Similarly education psychologists Ames (1992) and Dweck (1986), reported that

broad-based educational experiences are of value, in particular when motivating

students to learn.

3. Has there been a change in the provision of expeditions between 1993 and

2003?

Four of the eight managers believed expedition provision had decreased between

1993 and 2003. Three of the eight managers felt it had remained the same – at a low

level of provision if the number of expeditions that occurred in 2003 are considered.

One of the eight managers reported an increase. Similarly six of the experts

interviewed believed expeditions during this time period had declined, only one felt

it had remained the same. A combination of both sample groups responses to this

question shows that 10 interviewees believed that there has been a decrease in

expeditions, four interviewees felt provision remained the same and one interviewee

believed expeditions had increased between 1993 and 2003 (the manager that

reported an increase is discussed in this chapter in question one).

4. If a change in provision has occurred, what factors brought this about?

Whilst in general the provision of expeditions has declined, it proved difficult to

identify a single factor that was responsible. It seems more likely that a combination

of cultural changes and financial issues led to this decline. One reason a single factor

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could not be identified was because the centres examined were often affected by the

same issues in different ways, as demonstrated by the interview responses regarding

the implementation of the European Union working time directive (EWTD). This is

not surprising, when there appears to be no uniform management structure or

strategy in place for outdoor education centres across all the local authorities

studied, e.g. five different Services ranging from Education to a commercial service

called ‘Connect’ currently oversee the nine centres. It was also reported that

transference of ownership between Services had occurred primarily to save money.

The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) report (2004) highlights the effects

this can have on long term planning.

Those interviewees who reported a decline suggested that centre-based cultural

changes have led to this situation. There was agreement that programmes had

changed and now include more multi-activity taster sessions. These activities have

been introduced, sometimes on-site and have replaced some of the more traditional

outdoor pursuits. Because of an expedition’s long duration it proved difficult to

include it in a multi-activity programme. Curricular constraints resulting in younger

students attending centres and increased fear of litigation were cited as having

influenced programme design; Nicol (2002b) and the DfES (2004) report concur

with this. A number of interviewees felt expeditions were unsuitable for this younger

client group and it was reported that some teachers believed expeditions to be a

greater risk than on site activities.

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Respondents stated that changes in legislation and local authority policy increased

bureaucratic tasks which stifled the provision of expeditions. Literature reviewed

also highlighted an increase in legislation and changes in policy between 1993 and

2003 with the introduction of the Adventure Activities Licensing Authority

(AALA), the EWTD, the Protection of Children (Scotland) Act. A combination of

legislation and policy changes has created barriers aggravating this decline.

There was a greater consensus over the financial issues that have led to a decline in

expeditions. The two main issues identified were local government reorganisation

and the expense of providing expeditions. It is evident that the majority of managers

believed local government reorganisation was the most significant factor when there

was a decline in expeditions. It was reported that reorganisation increased financial

pressures which led to some centres closing and others becoming self financing and

as a result expeditions proved too expensive. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation’s

(1999) research (focused on Scottish Social Work Services) concurs with the

findings of this research, as they too highlighted that “financial crisis” and a

“refocusing of provision” took place in local authorities as a result. Interviewees

reported that changing financial status resulted in an increase in commercial pressure

and this is in accordance with Nicol (2002b) and Loynes (2002) who suggested that,

managers felt “market survival” was required. The DfES (2004) report and some

respondents confirmed such pressures affected the educational objectives of centres,

and that reduced funding could further inhibit the role of centres in curriculum-

related provision.

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The majority of respondents agreed that expeditions are expensive to deliver.

Interviewees reported that when expeditions take place staff accrue extra time and

there is a considerable amount of preparation involved, this inevitably results in an

increase in cost. With financial pressures already an issue, some saw activities of

this nature as not the best investment of staff time and resources. Some respondents

believed that they had to carefully consider this issue before providing an activity

that focused too much time and too many resources on a very small number of

participants. The only manager that reported an increase in provision stated it was a

result of NOF monies and a ‘stable staff team’. Without sufficient funding it would

prove difficult to maintain a ‘stable staff team’ and fund an expedition programme.

