Equal opportunity vs. Equal opportunity vs. MeritocracyMeritocracy(3/26)(3/26)

1.1. Cole: Limited DifferencesCole: Limited Differences

2.2. Reskin: Affirmative ActionReskin: Affirmative Action Buffers and ShuntsBuffers and Shunts

Is the U.S. institutionally sexist Is the U.S. institutionally sexist today? (review)today? (review)

There is a lot of gender inequality,There is a lot of gender inequality,

and there are a lot of people who are, and there are a lot of people who are, individually sexist?individually sexist?

But is the over-all playing field level?But is the over-all playing field level?– Or even more than level?Or even more than level?– Or are the differences “natural”Or are the differences “natural”

Should it be level?Should it be level?– If the inequalities are the result of a fair competition, If the inequalities are the result of a fair competition,

then most Americans believe they should not be then most Americans believe they should not be countered or compensated.countered or compensated.

– Experts disagree about whether the competition is fair Experts disagree about whether the competition is fair

Cole: “A Theory of Limited Cole: “A Theory of Limited Differences”Differences”

The hard sciences are very unequal.The hard sciences are very unequal.– I.e. there is a high degree of concentration of I.e. there is a high degree of concentration of

resources, rewards and productivity.resources, rewards and productivity.

They are very male-dominated.They are very male-dominated.– More than 90% (often more than 99%) of the elite More than 90% (often more than 99%) of the elite

positions are held by men.positions are held by men.

And they are very “meritocratic”And they are very “meritocratic”– They make a much bigger effort than the corporate or They make a much bigger effort than the corporate or

legal elite to reward accomplishment fairly.legal elite to reward accomplishment fairly.

The Mathew PrincipleThe Mathew PrincipleWe have described any structure that tends We have described any structure that tends to operate by the rule, “To him who hath, shall to operate by the rule, “To him who hath, shall be given more, even to abundance, and from be given more, even to abundance, and from him who hath little, shall be taken away even him who hath little, shall be taken away even what he hath”what he hath”

As governed by the “Matthew Principle” As governed by the “Matthew Principle” whose logic is: whose logic is:

Resources Access to further resources

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The “Matthew Principle” in The “Matthew Principle” in ScienceScience

The concept of the “Matthew Principle” was The concept of the “Matthew Principle” was invented by R. K. Merton to describe the invented by R. K. Merton to describe the process of reward in the sciences.process of reward in the sciences.Specifically, it describes what happens when Specifically, it describes what happens when – there are a small number of resources (research there are a small number of resources (research

grants, elite positions, space in intro texts), grants, elite positions, space in intro texts), – and one allocates them strictly on the basis of and one allocates them strictly on the basis of

previous accomplishment?previous accomplishment?

Those who have had access to resources in Those who have had access to resources in the past will have accomplishments, and sothe past will have accomplishments, and soThe rich will get richer and the poor will get The rich will get richer and the poor will get poorer.poorer.

The blind spot of the The blind spot of the “Meritocratic” Principles“Meritocratic” Principles

Suppose Jane and John have equivalent Suppose Jane and John have equivalent accomplishments accomplishments

Reward on the basis of “merit” prohibits:Reward on the basis of “merit” prohibits:– Jane overcame greater obstacles; therefore she Jane overcame greater obstacles; therefore she

showed greater ability and should be preferred.showed greater ability and should be preferred.– We know there are biases in one direction in one We know there are biases in one direction in one

stage; therefore we will institutionalize biases in stage; therefore we will institutionalize biases in the other direction in other stages.the other direction in other stages.

– The society needs both male and female The society needs both male and female scientists, and so we will insure there are both.scientists, and so we will insure there are both.

Justifications of affirmative action depend on Justifications of affirmative action depend on such principles.such principles.

The question addressed by The question addressed by the model of limited the model of limited

differences.differences.Cole’s model investigates the net result of a Cole’s model investigates the net result of a system that combines meritocratic processes system that combines meritocratic processes with biased ones,with biased ones,

Or alternately, the effects of a meritocratic Or alternately, the effects of a meritocratic processes in a society that contains some processes in a society that contains some gender (or race) bias and disadvantage.gender (or race) bias and disadvantage.– Do the meritocratic elements counteract the bias?Do the meritocratic elements counteract the bias?– Do they pass it on?Do they pass it on?– Do they amplify it?Do they amplify it?