6.2 Concluding comments

Recommendations for professional practice

My findings indicate that the decline in expedition provision is a symptom of wider

programme changes taking place in centres over the last decade. Whilst it is

predictable that outdoor programmes in local authority centres would change over a

decade, changes in expedition provision have occurred as a result of a number of

factors including organisational, financial and legal pressures and similarly shifts in

attitudes and values have affected provision.

However, few if any interviewees reported that programme changes were the result

of research into the educational value of activities, or even developments in the

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National Curriculum. It appears that Outdoor Education has received little support

from the Scottish Executive over the last decade, and it could be argued that this is

one of the main reasons why centre staff have not considered avenues such as

curricular change or activity research when developing their programmes. This may

be the case, nevertheless I believe before further changes take place some simple

steps should be considered to provide centre mangers with greater evidence of the

value of the programmes they deliver:

• There is a need to audit centre programmes, using an assessment tool such as

Higgins and Nicol’s (2002) evaluation framework (discussed in Section 2.1).

This would provide managers with a better indication of the quality of the

activities they provide and a reference point for further development. The

results of such an audit, should be reviewed to see if they are in line with

current mission statements and the centres original aims.

• Further research is also required into the pressures (financial, legal, policy,

commercial) managers and centre staff have to contend with, how these

affect staff morale and programme delivery, so that a realistic and workable

approach can be adopted in order to institute the necessary change and

maximise resources.

These steps will take time to complete and implement, but such an investment will

put centre managers in a stronger position when arguing their case at local and

indeed national level. Through dialogue with colleagues I am aware that the new

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Outdoor Education Development Officer for Scotland plans to complete an audit of

all local authority outdoor education provision, such information will be valuable

and provide a good starting point for further research.

Relevance of study to current theoretical debate

My study is relevant to the current theoretical debate about the changing nature of

outdoor education provision in centres. Loynes (2002), Nicol (2002a&b) and

Higgins (2003) have drawn attention to the changes in outdoor programmes, this

dissertation provides further evidence to support their opinions and encourage

debate. Higgins (2003) in particular has demonstrated that in some centres a shift

from educational to recreational programmes has already occurred.

This research further highlights the importance of Higgins’ (2003, p. 136) question

‘is the contemporary approach to outdoor education likely to achieve its stated

intentions?’ My dissertation provides evidence that an activity that many believe to

be educationally valuable has declined, it has reported that other outdoor

educationalists are also concerned about this shift and about the introduction of short

duration high excitement activities which some deem to be of less value. If managers

only provide policy documents that state their centre’s ‘intentions’ and do not offer

evidence to support the value of one activity over another, then stakeholders will not

have sufficient information when deciding whether to support these centres. If these

issues are not addressed then provision of what many consider to be purely

recreational activities will increase, and activities of educational value will continue

to decline, then the answer to Higgin’s (2003) question must surely be ‘No’.

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Further research

Avenues for further research, may include:

• Interviewing teachers, who have attended these centres between 1993 and

2003, about changes in provision and the reasons they believe these have

occurred. Teachers may provide valuable information about their programme

choices and how centres market their programmes.

• A case study of one centre that has had a decline in expeditions could

provide a fruitful avenue for research. A number of in-depth interviews of

managers and centre staff could explore changes in provision between 1993

and 2003.

Critical reflective overview of research

On reflection this dissertation and the process it entailed has its own limitations. One

of the main criticisms is that there is little research available that focuses on the

value of short duration expeditions and therefore it has proved difficult to quantify

the importance of this activity. This is not surprising as research into this subject and

into outdoor education in general is not a well-established academic field.

As with all research, validity and reliability were of great importance when

completing this study. It could have been further improved by; firstly interviewing

teachers who had attended the centres, and secondly I could have returned to each

interviewee with a summary of their first interview and the emerging themes, as

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Hycner (1985, p. 285) suggests ‘check to see whether the essence of the first

interview has been accurately and fully captured’. I did not take these steps because

of time limitations but I believe the data presented are reliable and valid as I have

monitored it throughout this dissertation.