The assumptions of the model The assumptions of the model of limited differencesof limited differences

Equal numbers of equally talented, equally Equal numbers of equally talented, equally motivated male and female college graduatesmotivated male and female college graduates25 “hurdles” to get to an elite position, such as 25 “hurdles” to get to an elite position, such as finding a thesis mentor who is a star or finding a thesis mentor who is a star or publishing 6 refereed papers in the 1publishing 6 refereed papers in the 1stst 6 years 6 years as a junior faculty person, to get tenure.as a junior faculty person, to get tenure.20 hurdles are entirely unbiased.20 hurdles are entirely unbiased.5 hurdles have a moderate male bias (I.e. 66 5 hurdles have a moderate male bias (I.e. 66 women pass through the hurdle for every 100 women pass through the hurdle for every 100 men.)men.)

Are there equal numbers of Are there equal numbers of talented men and women?talented men and women?

If not, why not?If not, why not?The text notes that it is difficult to distinguish The text notes that it is difficult to distinguish effects of nature and nurture.effects of nature and nurture.It flirts with theories of the “female brain”It flirts with theories of the “female brain”The SAT gender gap (*p.427) is about 50 The SAT gender gap (*p.427) is about 50 points; more in math.points; more in math.– Most people’s intuition is that if that results from Most people’s intuition is that if that results from

genes, then schools should accommodate to it.genes, then schools should accommodate to it.– But if it results from bias, schools should probably But if it results from bias, schools should probably

discount or compensate for the gap.discount or compensate for the gap.– The more important biases are not question form, The more important biases are not question form,

but the source of the different performance.but the source of the different performance.

It is the whole system that generates bias.It is the whole system that generates bias.

Is a system of “limited differences” Is a system of “limited differences” (“mostly meritocratic”) biased?(“mostly meritocratic”) biased?A common intuition: since most of the stages are A common intuition: since most of the stages are entirely unbiased, and since those that are, are entirely unbiased, and since those that are, are only moderately so, thereforeonly moderately so, therefore

the system will be mostly unbiased, with the the system will be mostly unbiased, with the unbiased components counteracting or unbiased components counteracting or outweighing the biased ones.outweighing the biased ones.

This intuition is incorrect.This intuition is incorrect. Cole shows that Cole shows that the “meritocratic” components of the system the “meritocratic” components of the system amplify and pass on the biased elements. amplify and pass on the biased elements.

A simple filter representation:A simple filter representation:

100 men100 men

100 men100 men

100 men100 men

100 men100 men

100 men100 men

100 men100 men

100 women100 women

66 women66 women

44 women44 women

29 women29 women

19 women19 women

13 women13 women

In Cole’s actual model, the interactions between the particular biases and the unbiased hurdles eliminates nearly 99% of women, but even without such interactions, it is evident that 5 hurdles with a 2/3 bias will eliminate nearly 90% of women.

Filter + bias + survival:Filter + bias + survival:

3600 men3600 men

1600 men1600 men

800 men800 men

400 men400 men

200 men200 men

100 men100 men

1800 women1800 women

533 women533 women

144 women144 women

48 women48 women

16 women16 women

5 woman5 woman

Individual bias and structural Individual bias and structural sexismsexism

As with “tipping point” residential segregation, As with “tipping point” residential segregation, the outcome is not unrelated to there being the outcome is not unrelated to there being some biased people in the system.some biased people in the system.But many of the hurdles of women may have But many of the hurdles of women may have to do with other things about the society.to do with other things about the society.Even senior faculty who do not mentor Even senior faculty who do not mentor women may be practicing “statistical women may be practicing “statistical discrimination” or profiling.discrimination” or profiling.And the problem is not with their motivation And the problem is not with their motivation but the fact that virtually all women are but the fact that virtually all women are eliminated. eliminated.

Policy Implications and ChoicesPolicy Implications and ChoicesThe cumulative effect of half a dozen small The cumulative effect of half a dozen small biases, biases, if they all move in the same if they all move in the same direction, and if there are no direction, and if there are no compensating forcescompensating forces, may be very large. , may be very large. This means we must either:This means we must either:

1.1. Accept a system that is largely biased.Accept a system that is largely biased.2.2. Try to eliminate Try to eliminate allall residual biases in the residual biases in the

system (usually impossible).system (usually impossible).3.3. Buffer an organization against inequality Buffer an organization against inequality

outside.outside.4.4. Institute shunts or compensatory programs Institute shunts or compensatory programs

to bypass biased hurdles.to bypass biased hurdles.