I did not fully appreciate the importance of being aware of the history of Scottish

local authority outdoor education provision and its complexities. If I was more

informed of this historical information I believe it would have proved easier to

analyse and make sense of the data. I tried to address this issue by reading articles by

Nicol (2002a&b) and Higgins (2002) that provided historical context. I will

implement the lessons I have learnt in future study.

This study has indicated that in the Local Authority Sector at least, there has been a

decline in expedition provision. Literature suggests this is a loss of a potentially

valuable and educational activity. This research has highlighted the way local

authorities affect centre provision by implementing budgetary controls and

legislation changes. How will centres fare if in addition to these pressures, local

authorities begin to assess their ‘own’ provision for quality? With the changes in

activity programmes demonstrated by this research and the possibility of local

authority assessment in the future, will the outcome prove to be a positive one for

Scottish outdoor education?

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Appendix 1 Interview cover letter Dear Centre Manager, I am completing an MSc thesis in Outdoor Education at Edinburgh University, the focus of my final research project is: ‘The Provision of Expeditions in Local Authority Residential Outdoor Education Centres in Scotland’. In order to get the information I require, I would like to interview you at your convenience. There will be benefits, if you participate in this interview, as the completed project will provide an assessment of:

Current provision of expeditions in local authority residential centres in Scotland.

Whether the provision of expeditions has changed within the last decade,1993 –2003.

The factors that have affected the provision of expeditions. There are two interview methods available, please choose whichever you feel is most suitable for you, both opinions will use the same questions (enclosed). I will contact you by phone be the week beginning the 7th of June 2004 to confirm your choice. 1.) Face to face interview, at a time, a date and a location of your choice 2.) Telephone interview, at a time and date of your choice. This research focuses solely on expeditions and, for an expedition to be included it must fulfil two criteria:

It must have a journeying element. The duration has to be a day and night or longer.

The interviews are concerned with the provision of expeditions that take place during an outdoor activity week, i.e. expeditions that are the culmination of all the skills participants have learned. Please note this survey does not include Duke of Edinburgh’s Award expeditions. I developed an interest in these activities when studying Outdoor Education at the University of Strathclyde, Jordanhill and at Edinburgh University. I am now the Outdoor Education Officer for Clackmannanshire Council, and I am keen to investigate this further. Any participants or outdoor centres involved in this research project will have guaranteed anonymity. The information gained during this interview will be used solely for this project. In an attempt to gain an accurate record of this interview it may with your consent be recorded. If you have any queries I can be contacted at the above address, at this phone number or email s089485@sms.ed.ac.uk. I acknowledge that your time is precious and appreciate your assistance in this research project. Thanking you in advance, Eoin Keane

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Appendix 2 Interview questions and prompts - sample group one – Centre Managers Section A Centre Details 1.) Is your centre residential or does it provide residential courses? 2.) Is your centre registered with the Adventure Activity Licensing Authority? 3.) Please can you name the local authority(ies), which fund the centre? 4.) What service in the local authority is the centre responsible to? 5.) How long have you been in post? Section B Opinions and Experiences 1.) Can you tell me about your own experiences of the type of expeditions I am surveying? Prompts: As an instructor As a manager 2.) What are your views on the use of expeditions at local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Prompts: The current level of provision of this activity at local authority residential outdoor

education centres in Scotland? Has a reduction in programme duration affected the provision of expeditions? Has recent customer demands affected the provision of expeditions? 3.) In your opinion how do expeditions compare to other activities available at your centre? Prompts: • At meeting the centre aims/objectives/mission statement • In terms of educational value • For personal and social development of participant • In terms of preparation • In terms of safety 4.) Since you came to post have expeditions been provided in your centre? 5.) If you did or do offer expeditions why did you or do you do so? Prompts: • Is it because of a history of provision? • Is it because it offers a camping experience? • Is it because there was past customer demands? 6.) What do you see as the advantages of providing expeditions? Prompts: • Do participants enjoy this activity? • Do leaders/teachers value the activity? 7.) What do you see as the disadvantages of providing expeditions?

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Prompts: • Is it an expensive activity to run, in terms of staffing/cost? • Are there any safety implications? • Does it have logistical problems? Section C Current Provision 1.) Did expeditions take place in 2003 in your centre? 2.) How many expeditions took place in 2003? Prompts: • 1-5 6-10 11-15 16+ 3.) How many of these were?

1-2Days 3-4Days 5+Days 4.) Can you name the method(s) of transport that were used when completing these expeditions? Prompts: • By Canoe • By Foot • By Bike • Other 5.) Excluding centre employees could you estimate how many people participated in these expeditions in 2003? Prompts: • 1-20 21-40 41-60 61+ Section D Changes in Provision 1.) In your opinion has the number of expeditions that have taken place in your centre between 1993 and 2003 increased, decreased or remained the same? Prompts: • What was the year/time period when the provision of expeditions changed most

significantly? 2.) If a change has occurred can you name the factor(s) that have contributed to this? Prompts: • The introduction of AALA • Local Government Reorganisation? • The introduction of EU Working Time Directive? • Changing customer demands? 3.) Can you explain how each factor affected the number of expeditions provided? 4.) If there are any possible changes e.g. funding, legal or staffing which would allow you to run more expeditions what would these be?

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5.) Is there anything else you feel I have left out or is there anything you would like to add? Appendix 3 Interview questions and prompts - sample group two – The Experts

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Sub group A Section A Interviewee Details: 1.) What is your job(s) title(s)? 1.) Can you briefly describe the organisation you work for? 2.) Can you briefly describe your main responsibilities in this post? 3.) How long have you been in post? Section B Opinions and Experiences: 1.) What are your views on the educational merits of expeditions? Prompts: • Does it provide an intense experience? • Does it provide an opportunity to build relationships? • Does it provide an opportunity for reflection? 2.) What are your views on the use of expeditions at local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Prompts: • The current level of provision of this activity at local authority residential

outdoor education centres in Scotland? • Has the reduction in programme duration affected the provision of expeditions? • Has recent customer demands affected the provision of expeditions? 3.) In your opinion how do expeditions compare to other activities available at centres? Prompts: • At meeting the centres aims/objectives/mission statement • In terms of educational value • For personal and social development of participant • In terms of preparation • In terms of safety 4.) In your opinion why did/do local authority residential outdoor education centres offer expeditions? Prompts: • Is it because of a history of provision? • Is it because it offers a camping experience? • Is it because there was past customer demands? 5.) What do you see as the advantages of providing expeditions? Prompts: Do participants enjoy this activity? Do leaders/teachers value the activity? Do you think it provides opportunities for participants to learn greater responsibility in this activity? 6.) What do you see as the disadvantages of providing expeditions? Prompts: Is it an expensive activity to run, in terms of staffing / cost?

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Are there are safety implications? Does it have logistical problems? Is the activity too long for today’s young people? Section C Current Provision: 1.) Do you know of any local authority residential outdoor education centres that provided expeditions in 2003? 2.) If yes, can you name the centres that provided these activities? Prompts: Ardroy Arran Benmore Lagginalia Blairvadach Carlingwark Garelochhead Kilbowie West Dunbartonshire O.E.S. 3.) Do you know of any other (non-local authority) residential outdoor education centre that provided five or more expeditions in 2003? 4.) If yes can you name the centres that provided these activities? Section D Changes in Provision: 1.) In your opinion has the number of expeditions that have taken place in local authority residential outdoor education centres between 1993 and 2003 increased, decreased or remained the same? Prompts: • What was the year/time period when the provision of expeditions change the

most significantly? 2.) If a change has occurred can you name the factor(s) that have contributed to this? Prompts: • The Introduction of AALA? • Local Government Reorganisation? • The introduction of EU Working Time Directive? • Changing customer demands? 3.) Can you explain how each factor affected the number of expeditions provided? 4.) If there are any possible changes (funding, legal, staffing, etc) which would allow centre managers to run more expeditions, what do you think these would be? 5.) Is there any thing else you feel I have left out or is there anything you would like to add? Interview questions and prompts - sample group two – The Experts Sub group B Section A Interviewee Details: 1.) Which local authority are you employed by?