BuffersBuffersThe army, Sun Oil, or Villanova cannot usually The army, Sun Oil, or Villanova cannot usually change the educational structure of the ghetto or change the educational structure of the ghetto or the family structure,the family structure,and they may not want to.and they may not want to.But that does not mean that they have to ignore But that does not mean that they have to ignore disadvantages from those areas and pass it on.disadvantages from those areas and pass it on.Sliding scales and compensatory programs may Sliding scales and compensatory programs may prevent those external inequalities from prevent those external inequalities from operating inside.operating inside.In fact, someone swimming the same speed In fact, someone swimming the same speed upstream is swimming faster.upstream is swimming faster.

ShuntsShunts

Often it is much easier to bypass a Often it is much easier to bypass a blockage than to change it.blockage than to change it.For example, It would be very difficult to For example, It would be very difficult to force senior physicists to advise on female force senior physicists to advise on female graduate students,graduate students,or to make it equally possible for female or to make it equally possible for female junior faculty with children to write 6 junior faculty with children to write 6 refereed articles.refereed articles.It is not very difficult to provide an It is not very difficult to provide an alternate path. alternate path.

Reskin: Reskin: The Realities of The Realities of Affirmative Action in Affirmative Action in

Employment Employment (ASA 1998)(ASA 1998)

An ASA bookletAn ASA booklet

Reskin (president-elect of the ASA) argues that Reskin (president-elect of the ASA) argues that opponents of affirmative action have distorted it opponents of affirmative action have distorted it and made it a political football,and made it a political football,

that there are many kinds of AA programs,that there are many kinds of AA programs,

but that the kinds of procedures opposed as but that the kinds of procedures opposed as “preferences,” “quotas” or “reverse “preferences,” “quotas” or “reverse discrimination” are myths, neither required nor discrimination” are myths, neither required nor permitted by affirmative action programs.permitted by affirmative action programs.

Reskin: the realityReskin: the realityReskin argues that Affirmative Action programs are Reskin argues that Affirmative Action programs are genuine efforts to broaden applicant pools to genuine efforts to broaden applicant pools to include more qualified minorities and women.include more qualified minorities and women.Studies such as Cole and Kanter show that there is Studies such as Cole and Kanter show that there is a pervasively non-level playing field that needs to a pervasively non-level playing field that needs to be leveled,be leveled,and this is corroborated by matched pair studies.and this is corroborated by matched pair studies.When people are asked whether they support When people are asked whether they support policies to level the field, about 70% support thempolicies to level the field, about 70% support themEven when they oppose “affirmative action.”Even when they oppose “affirmative action.”The conflict is not between merit and affirmative The conflict is not between merit and affirmative action, but between “cronyism” and a genuinely action, but between “cronyism” and a genuinely level playing field.level playing field.

Is there Unequal OpportunityIs there Unequal Opportunity

There is large amount of segregation and There is large amount of segregation and unequal pay by gender.unequal pay by gender.The main way of determining whether this is the The main way of determining whether this is the result of discriminatory treatment, is audits, result of discriminatory treatment, is audits, involving matched candidates.involving matched candidates. There have been 1500 audits (usually of hires) There have been 1500 audits (usually of hires) demonstrating unequal treatment.demonstrating unequal treatment.There are about 100,000 complaints of unequal There are about 100,000 complaints of unequal treatment per year to the EEOC, which has a treatment per year to the EEOC, which has a backlog of more than 100,000 cases,backlog of more than 100,000 cases,Is understaffed, underfunded and without teeth.Is understaffed, underfunded and without teeth.

How does Affirmative Action differ How does Affirmative Action differ from Anti-discrimination law? from Anti-discrimination law? Anti-discrimination Anti-discrimination lawlaw

1.1. After the factAfter the fact

2.2. Responsibility of the Responsibility of the victim to show wrongvictim to show wrong

3.3. Usually based on Usually based on intent (which usually intent (which usually cannot be shown)cannot be shown)

Affirmative actionAffirmative action

1.1. Aims to alter institu-Aims to alter institu-tional disadvantage.tional disadvantage.

2.2. Responsibility of Responsibility of employeremployer

3.3. Equally applicable if the Equally applicable if the segregation results from segregation results from day-to-day practices day-to-day practices such as old-boy network such as old-boy network recruitment.recruitment.

What are the main kinds of What are the main kinds of Affirmative Action?Affirmative Action?