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2.) What is your job title? 3.) Can you briefly describe your main responsibilities in this post? 4.) How long have you been in post? Section B Policy and Provision: 1.) What is your local authority’s policy on expeditions and camping activities? 2.) Are expeditions involving young people promoted within your local authority? Prompts: • How are they promoted? • Is expedition equipment available? • Is expedition training available for young people/leaders? 3.) What are your views on the educational merits of expeditions? Prompts: • Does it provide an intense experience? • Does it provide an opportunity to build relationships? • Does it provide an opportunity for reflection? 4.) What are your views on the use of expeditions at local authority residential

outdoor education centres in Scotland? Prompts: • The current level of provision of this activity at local authority residential

outdoor education centres in Scotland? • Has the reduction in programme duration affected the provision of expeditions? • Has recent customer demands affected the provision of expeditions? 5.) In your opinion has the number of expeditions that have taken place in local

authority residential outdoor education centres between 1993 and 2003 increased, decreased or remained the same?

Prompts: • What was the year/time period when the provision of expeditions changed the

most significantly? Section C Excursions to local authority residential outdoor education centres: 1.) Do you give approval for Outdoor Education Excursions for the local authority that employs you? 2.) In 2003 did you approve any excursions to local authority residential outdoor education centres in Scotland? Prompts: Ardroy Arran Benmore Lagginalia Blairvadach Carlingwark Garelochhead Kilbowie West Dunbartonshire O.E.S.

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3.) If so, did the young people who participated in these excursions partake in expeditions at the local authority residential outdoor education centre?

4.) If not, do you know the reason(s) why they did not partake in expeditions during

these excursions? Prompts: • Activity not offered • Teacher/Leader did not choose it • Not suitable for age group of participants Section D Excursions and Expeditions in 2003: 1.) In 2003 did you give approval for excursions to non-local authority residential

outdoor education centres in Scotland? Prompts: • Can you name the centre(s) young people went to? • Commercial centres • Charitable centres 2.) If so, did the young people who participated in these excursions partake in

expeditions at these residential outdoor education centres? 3.) If not, do you know the reason(s) why they did not partake in expeditions during these excursions? Prompts: • Activity not offered • Teacher/Leader did not choose it • Not suitable for age group of participants 4.) In 2003 did you approve any other excursions that involved young people participating in expeditions? 5.) If so, who led the expeditions and did they have a particular purpose? Prompts: • Teachers / Youth Leaders • Duke of Edinburgh Award Groups • Outdoor Education Initiatives in the local authority 6.) If there are any possible changes (funding, legal, staffing, etc) which would allow your local authority to run more expeditions, what do you think these would be? 6.) Is there any thing else you feel I have left out or is there anything you would like

to add? Appendix 4 Interviewees- sample group one People targeted for interviews; Elizabeth Evans Steve Batchelor Ardroy O.E.C. Kilbowie Outdoor Education Centre

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Kevin Greenfield, Bob Stickland Garelochhead Res. OEC Retired Manager Garelochhead Res. OEC Andy Beverige, Colin Gimmel Benmore Outdoor Education Centre West Dunbartonshire Outdoor Education Service Nigel Marshall David Fowler, Arran Outdoor Education Resource Blairvadach Outdoor Education Centre Greg Knowles, Richard Arrowsmith, Carlingwark Outdoor Education Centre Lagginlia Outdoor Education Centre Interviewees sample group two – sub group A and B People targeted for interviews; Bob Telfer Senior AALA Inspector, in Scotland Sam Crimble Senior AALA Inspector, in Scotland Nigel Scriven Chairman of SAPOE and Outdoor Education Service Manager Phil Simpson Ex-Chairman of AHOEC and Centre Manager Drew Michie Outdoor Education Advisor and Consultant Clackmannanshire Council John Hall Principal Teacher of Outdoor Education Scottish Borders Council Ron Christie Community Education Officer (Outdoor Education) Highland Council Peter Hitt Retired Advisor in Outdoor Education Edinburgh City Council