There are 4 main kinds of affirmative action plan:There are 4 main kinds of affirmative action plan:1.1. Executive orders mandate companies doing Executive orders mandate companies doing

$50,000+ of business with the gov’t to have a plan$50,000+ of business with the gov’t to have a plan2.2. Federal and some state and local governments have Federal and some state and local governments have

some kind of affirmative action plan.some kind of affirmative action plan.3.3. Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act allows the courts Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act allows the courts

to mandate action (usually for non-compliance).to mandate action (usually for non-compliance).4.4. Some firms have voluntary A.A. plansSome firms have voluntary A.A. plans

In the 1980’s similar laws and orders were passed In the 1980’s similar laws and orders were passed for veterans and for the handicapped, but they have for veterans and for the handicapped, but they have not, as yet, come under the criticism as those Re not, as yet, come under the criticism as those Re race and sex.race and sex.

1. Gov’t mandated programs 1. Gov’t mandated programs for businesses with gov’t for businesses with gov’t

contractscontractsAbout 3% of firms are involved,About 3% of firms are involved,

but they are large and employ 25% of workers.but they are large and employ 25% of workers.

The programs are of different kinds;The programs are of different kinds;

they largely involve open recruitment and they largely involve open recruitment and explicit, public policies of advancement.explicit, public policies of advancement.

The law and the guidelines expressly forbid The law and the guidelines expressly forbid quotas.quotas.

2. Government programs2. Government programs

Cover an additional 20% of the work force.Cover an additional 20% of the work force.

The programs are of different kinds;The programs are of different kinds;

they largely involve open recruitment and they largely involve open recruitment and public policies of advancement.public policies of advancement.

The law expressly forbid quotas.The law expressly forbid quotas.

3. Court-mandated AA 3. Court-mandated AA Programs.Programs.

This is the only case where numerical goals, This is the only case where numerical goals, timetables, and even quotas may be used.timetables, and even quotas may be used.But only subject to other rulings that prohibit But only subject to other rulings that prohibit unduly disadvantaging dominant group unduly disadvantaging dominant group members.members.And only when no other remedy existed, as in And only when no other remedy existed, as in the case of a sheet metal union that repeatedly the case of a sheet metal union that repeatedly defied court orders.defied court orders.RareRare

4. Private, voluntary programs4. Private, voluntary programs

The programs are of different kinds;The programs are of different kinds;they largely involve open recruitment they largely involve open recruitment and making policies and criteria for and making policies and criteria for advancement public.advancement public.They are debarred from using quotas,They are debarred from using quotas,but they may use gender or race as a but they may use gender or race as a plus to redress substantial disparities plus to redress substantial disparities resulting from past discrimination,resulting from past discrimination,If and only if it does not unduly If and only if it does not unduly disadvantage dominant group members.disadvantage dominant group members.

What kinds of firms have more What kinds of firms have more equal opportunities?equal opportunities?

Reskin’s own work shows which firms are more Reskin’s own work shows which firms are more likely to have equal opportunities.likely to have equal opportunities.It is largely firms that have formal, explicit, public It is largely firms that have formal, explicit, public policies of hiring, recruiting, evaluation and policies of hiring, recruiting, evaluation and advancement.advancement.This is the reason that public firms are more This is the reason that public firms are more likely to have equal opportunity than private likely to have equal opportunity than private ones.ones.Most employers hate such policies as Most employers hate such policies as “unnecessary paper work,” but the main fact is “unnecessary paper work,” but the main fact is that they constrain employers’ and supervisors’ that they constrain employers’ and supervisors’ arbitrary favoritism and cronyism.arbitrary favoritism and cronyism.

Do Affirmative Action policies work?Do Affirmative Action policies work?Reskin argues that no single set of programs can Reskin argues that no single set of programs can undo institutionalized inequality.undo institutionalized inequality.

But the evidence is that affirmative action But the evidence is that affirmative action programs have made a large contribution to programs have made a large contribution to equalizing opportunities of men and women.equalizing opportunities of men and women.

They do not unfairly disadvantage white males;They do not unfairly disadvantage white males;

They do not replace merit by quotas, but They do not replace merit by quotas, but ““cronyism”cronyism” by formal, open policies. by formal, open policies.

You do not necessarily have to change people’s You do not necessarily have to change people’s networks to prevent them from being the main networks to prevent them from being the main access to jobs and promotion.access to jobs and promotion.